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Exploring the Place of the AU in Fighting Organised Crime in Africa

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Citation

Nwokoroeze, C. N. (2026). Exploring the Place of the AU in Fighting Organised Crime in Africa. International Journal of Research, 13(3), 18–29. https://doi.org/10.26643/ijr/2

Nwokoroeze, Chinonye Nnenna 

Department of Political Science,

Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities, Enugu State University of Science and Technology, Agbani Email: chinonye.nwokoroeze@esut.edu.ng  

ORCID: https://orcid.org/0009-0008-0449-9036

Abstract

The African continent faces a persistent and expanding threat from organised crime. These criminal networks operate across borders, harming peace, security, and economy. The AU  has taken on a critical mission to address these complex concerns. A rising understanding of the interdependence of stability and development throughout the continent is reflected in its shift from a non-interventionist stance to a more proactive involvement in peace and security. This article addresses the AU’s initiatives to prevent organised crime, analysing its established normative frameworks and the practical restrictions that often hinder its usefulness. The study employs a qualitative technique, drawing on secondary data from official AU publications, United Nations reports, and academic literature. The study contends that even though the AU has created a wide range of legal and policy tools, their influence is usually diminished by barriers to cross-border collaboration, a lack of persistent political commitment, and a lack of financial and technical resources. The conclusion emphasises the ongoing disconnect between idealistic aspirations and practical reality. It promotes enhancing the AU’s participation in the fight against organised crime by encouraging greater political resolve and improved resource mobilisation.

Keywords: AU, Organized Crime, Threat, Resources mobilization, United Nations

Introduction

The paper used a 2024 UNODC research to show that organised crime makes violence worse in places like the Sahel and is a vital source of cash for people who are economically challenged. This means that organised crime is not merely a business; it is firmly ingrained in the social and economic institutions of some communities, which makes it a very tough problem to overcome. For example, the drug problem is a concern in all five African regions. The continent has become a key transit route, user, and source for drugs including cocaine and heroin. (2019, the African Union).
The United Nations (2025) said that human trafficking is a severe violation of human rights. It is a sort of modern-day slavery in which traffickers target people who are weak, like those who are poor, in conflict, or displaced. A lot of people are trafficked across borders from Africa, and this is often linked to war, being forced to leave home, and poverty (Tefera, 2019). Illicit financial flows (IFFs) make these difficulties worse by taking $88.6 billion out of Africa’s economy every year, which is 3.7% of the continent’s gross domestic product (GDP) (United Nations, 2021). These outflows make it hard to make essential investments in education, health, and productive sectors, which keeps the cycle of underdevelopment running. Because these problems are connected, organised crime is both a cause of conflict and an indication of underdevelopment. The money earned from unlawful operations promotes wars and degrades institutions and democracy (Thelma et al., 2024). At the same time, the instability and poverty that result from these activities make it easier for criminal networks to emerge as a way to live. This makes things worse and worse.

The African Union (AU) formally takes the place of the Organization of African Unity (OAU) in 2002. The AU was formed up by the Constitutive Act in 2000 (Maluwa, 2012). This transition was a huge step away from the OAU’s stance of not becoming involved and toward a more comprehensive and collective action approach to peace, security, and stability on the continent (ACCORD, 2024). The Peace and Security Council (PSC) is the African Union’s key body for making decisions about how to stop, handle, and settle disputes. This is a fundamental feature of the African Peace and Security Architecture (APSA) (African Union [AU]). The PSC is quite powerful. It can stop and avoid wars, make peace, build peace, approve peace support missions, and deal with challenges including unconstitutional changes of government and transnational organised crime (ACCORD, 2024).


This amendment in the AU’s mission illustrates that there is an increasing, albeit tough, commitment to proactive security governance. Organised crime is a significant security concern, as evidenced by the PSC’s 2019 decision to make a yearly conference on transnational organised crime a permanent agenda item (AmaniAfrica, 2025). However, the fact that this annual session has not been consistently held since its institutionalisation, last meeting in May 2022, and the general problems mentioned with the PSC’s reactive approach and slow response (ACCORD, 2024), show that while the normative framework is in place, the political will and practical application to fully realise this proactive mandate are still not consistent. This illustrates the fundamental argument of this article—that there is a discrepancy between the declared purpose and what actually occurs. This article’s objective is to examine the African Union’s regulations for combating organised crime and identify the obstacles to its complete implementation. It examines the various forms of organised crime that are prevalent in Africa, the AU’s legal and policy instruments, the issues that arise when these instruments are applied, and the collaborations and initiatives taken to combat these threats.

A full collection of legal and policy tools of the AU

  1. The Assembly’s Special Declaration on Illicit Financial Flows (2015). This declaration committed AU leaders to eliminating persistent illicit financial flows and guaranteeing the recovery of lost financial resources to Africa to support the continent’s development agenda. It called for African institutions and skills to be improved in areas like recovering stolen property, collecting taxes, and making contracts (United Nations, 2021).
  2. The African Union’s Constitutive Act, which was passed in 2000, replaced the OAU Charter. This marked a big change in how the continent deals with peace and security (Maluwa, 2012). The OAU was mostly based on the idea that its member states shouldn’t interfere in each other’s internal affairs. This made it hard for the OAU to deal with internal crises or problems with governance (UNODC, 2018). The AU, on the other hand, gave the “right of the Union to intervene in a Member State pursuant to a decision of the Assembly in respect of grave circumstances, namely: war crimes, genocide and crimes against humanity” (African Union, 2000, p. 9). This development provided a more robust legal foundation for the AU to actively address peace and security issues, particularly those concerning transnational organised crime.
  3. The African Union Convention on Preventing and Combating Corruption (AUCPCC, 2003). This convention, which was signed in Maputo, shows that everyone in the region agrees on how to stop, punish, and encourage international cooperation in the fight against corruption. It includes a wide range of crimes, such as bribery, illegal enrichment, money laundering, and asset recovery (African Union, 2024a). It also calls for the end of corruption in both the public and private sectors (African Union, 2003). As of January 2020, 43 states had signed this agreement.
  4. The African Union Plan of Action on Drug Control and Crime Prevention (AUPA, 2019–2023). This strategy framework, which is the fifth of its kind, promotes a balanced, integrated, and multi-sectoral approach to drug control and crime prevention. It is based on what happened at the 2016 UN General Assembly Special Session (UNGASS) on the world’s drug problem. The AUPA has a lot of different ways to cut down on drug use and supply, stop crime, reform the criminal justice system, and work together with other countries to stop drug trafficking, guns, corruption, and money laundering (African Union, 2019).
  5. The Protocol Relating to the Establishment of the Peace and Security Council of the African Union, which was signed in 2002, made the AU’s security role more effective (ACCORD, 2024). Karahalios (Karahalios, 2021) says that the PSC was set up to be the main group that makes decisions about how to stop, handle, and solve conflicts. Its mission is to deal with new dangers, like international organised crime. This change in the law from non-interference to interventionism creates the necessary normative space for anti-crime action. This lets the AU see and treat problems like organised crime as threats to peace and security on the continent. Without this basic change, many of the later anti-crime agreements would not have a clear legal basis for continental involvement. It is important to create this normative space, but it is not enough on its own because other things are needed to make it happen.
  6. The African Union’s 2013 plan for controlling the illegal spread, circulation, and trafficking of small arms and light weapons. The goal of this plan is to stop, stop, and completely get rid of the illegal spread of SALW across all of Africa. AmaniAfrica (2022) says that it is focused on building capacity, getting stakeholders to work together and coordinate better, and improving international aid.
  7. The Ouagadougou Action Plan to Stop Human Trafficking, Especially for Women and Children (2006). The goal of this strategy is to create general guidelines for fighting human trafficking, raise awareness and prevention, protect and help victims, put in place the right legal frameworks, improve law enforcement, and encourage cooperation. It stresses a “three-pronged strategy” of Prevention, Protection, and Prosecution d) Niamey Convention on Cross-Border Cooperation (2014). This was put in place to encourage cooperation between countries and the peaceful resolution of border disputes. This convention also says that countries should work together to stop piracy, terrorism, and cross-border crime. It needs 15 countries to sign it before it can go into effect (African Union, 2024a).
  8. The Assembly’s Special Declaration on Illicit Financial Flows (2015). This declaration committed AU leaders to eliminating persistent illicit financial flows and guaranteeing the recovery of lost financial resources to Africa to support the continent’s development agenda. It called for African institutions and skills to be improved in areas like recovering stolen property, collecting taxes, and making contracts (United Nations, 2021).

The evolving environment of transnational organised crime in Africa

Illegal use of natural resources: UNODC (2025) claims that organised crime groups play a major role in illicit gold mining, which harms the environment and is fuelled by money laundering, fraud, and corruption. Trafficking in wildlife is also a big problem. Perche et al. (2020) say that organised crime groups that make money off of endangered species are often involved. Organised crime relies heavily on taking advantage of natural resources, which makes environmental problems and problems with governance worse. This shows that illegally taking resources can be a big source of income for criminal gangs, which means that environmental crimes and financial crimes that weaken government control are linked. So, strong management of the natural resource sectors and dealing with the social and economic factors that make people want to illegally exploit resources are both important parts of successful counter-TOC efforts.


Drug trafficking: The United States Department of State Bureau for International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs (2024) says that West and Central Africa are becoming important places for cocaine and heroin to pass through on their way to Europe. These drugs often come from South America and Afghanistan. According to the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) World Drug Report 2020, cocaine seizures in Africa rose by 66% in 2018 and were expected to rise even more in 2019. This shows that Africa is becoming more important as a transit region (UNODC, 2020). This shows that the problem is getting worse because the continent is now a growing market and supply for illegal drugs, as well as a transit hub. For instance, Nigeria and South Africa have shut down illegal methamphetamine labs (UNODC, 2020). The study also found that tramadol, an opioid that isn’t monitored by any international body, is a serious public health issue, especially in West and Central Africa, where it was responsible for 79% of all seizures in 2018. This change in Africa’s role in the global drug market from mainly a transit point to also a place where drugs are made and used means that counter-narcotics strategies must now be multi-faceted, with the goal of fighting both supply and demand on the continent.


Illicit financial flows (IFFs): It noted that the significant loss, amounting to 3.7% of the continent’s GDP, hinders development and exacerbates poverty and inequality. IFFs are closely linked to other illegal activities, like drug trafficking, human trafficking, and selling weapons illegally (African Union, 2024a). These flows are a major roadblock to African development and a major facilitator of other organised crimes. They make conflicts worse and get in the way of sustainable development by weakening institutions and democracy, shrinking the tax base, and taking important resources away from public services like healthcare and education (African Union, 2024a). The estimated $88.6 billion lost each year is a sign of lost opportunities for growth, lost jobs, and rising poverty. This means that fighting IFFs is not only important for keeping money safe, but it is also necessary for long-term growth and stopping crime.

Smuggling migrants and trafficking people : Human trafficking is a serious violation of human rights that is often called “modern-day According to UNODC (2024a), Africa is the source of the most destinations, both inside and outside the continent. One-third of all cross-border human trafficking flows involve people from Africa. The data shows that the number of child victims is alarmingly rising. In Africa in 2022, kids made up 38% of all victims found. Traffickers use technology to lure victims by working online and using social media and encrypted communication tools (United Nations, 2025). This digital growth of human trafficking is scary because it lets criminal groups reach more people and take advantage of them more easily. This shows that technology can be both helpful and harmful, as it can be used by criminals in new ways. Because of this, cybersecurity and digital forensics must be part of anti-trafficking efforts. But the strong link to vulnerable groups shows that technology fixes alone aren’t enough. It’s still important to deal with the root causes of vulnerability, like poverty and violence.

Bringing weapons into the country illegally: Firearms trafficking is a major cause of conflicts, especially in places like the Sahel (AmaniAfrica, 2025). UNODC (2024) says that most of the guns that are trafficked illegally come from legitimate manufacturers but are sold on the black market. This highlights a critical area for intervention. It means that illegal arms trafficking is the most profitable illegal business, allowing organised crime groups to protect their illegal businesses and employees. It is not just a crime on its own; it is also a key part of the whole criminal ecosystem, which includes drug trafficking and illegal use of natural resources. So, limiting the flow of weapons is a good way to break up organised crime groups and bring about peace.

Challenges confronting the AU

  1. Different national laws and rules could make it very hard for regions to work together to fight organised crime. To get around these legal problems, it is important to make national laws more similar and adopt universal standards. This is a big legal problem for transnational crime because criminals take advantage of gaps in jurisdiction. The Niamey Convention aims to promote integrated border management and cross-border cooperation (Cassidy-Neumiller et al., 2024). The University for Peace (2022) says that Africa is a good place for illegal businesses and organised crime because of its porous borders and areas that are not controlled. Criminal groups use these open borders to start their activities in very organised and complicated ways, which makes the borders unsafe. Another problem with international cooperation in criminal cases is that people don’t work together when there aren’t any relevant bilateral agreements (UN General Assembly, 2025). It is hard to get mutual legal aid agreements, which makes it hard to prosecute criminals across borders even when they are found. This means that even though the AU has ways for member states to work together, it is often hard to put them into action because of the rights of each member state and the problems that come with enforcing laws across borders. There is a natural conflict between national sovereignty and the international nature of crime that causes legal and practical problems.
  2.  Even though AU leaders have promised to do better, they have shown a “persistent lack of genuine and sustained political will,” which has made it hard for them to deal with important problems, such as armed conflicts that hurt civilians and widespread attacks on basic rights (ICG, 2025). The AU’s response to crises is often inconsistent, and sometimes they use the principle of subsidiarity to regional authorities as an excuse not to act.70 There is a big difference between what the AU says it will do and what the member states are actually doing to make it happen and pay for it.  The chaotic running of the Sudanese civil war, where strong African leadership was badly needed but never happened, and the AU Commission’s silence during the fighting in Ethiopia’s Tigray area are two examples of this gap.67 The AU’s power has also gone down in the central Sahel. This is mostly because there hasn’t been a consistent political commitment to staff and give power to its regional offices to help solve conflicts.67 The AU has a big problem because it has to follow the Lomé Declaration, which says that states must be suspended after illegal transfers of administration. This is in line with democratic norms, but some African leaders are starting to realise that keeping lines of communication open with military governments is very important. This makes it hard for everyone to work together.67 This shows that the problem isn’t just a lack of resources; it’s also about how member states work together and prioritise turning continental goals into national action, which can be hard when national interests are at odds with each other. Such discrepancies directly undermine the efficacy of the normative frameworks.
  3. The AU’s ability to deal with peace and security issues is always limited by a lack of resources (International Crisis Group [ICG] 2025). The AU Peace Fund was started in 1993 and then revived in 2018. Its goal is to provide long-term funding for peace and security projects, especially those that fight organised crime. The fund reached its initial goal of $400 million by mid-2024, mostly from member states. However, this is still far less than the huge cost of dealing with Africa’s wars (Soumahoro, 2025). Soumahoro (2025) says that the AU Transition Mission in Somalia (ATMIS) cost $1.5 billion a year in 2023. This shows how big the gap is between the money that is available and the needs of the mission. The AU and UN need to work together to fill the 25% burden-sharing gap left by UN Security Council Resolution 2719, which says that UN-assessed contributions can only cover 75% of AU-led peace assistance operations (Zeyede, 2025). This means that even with strong rules and guidelines, the AU can’t do large-scale, long-term anti-crime measures because it doesn’t have enough reliable money. This reliance on foreign funding and unpredictable internal contributions is a major threat to the AU’s ability to do its job. Also, it is still hard to fight some crimes, like human trafficking and smuggling migrants, because there aren’t enough resources to do so. This has a direct effect on how well intelligence sharing and operational responses can be funded.
  4. African countries are very worried about not having enough resources. This is true in fields like digital forensics and electronic evidence. This is often because the technology infrastructure is weak, people don’t have enough digital skills, and they don’t have enough money (UN General Assembly, 2025). This means that even with laws in place, it is very hard to look into modern crimes like cybercrime. Coordination among various AU entities responsible for combating transnational organised crime continues to be hindered by resource limitations and insufficient horizontal integration (AmaniAfrica, 2025). This means that the digital and human infrastructure needed to fight cross-border crime is not good enough, which gives criminal networks a chance to take advantage of operational weaknesses. Also, some people are said to be unwilling to share important information, which makes it harder to stop human trafficking and migrant smuggling (Development Policy and Performance Portal, 2025).

The operational responses and partnerships of the AU

  1. The Continental Operational Centre (COC) for trafficking in persons and smuggling of migrants. A practical reaction to diverse forms of crime is illustrated by the formation of specialised operations centers. The Continental Operational Center (COC) for Trafficking in Persons (TIP) and Smuggling of Migrants (SOM), formed in 2019, is a significant part of Africa’s efforts to curb irregular migration (African Union, 2024b). A structured framework for collaboration between member states, Regional Economic Communities (RECs), and law enforcement agencies was established in December 2024 when the COC validated continental guidelines for information and intelligence sharing to combat TIP and SOM, according to Development Policy and Performance Portal (2025). This shows that the AU is developing specific operational institutions in order to move beyond broad mandates, realising that complex situations require specialised expertise and a coordinated response.
  2.  Partnerships with UNODC, INTERPOL, and Regional Economic Communities (RECs). External collaboration and regional integration are vital force for the AU’s anti-crime initiatives. The AU works closely with international partners like UNODC and INTERPOL to promote police cooperation and counter transnational threats across the continent (INTERPOL. (n.d.)). The African Union and INTERPOL’s Special Representative Office in Addis Ababa work closely to establish synergies and ensuring that the law enforcement voice is heard in AU initiatives. The PSC has also recommended for coordinated actions with the Committee of Intelligence and Security Services of Africa (CISSA), INTERPOL, and UNODC to identify and assess unlawful flows (AmaniAfrica, 2025). These partnerships offer vital operational support, information sharing, training, and technical assistance that the AU and its member nations frequently lack internally (UN General Assembly, 2025). Furthermore, the AU fosters the harmonisation and coordination of activities between regional mechanisms, such as the Regional Economic Communities (RECs) and Regional Mechanisms (RMs), and the AU itself, in the promotion of peace, security, and stability (ACCORD, 2024). RECs are vital for establishing constraints against tiny firearms and light weapons.
  3. The role of AFRIPOL’s initiatives and the Peace and Security Council (PSC): The PSC is responsible for managing, preventing, and resolving disputes and is the primary pillar of the African Peace and Security Architecture (APSA). It has regularly expressed worry over the expansion of transnational organised crime in Africa (AmaniAfrica, 2025). A formal recognition and priority of the problem may be shown in the PSC’s 2019 decision to create an annual session on transnational organised crime as a standing agenda item. Also, AFRIPOL, founded as the continent’s law enforcement coordination mechanism, is a significant institutional framework designed to cope with transnational organised crime. It provides a framework for police coordination at strategic, tactical, and operational levels throughout African states (Soumahoro, 2025). The execution of “Operation TAPI,” a cross-border project carried out by AFRIPOL in collaboration with INTERPOL, is a concrete illustration of AFRIPOL’s impact on the ground. This program, which encompasses six AU member nations, tackles a variety of criminal activities, such as drug trafficking, pharmaceuticals, guns, counterfeit or smuggled commodities, and environmental crimes (AmaniAfrica, 2025).

Conclusion

In order to combat organised crime throughout the continent, the African Union has made impressive progress in creating a comprehensive normative framework. The OAU’s move from a non-interventionist position to a more aggressive and interventionist mandate reveals that the threat posed by transnational criminal networks has been clearly identified. Conventions against corruption, action plans for drug control, strategies for arms control, and protocols for human trafficking and cross-border cooperation are only a few of the various legal and policy tools that the AU has set up. International standards are often in line with these frameworks. This entails a knowledge at the continental level of the complex nature of organised crime and the need for a multi-sectoral response.  However, a number of practical restrictions, similar as resource shortages and the continuous lack of genuine and sustained political will among member states, regularly test the usefulness of these normative frameworks. Operational vulnerabilities brought about by a lack of expertise in areas like digital forensics and an unwillingness to share intelligence are easily exploited by criminal networks. Cross-border law enforcement entails jurisdictional complexity and challenges due to the inherent tension between national sovereignty and the transnational nature of crime. This makes coordinated action tougher. Consequently, the practical realities on the ground create a huge gap between desire and achievement, even while the AU’s normative frameworks offer a solid foundation and demonstrate a deep grasp of the organised crime problem. The symbiotic relationship between organised crime and violence, fuelled by illegal economies and socio-economic deficiencies, further distorts the image.

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Interrogating the Nigeria Police Force and Its Counter-terrorism Approaches

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Citation

Egwu, F. O., Arua, M. C., Okeh, P. I., Onwe, D. C., & Onuoha, O. O. (2026). Interrogating the Nigeria Police Force and Its Counter-terrorism Approaches. International Journal of Research, 13(3), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.26643/ijr/1

1Egwu, Francis Ogbonnia

Department of Criminology and Security Studies,

Alex Ekwueme Federal University, Ndufu-Alike, Ebonyi State, Nigeria

Email: francis.egwu@funai.edu.ng

ORCID:  https://orcid.org/0009-0009-8519-8303

2**Arua, Mercy Chioma***

Department of Criminology and Security Studies,

Alex Ekwueme Federal University, Ndufu-Alike, Ebonyi State, Nigeria

Email: mercy.arua@funai.edu.ng

Corresponding author****

ORCID:  https://orcid.org/0009-0005-6625-477X

3Okeh, Peter Igboke

Department of Criminology and Security Studies,

Alex Ekwueme Federal University, Ndufu-Alike, Ebonyi State, Nigeria

Email: ptrgbk@gmail.com 

ORCID:  https://orcid.org/0009-0007-5991-8560

4Daniel Chidiebere Onwe

Department of Criminology and Security Studies,

Alex Ekwueme Federal University, Ndufu-Alike, Ebonyi State, Nigeria

Email: onwedaniel1990@gmail.com 

ORCID:  https://orcid.org/0009-0003-4168-148X

5Onuoha, Ogobuchi Onuoha

Department of Sociology,

Ebonyi State University, Abakaliki, Nigeria

Email: onuohaogobuchi@gmail.com  

ORCID:  https://orcid.org/0009-0008-1011-2168

Abstract

The paper used a theoretical method to look at how the Nigeria Police are involved in counter-terrorism efforts in Nigeria. It aimed to find out how the police participate, how effective their involvement is, and what can be done to improve their performance in these operations. The structural functionalism theory was adopted to theoretically underpin the study. The outcome of the study reveals that the police force plays a variety of roles which manifest in different forms in the fight against terrorism. These forms are not limited to intelligence gathering, synergy with other sister agencies, liaison with community leaders to fish out terrorist enclaves and so on. The study also revealed that the police’s regular use of overt force diminishes the effectiveness of their operations, as there is a need to fight the root cause of terrorism. The study recommends that the police should be specially trained on conflict resolution strategy while adopting the principle of community policing. To enhance counter-terrorism operational efficiency, the police should be given adequate and sophisticated equipment and, as well, undergo training and retraining to face the terrorist group.

Keywords: Police, Terrorism, Counter-terrorism, Police Operation, Nigeria                                              

Introduction

The Nigeria Police was established based on the provision of Section 214(1) of the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, and several laws have given it responsibilities and authority (Nwauzi & Ogon, 2018). The force is tasked with the duties of investigating crimes, protecting people and property, and enforcing all laws and regulations. They may also be responsible for traffic control and prosecution in any court in the country. (Alemika & Chukwuma, 2000, as cited in Edet, 2017). The extant and primary law in Nigeria that highlights the specific responsibilities and capabilities of the Nigerian Police is the Police Act (Nwauzi & Ogon, 2018). The Nigeria Police also performs a variety of secondary responsibilities, including providing aid in times of need and managing and regulating highway traffic, among others (Madubuike-Ekwe & Obayemi, 2019). However, given the vast nature of police officers’ responsibilities and authority, the preceding list of police officer tasks and powers is not all-inclusive (Nwauzi & Ogon, 2018). The composition, establishment and operational control of the Police Force are clearly stated in the 1999 Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, Section 214(1), that “There shall be a Police Force for Nigeria, which shall be known as the Nigeria Police Force, and subject to the provisions of this Section no other police force shall be established for the Federation or any part thereof” (CFRN, 1999). These provisions are reinforced in the Police Act and Regulations of 1990, Chapter 359, which classified the duties of the police to include prevention and detection of crime, apprehension of offenders, preservation of law and order, protection of life and property, enforcement of all laws and regulations with which they are directly charged and the performance of such military duties within or without Nigeria as may be required of them by or under the authority of the Act or any other act.

Nigeria is currently grappling with a myriad of security challenges. The country has been plagued by a plethora of threats, including Boko Haram, herdsmen/farmers conflicts, kidnapping and banditry, ritual killings and cannibalism, cattle rustling, drug and human trafficking, militancy, illicit proliferation of small arms, and violent extremism. These security challenges have had far-reaching consequences, undermining the country’s stability, economic growth, and social cohesion (Ezinwa, 2019). For long, the country has, particularly, been battling with the insecurity issue posed by the activities of terrorist groups. Topping the list of these groups is the Boko Haram Sect (BHS) in the northeast of Nigeria. Terrorism is a global phenomenon in the atmosphere of criminality (Aiyesimoju, 2015) and has become a major threat to world peace and order (Abodunrin et al., 2021). The militant actions of Boko Haram have become one of the biggest security risks in Africa, particularly around the region surrounding Lake Chad (Oyewole, 2015). In Nigeria, the devious and nasty actions of this terrorist organisation cannot be disregarded because of the attacks the organisation has carried out, which have resulted in loss of life, destruction of property worth billions of Naira, serious infrastructure damage, and loss of investment, capital, and income, among other things (Abodunrin et al., 2021). Since 2009, the Boko Haram Sect (BHS) and other terrorist organisations’ operations have impeded sustainable development and made the nation hazardous for people to live in, conduct business in, and invest in (Isiaka et al., 2023). We also have the Fulani herders in the northeast, the Delta militants in the south-south, the Indigenous People of Biafra (IPOB) and Eastern Security Network (ESN) in the southeast, the Amotekun agitators in the southwest and the newly emerged terror group, the Lukarawas, in northwestern Nigeria.

The International Terrorism and Security Research (ITSR) alludes to the fact that terrorism is not new and that even though the word has been used since the beginning of recorded history, it can be relatively hard to define. Terrorism, according to the ITSR, has been described variously as both a tactic and strategy, a crime and a holy duty, and a justified reaction to oppression and an inexcusable abomination. The United States Department of Defence (USDD) defines terrorism as “the calculated use of unlawful violence or threat of unlawful violence to inculcate fear; intended to coerce or to intimidate governments or societies in the pursuit of goals that are generally political, religious, or ideological.” Within this definition, there are three key elements: violence, fear, and intimidation. Each element produces terror in its victims. The FBI defines terrorism as “the unlawful use of force and violence against persons or property to intimidate or coerce a government, the civilian population, or any segment thereof, in furtherance of political or social objectives.” The U.S. Department of State (USDS) defines terrorism as “premeditated politically motivated violence perpetrated against noncombatant targets by sub-national groups or clandestine agents, usually intended to influence an audience.” Boko Haram and splinter groups such as JAMBS (presently known as ISWAP) are believed by analysts to be largely a product of widespread socioeconomic and religious insecurities, and their ideology resonates among certain communities because of both historical narratives and modern grievances (Audu & Zakimayu, 2021). It has become increasingly clear that national security agencies can no longer work alone in preventing future attacks. They must work in partnership with other public and private agencies, most importantly with local police.

‘Counter-terrorism’ means the measures undertaken by a government to defeat terrorism. It integrates and synchronises political, security, legal, economic, developmental and psychological activities to create a holistic approach that aims at weakening the terrorists while bolstering the government’s legitimacy in the eyes of the people. Several scholars clarified the meaning of counter-terrorism. For instance, Grey (2012) defined counter-terrorism as a set, or combinations, of diverse and multifaceted activities used in combating any terrorist violence in a given society. Campbell and Weitz (2005) also consider counter-terrorism to refer to all actions, activities, principles and tactics used by regular security groups in waging war against any terrorist group in a given political setting. To clarify it further, the United States Army (2006) defined counter-terrorism as military, paramilitary, political, economic, psychological and civic actions taken by government to defeat terrorism. However, the focus of most counter-terrorism measures in this study is centred on the Nigeria Police Force. Police counter-terrorism refers to all forms of conventional combat adopted by the police force and other paramilitary and military forces in combating terrorism in a given political entity. It is a kinetic component of the counter-terrorism response to guerrilla warfare. According to Sampson (2015), the main principle of the counter-terrorism strategy is the application of aggressive force involving violent destruction of the enemy force and threatening of the local population to withdraw support for the terrorists. Therefore, counter-terrorism relies on operations that involve the use of aggression, such as detention of suspects, brutal elimination of individual terrorists, disruption of terrorists’ support networks, and decapitation of terrorist organisations. To contend with these terrorist activities in Nigeria, the federal government of Nigeria, irrespective of statutory restrictions, still deploys Nigeria police personnel to quell unwholesome loss of life and property from these theatres of terrorism in Nigeria.

Problem Statement

Nigeria is grappling with the pressing issue of terrorism, which has become a leading concern for national security. This menace has sparked intense discussions and varied comments in current national discourse (Aiyesimoju, 2015). Despite the Nigerian government’s best efforts, terrorist group activities have continued to grow throughout the northern area, with Boko Haram leading at the forefront, and they pose a severe threat to Nigeria and the region around Lake Chad (Sadau, 2015). Different approaches have been used by the Nigerian government to subdue and curtail the activities and operations of the numerous terrorist groups present in the country. Since terrorism continues to be a threat to Nigeria’s stability and peace, these measures, however, have not produced fruitful and beneficial results. The administration has largely focused on using the military strategy rather than alternative non-military ones to calm terrorism operations. Hence, there is the need to examine other non-military approaches, especially the criminal justice system, in the fight against terrorism. The urgent need to combat terrorism and the roles of critical stakeholders in the fight against terrorism have been investigated in literature. For instance, Aiyesimoju (2015) examined the role of the media in containing terrorism by outlining how the activities of the media can be used to aid as well as thwart the activities of terrorism groups in the country. Ike (2018) examined the need to re-conceptualise the role of law in countering terrorism in Nigeria and explained the rationale behind strengthening Nigeria’s criminal justice system. However, the emphasis in these studies is on the efficacy of the police operational duties in terms of countering terrorism. Against this background, this study aims to explore the forms of Nigeria Police participation in counter-terrorism operations, the effectiveness of Nigeria Police involvement in counter-terrorism operations and measures that could enhance police performance in counter-terrorism operations in the country.

 Theoretical Framework

Structural functionalism is a sociological theory that explains why society functions the way it does by emphasising the relationships between the various social institutions that make it up. The basic underpinnings of structural functionalism were built by French sociologist Émile Durkheim in the late nineteenth century, at least in part as a response to evolutionary theories of thinkers such as E. B. Tylor (Porth et al., 2015). Durkheim’s original goal was to explain social structures as a shared means for individuals in society to meet their own biological needs; he also wanted to explain the worth of cultural and social features in terms of their contribution to the general operation of society and life. Later, structural functionalism’s focus shifted to the manner in which social structures in society meet the social requirements of individuals inside that society. This theory was adopted as a theoretical framework for the study because of its strengths and strategic importance. The theory placed emphasis on the interdependency and interconnectedness of security formations, including the police force, and the necessity and urgency for them to form a synergy with the local civilian security formation in the host community for harmonious living. It was reported by Stearns (2013) that structural functionalism views society as functioning as an organism with the various social institutions working together as organs in the human body to maintain stability and integration. Radcliffe Brown espoused the interaction or interdependence of human activities in the social institutions that give rise to the cohesion, stability and peaceful coexistence of human society (Mediha, 2013; Palmer, 2013). Seeing the imperativeness of structural functionalism in understanding and explaining the police force as a subset of security organisations that contributes meaningfully to the existence and survival of the whole social system, the theory was found much more relevant to and apt in examining police involvement in community security, with emphasis on counter-terrorism.

Forms of Police Participation in Counter-terrorism Operations

One cannot overemphasise the duties and responsibilities of the police in any given society. The police are recognised members of the society charged with the responsibility of security of lives and property, maintaining law and order and prevention of all crimes, including terrorism. The roles the Nigeria police play are not just confined to the statutory description of their duties and responsibilities. Alongside other primary duties such as crime prevention and investigation, maintenance of law and order, and enforcement of all laws and regulations, the police also have a role to play in countering terrorism in Nigeria. This was confirmed from the above submission but is also partly stated in section 4 of the Police Act under “such military duties within or outside Nigeria as may be required by them by this or any other Act” (The Police Act, Cap [P19]). Nwauzi and Ogon (2018) also stated that the listed duties and powers of police officers are not exhaustive, as the duties and powers of police officers are expansive. The Nigeria Police discharge other specific secondary duties like highway traffic control and management, provision of assistance during disasters and the conduct of prosecution before any court in the country (Madubuike-Ekwe & Obayemi, 2019).

Detailed explanation of some forms of police participation in curbing the menace of terrorism in Nigeria. The forms in which the police manifest in its duty of counter-terrorism include but are not limited to the following: Involvement in intelligence gathering and sharing with other security agencies to buffer counter-terrorism operations; counselling people as well as relevant stakeholders in the country about the need for peace in the society. This is done in a bid to write off the wrong and poisonous orientation people might have received concerning situations in the country; mopping up arms and ammunitions, drugs and narcotic substances in the society; working in synergy with relevant stakeholders, bodies and national institution agencies such as the NDLEA, EFCC, NAFDAC and others; working with other security agencies such as the Nigerian Military, Nigeria Security and Civil Defence Corps (NSCDC) to enhance synergy towards countering terrorism; training and re-training of police personnel on recent crime fighting modes in order to effectively engage the terrorist groups; engaging the religious and community leaders in talks about peace and giving proper orientation to their members so as to proactively repel the desire to engage in terrorism;  striving to administer and dispense justice to improve people’s trust and confidence in the justice system so that aggression will not set-in on an aggrieved party thereby leading to terrorism.

Effectiveness of Nigeria Police Involvement in Counter-terrorism Operations

Challenges to the police role in counterterrorism have marred the effectiveness of police involvement in counterterrorism operations. Some challenges facing the police in their fight against terrorism are found as follows: First, there is insufficient training for the officers facing terrorists, and being sent to fight well-trained and equipped terrorists sounds like a suicide mission. Second, there is an allegation of misappropriation of funds allocated for counterterrorism operations. This leaves the police with insufficient funds and resources that, in turn, affects their efficiency and effectiveness in the fight against the terrorist. Third, political interference and corrupt practices among policymakers are also alleged. This kind of interference and corruption can always delay actions against the terrorist, thereby limiting the effectiveness, efficiency and productivity of the police. Fourth, command friction between the police and their military partners in the Joint Task Force. This fourth challenge is to be expected between military and paramilitary agencies whose ranking and protocols are similar but still unique. So the issue of superiors and subordinates in the face of command and order-controlled organisation can always be an issue, especially when there are no laid-down rules of operation and command protocols. Therefore, it becomes necessary to take further study into the rules of engagement of the Joint Task Force in order to find out the cause of this challenge and root it in the bud. The fifth challenge found is the existence of some moles (spies or traitors) in the joint military-police-civilian task force on counter-terrorism, which jeopardises the effectiveness of their operations. These findings support previous research reports (Bamidele, 2016; Nnam et al., 2020), which all agreed that concerted efforts to overcome the odious act of terrorism have been sabotaged and frustrated by some civilians in the host communities, politicians and security personnel, who provide corresponding assistance (such as leaking of security tactics and strategies, intelligence and information) to the terrorists (Nwakanma, 2022).

The effectiveness of the use of force approach adopted by the Nigeria Police counter-terrorism is pointed out, and the heavy-handed approach by Nigeria’s security sector against members of terrorist groups exacerbated sentiments of communal insecurity. In an extensive military operation, the Nigerian state destroyed the compound of the group and killed scores of terrorists. Disproportionate force and extrajudicial killings by the statutory security sector cause some terrorist groups to respond with revenge attacks against the institutions of the state. The lack of capacity and capability in Nigeria’s law enforcement and military, coupled with a failure to appreciate the importance of community engagement in counter-terrorism, set the state on a collision course with the group and its followers. Samson (2015) asserts that, while assessing the dilemma of counter-terrorism and human rights in Northern Nigeria, he argued that the aggressive approach of the SJTF perpetrated through gross violations of human rights undermined the support of the population. This assertion connotes that the excessive use of brutal force by the police force, alongside other security agencies, serves as a restraint to the effectiveness of police involvement in counter-terrorism operations.

Similarly, Kalid (2021), while being interviewed by the BBC, pointed out the ineffectiveness of using a force approach to terrorism, thus: the over-reliance on a military strategy to confront terrorist groups is at the heart of the state’s inability to deal with the threat. That is why, unfortunately, almost 11 or 12 years into the counter-terrorism operation, there seem to be no major successes recorded. The reality is that to address terrorism, you need more than a brutal force operation. You need to address the root causes of the terrorism emergence. Paradoxically, Sampson (2015) also claimed that since its engagement in the counterterrorism, the SJTF, including the police, has become anathema to the local communities in the Northeast. According to him, the indiscriminate use of force and other arbitrary acts have led to an unwarranted loss of life and destruction of valuable property, as well as constituted an extensive humanitarian crisis in the Northeast. He further maintained that, in addition to the direct offensive approach, the operation was reinforced by the adoption of draconian laws like the massive imposition of dusk-to-dawn curfews, restriction of vehicular movement, and bans on the use of communication lines. The overall effects of these measures thus undermined the support of the population for counter-terrorism. This indicates that there can never be a purely forceful solution to violent extremism. There is therefore a need to abandon the conventional force-centric approach as the one and only option for terrorism and other asymmetric conflicts. While not ignoring the importance of using a force approach, stability, political-economic-social development, rule of law, popular well-being, and sustainable peace all depend on effective and legitimate control of the national territory; the force-centric approach must be balanced with a population-centric approach for maximum effectiveness and legitimacy (Jerome, 2015).

Measures to Enhance Police Performance in Counter-terrorism Operations

Given the complexity of the security situation in Nigeria, blended with the economic, political, and social strife, projects and programs designed to counter terrorism should be built around community resilience, enhance cooperation among law enforcement agencies, and strengthen judicial institutions. Hence, strategy and the importance of collective efforts to counter terrorism in an increasingly interdependent and interconnected Nigeria have become imperative. Hence, some measures that could be used to counter terrorism in Nigeria were extensively examined.

Measures to enhance police performance in counter-terrorism target a different aspect of what Piombo (2007) calls the four “Ds” of fighting terrorism: ‘Defeat terrorists and their organisations; Deny sponsorship, support and sanctuary to terrorists; Diminish the underlying conditions that terrorists seek to exploit, and Defend citizens and interests at home and abroad.’ Another way to consider these programmes’ effectiveness is that they should attempt to fight the supply of terrorists, the demand for terrorist networks, and the ability of terrorists to operate and manoeuvre. Counterterrorism measures are captured in the below headings.

1. The Meghalaya Model

The Meghalaya model is a multi-sector approach involving government, law enforcement, judiciary, and civil society organisations that created a comprehensive framework for combating trafficking in Northeast Asia in 1999 under the five “Ps”: prevention, protection, policing, press, and prosecution (Kharbhih, 2010). The Meghalaya Model is designed to track and rescue trafficked children in Northeast Asia; to facilitate rehabilitation; and to make sure that survivors do not get re-trafficked. It also provides families with livelihood alternatives, provides evidence to prosecute offenders, and raises awareness through the media. The process of the Meghalaya Model is the five “Rs”: reporting, rescue, rehabilitation, repatriation and re-education. It is believed that these activities that are pillars of the Meghalaya model to counter human trafficking are relevant to counter-terrorism, as they could fight the supply of terrorists, the supply of mercenaries for terrorism, and the demand for terrorist networks. This is imperative because, despite international agreements and a plethora of national laws on counter-terrorism, the issue remains one of the fastest-growing criminal violence in the world. Its proliferation is due to its cross-border nature and thus requires cooperation and collaboration between states if it is to be tackled effectively. However, throughout the world, often counterterrorism initiatives have failed to incorporate all relevant stakeholders. Hence, the Meghalaya Model, though originally designed to track and rescue trafficked children, could be adopted or adapted to counter terrorism in Nigeria, as there are insinuations of mercenaries and conscripted fighters for terrorists. And with the porous nature of Nigerian borders and the rate of human trafficking in the country, these mercenaries and conscripted fighters could be trafficked victims from neighbouring countries. This model is relevant to counter-terrorism in Nigeria because through a collaborative and far-reaching security network of stakeholders in counter-terrorism (security and intelligence agencies, NAPTIP, the media, civil society and NGOs), terrorists, mercenaries and terror suspects are more likely to be arrested and will face prosecution.

2. Countering Terrorism through Public-Private Partnerships (CTPPP)

While combating terrorism is a primary responsibility of nation states, developing partnerships with the private sector can be beneficial, especially in areas where state resources and expertise are limited. The public-private partnerships (PPPs) concept is gaining attention in the business world but at a much slower pace in the security domain. For instance, Jonathan Lucas, Director of the United Nations Interregional Crime and Justice Research Institute (UNICRI), argues that progress to build partnerships on security matters has been hampered by a lack of legislation to facilitate information exchange between the public and private sectors, as well as the absence of incentives because ‘too often no incentives are provided to encourage the private sector to invest in the protection of vulnerable targets, as the private sector usually considers funding of PPP initiatives in security sectors as a cost rather than an investment’ (2012, p. 8). However, the Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy explicitly encourages such partnerships in capacity-building and information exchange. Hence the United Nations Counter-Terrorism Implementation Task Force (CTITF) working group on countering the use of the Internet for terrorist purposes argues how it benefited from private sector expertise in ‘the technical and legal aspects on how the Internet could be used to counter terrorist narratives’ (2012, p. 8). Russia, for example, has been engaging with Moscow State University and People’s Friendship University of Russia to exchange new ideas and expertise in countering terrorism. Because in their view, ‘private-public cooperation should not be limited to the business community alone but should also include non-governmental organisations, media, tourism and hotels, youth associations, the academic community and religious leaders’ involvement in the security sector’ (Yudintsev, 2012).

3. Empowering Youth as Peace-Entrepreneurs and Peace-Seeds

There is growing evidence from the social science literature on the links between youth unemployment and armed conflict, and donors have increasingly used programmes that create jobs for youth as a tool to address armed violence. Many donors now identify addressing youth unemployment as an urgent priority, both in the field of peace buildinpeacebuildingg and in efforts to foster economic development (World Bank, 2008; ILO, 2010; UN, 2009). Similarly, the link between job creation and peacebuilding has been affirmed by the UN Secretary General’s approval of the ‘UN Policy For Post-Conflict Employment Creation, Income Generation And Reintegration’ in 2008, as well as by the ILO’s 2010 Guidelines on Local Economic Recovery in Post-Conflict (UN, 2009; ILO, 2010). However, studies find that both the theoretical and empirical cases for using youth employment programmes as a ‘standalone’ tool to reduce violent conflict are extremely weak, because donor interventions have been poorly evaluated and evidence of success typically only demonstrates increases in employment levels, with little effort made to assess the impact on conflict. Hence, evidence on using job creation as part of an integrated or comprehensive armed conflict or Anti Violence Response (AVR) strategy is stronger: some government-led initiatives in countries that experience high levels of armed violence (such as Brazil and South Africa) are positive examples. So, the emphasis on the youth Anti Violence Response (AVR) strategy should be based on holistic, comprehensive, and integrated approaches that go beyond simply addressing a lack of economic opportunities and seek to tackle the more complex array of factors (such as belief systems, religious, political, and ethnic fundamentalism) that turn youth into entrepreneurs of violence rather than peace-seeds. This is imperative because Omale (2013) argues that, if youth involvement in terrorism is becoming a real threat, then the primary step is to try to understand the phenomena systems andphenomenonof increase, anphenomenonincrease andd the causes of such criminal deviance. Because in the word increase andwordsof Socrates,words, ‘Fundamentum Omnius Cultus animae’ (i.e.,, the soul of all improvement is the improvement of the soul). For instance, the goal of most national educational curricula in modern times is to produce professionals such as scientists, lawyers, doctors, and engineers for society. How much of our school curriculum includes active citizenship education, youth leadership skills, civil courtesies, and relationship-building communication?building? The earlier we begin to instilinstil the skills of ‘learning to live together’ and respect for humanity and society through active citizenship education, the better for our society.

4. Women-Gender Intelligence (WGI)

The innovation of “Women-Gender Intelligence” (WGI), particularly in the events of volatile conflict and endemic suicide bombings in Nigeria, has become imperative. For instance, with the continued violent conflict in Jos and the emerging suicide bombings in the country, the “Women for Change and Development Initiative” of the Office of the First Lady of Nigeria orchestrated media campaigns and jingles of “Women: See Something; Say Something!” and “The One that gives life must Protect Life!” The impact of these jingles and campaigns, this author would argue, motivated a rural woman in a village called Haya Biu, Niger State, to assist the State Security Service in Nigeria to unravel the hideout of some Boko Haram extremists on 6th September, 2011, who until then had been hiding there and making IEDs. By this revelation, it could be argued that women can be strong agents of change and development if adequately harnessed. In terms of security and counterterrorism in Nigeria, this paper argues that if women voluntarily and unanimously agree to stop insecurity, they can because there is no terrorist or criminal that does not have a mother, a spouse, or a girlfriend. The Women Gender Intelligence (WGI) is even more relevant in the Nigerian context since it is insinuated that some Boko Haram perpetrators are youth who cannot afford to pay a bride price for a wife and are so brainwashed and recruited to kill so as to be rewarded with seven virgins in Aljena. In this case, therefore, if women are granted protection as whistleblowers, they can be a good source of intelligence on counterterrorism in Nigeria.

5. Counter Extremism and De-radicalisation Programmes (CEDP)

Religion and cultural differences are among the most important causes of conflicts and violence in Nigeria. A very worrisome dimension of the role of religion in conflicts is the tendency and frequency with which some politicians and leaders exploit it for selfish reasons, as sometimes public statements on issues of religion tend to ignite or exacerbate conflicts, justifying the need for conflict sensitivity. Our world – as an American sociologist, Peter Berger, notes – is ‘fiercely religious’, and Nigeria has witnessed rising essentialism within all the major religions. For instance, a Muslim cleric was once criticised by the media for publicly preaching to his followers in a mosque in Kano (northern Nigeria) that “Un ka kama Mary ko Chinyere ka chisu” (meaning “if you catch a girl with a name Mary or Chinyere, rape her”). This is hate-based preaching that encourages young Muslim boys to rape girls bearing Christian or South Eastern names in Nigeria. In the same vein, some Neo-Pentecostal and evangelical Christians in Nigeria see themselves (the “born again” brethren) as holier than the ‘Other’. Similarly, crusades that dwell much more on the Biblical verse of Mathew 11:12, which states, “And from the days of John the Baptist until now, the kingdom of heaven suffered violence, and the violent takes it by force,” are becoming common citations among youth in Nigeria. Whereas, this Biblical injunction does not encourage violence, perverse interpretations of these religious injunctions, however, have crept into the minds of some people. This radical mindset has created many of the world’s violent outbreaks, both present and past. Lammy (2013) argues in an article written after the May 22nd killing of a Woolwich soldier by a terrorist suspect (Michael Adebolajo) that ‘radical Islamism suffocates conventional Islamic beliefs with a diet of anger, hate and intolerance among young men, who perhaps are already convinced of being outcasts and are intoxicated by teachings that not only entrench this difference further but also demand that they despise the society they leave behind.’ Hence, it is not uncommon for fringe groups of all ideological persuasions to systematically target these men by manipulating their sense of hopelessness and lack of belonging (Lammy, 2013). However, if religion could be used to cause conflict, it could be used to resolve conflict. Because even in this climate of global religious turbulence, religions offer the potential for generosity, wisdom and an ethical sense of transcendence capable of creating a strong link between people, beyond their differences. People might have different beliefs and dogmas and adhere to different schools of philosophical and metaphysical thought, but I strongly believe that it is possible to share a pragmatic universal system of ethics that would allow us all to live together. So Counter Extremism and De-radicalisation Programmes (CEDP) can work and could be an effective way of countering the spread of radical-violent ideology and activism, provided that the right conditions for success exist. These include, among others, political will, a vibrant civil society, and a robust developmental and political capacity within the Nigerian state.

 6. Security Inter-Operability (SIO)

 In every human society there are those that could not be safely contained in the community. Security interoperability that encourages security networking and intelligence sharing could root out the bad eggs in the society. For instance, if the police, SSS, EFCC and NIA work collaboratively, they could unravel the local and international sponsors and financiers of Boko Haram. Similarly, if the Customs, Immigration and the NDLEA work collaboratively, they could unravel the criminal importation of foreign mercenaries, drugs, arms and ammunition that are sustaining the Boko Haram insurgencies. In the same vein, the SSS and police working collaboratively with the Prisons Service could plant pseudo inmates who are fluent in Arabic, Hausa, Fulani and Kanuri in strategic prison cells for intelligence gatherings from detained Boko Haram suspects. The Military Joint Task Forces (JMTF) could as well invest in telemetric security and cable detection technology and use fewer roadblocks. Where these security strategies are done well, the use of the Military Joint Task Forces (MJTF) fire operations would only be the last resort. But if terror attacks do occur, a coordinated and well-equipped MJTF that comprises the military forces, NEMA, the fire service and the Red Cross should be on standby for effective evacuation and other needed humanitarian and relief services. However, in a system like Nigeria where security and law enforcement agencies struggle for supremacy and lay claim to arrests and security breakthroughs (as was the case in Kabiru Sokoto’s arrest), interoperability becomes difficult to achieve. Nigeria does not lack the institutions to counter terrorism, but what Nigerian security and law enforcement agencies need to understand is that “success for one is success for all”. ”.

7. Community Policing Approach

In community policing, the community should be the primary objective for the police: its tacit support, its submission to law and order, its consensus, etc. It is therefore necessary to obtain the support of the community not only in the form of sympathy and approval but also in active participation in keeping the society safe. The police must build confidence in the community by conducting themselves professionally and showing the ability to hold volunteered information in the highest secrecy and protect those they have been entrusted to protect at all costs. In community policing, law enforcement agencies share power with residents of a community, and critical decisions need to be made at the neighbourhood level. Establishing and maintaining mutual trust between citizens of a community and the police is the main goal of the first component of community policing. In full partnership, law enforcement agencies and a community’s residents and business owners are supposed to identify core problems, propose solutions, and implement a solution. For this problem-solving process to operate effectively, the police need to devote time and attention to discovering the community’s concerns, and they need to recognise the validity of those concerns. If the police treat suspected terrorists/insurgents using methods and practices outside the law, such as collective punishment or arbitrary detention, this itself undermines the legitimacy of government and can create new grievances, inhibiting the effectiveness of counter-terror or counter-insurgency policies. However, in the real sense and in reality, the counter-terrorism in Nigeria is dominated by security operations (Audu & Zakimayu, 2021).

Conclusion and Recommendations

Young men almost exclusively lead and execute terrorist attacks globally. Nigeria, with its abundant unemployed labour force, exploitative politicians, radical clerics, a population prone to violence, and weakened national and community cohesion, provides a competitive advantage for militant and terrorist organisations, criminal networks, and corrupt political leaders. International experience in countering terrorism has shown that the key to preventing violence against the state and its citizens is policing that establishes government legitimacy and wins public support. In societies where endemic violence poses a threat, we should entrust the responsibility for security to police deployed among the population. Police are the public face of the government. By performing their duties in a professional manner, police build support for the government they represent. Acts committed by terrorists are crimes, which are the responsibility of the police and the criminal justice system. Killing or capturing terrorists when they are engaged in terrorist acts is not an effective solution to insecurity. The solution is to identify would-be terrorists before they commit acts of violence using information provided by citizens to the police. To make this approach work effectively, the police must recognise the importance of collaborating with citizens. The police must also adopt a citizen-oriented approach to policing. Police establish effective relations with the public by being available and easily accessible, by being responsive and acting promptly to requests for assistance from individuals, and by being fair and impartial, treating everyone professionally, respectfully, and empathetically. This approach is based on relationships, attitudes, and values. It requires neither advanced technical skills nor heavy weaponry.

                                                            Recommendations

1. The police should be provided with sophisticated equipment, discipline and training (the curricula in police training institutions must reflect present-day challenges, e.g., detailed courses on terrorism/military history, policing, forensics, etc.).

2. It is imperative that police officers undergo regular specialised training and retraining prior to deployment. This will equip them against the well-trained and equipped terrorists.

3. The funding and deployment of police officers for the counterterrorism operations should be depoliticised. The influence of the politicians on the processes of operation of the counterterrorism is affecting the smooth operation of the units if the funds set apart for their operation are misappropriated.

4. There should be a very strict and unbiased screening of the officers deployed into the counterterrorism units. This screening should be done by external bodies outside the government and its agencies. This will help rid the ranks and files of the moles that jeopardise their operations.

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A combination of Zingiber officinale and Allium sativum ethanol extracts prevented liver and kidney toxicities caused by doxorubicin in Wistar rats

Oraekei Daniel Ikechukwu1*, Okoye Odinachi Anthony2, Mba Ogbonnaya2, Abone Harrison Odera3, Obidiegwu Onyeka Chinwuba4

1Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Olivia University, Bujumbura, Burundi.
2Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, PMB 5025 Awka, Anambra State, Nigeria.
3Department of Pharmaceutical Microbiology and Biotechnology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka, Anambra State, Nigeria.
4Department of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka, Anambra State, Nigeria.
Daniel Ikechukwu Oraekei email: oraekeidanielikechukwu@gmail.com
Odinachi Anthony Okoye email: nachi.t.okoye@gmail.com
Ogbonnaya Mba email: mbabte@gmail.com
Harrison Odera Abone email: harrisonabone@gmail.com
Onyeka Chinwuba Obidiegwu email: oc.obidiegwu@unizik.edu.ng

*Corresponding author
Daniel Ikechukwu Oraekei,
1Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Olivia University, Bujumbura, Burundi.
Email: oraekeidanielikechukwu@gmail.com
Phone: +25771629919
ABSTRACT
Background: It is the function of the liver and kidneys to deal with processes concerning detoxification, metabolism, and the excretion of waste products. Aim: This study tested the liver and kidney protective effects of a combination of Z. officinale and A. sativum in Wister rats treated with doxorubicin. Methods: The qualitative phytochemical analysis and acute toxicity studies were carried out using standard methods. Bacterial lipopolysaccharide from Escherichia coli was used to induce systemic inflammatory and oxidative stress. The animals were pretreated for 14 days with the combined extracts of Z. officinale and A.sativum alone, the extracts with doxorubicin, and doxorubicin alone. LPS at 1 mg/kg intraperitoneally dissolved in normal saline was given daily to the animals along with the treatments for an additional 14 days. On the last day, the animals were anesthetized with ketamine and xylazine, and blood samples were withdrawn from the retro-orbital plexus of the animals into plain tubes. Serum alanine transaminase, Alkaline phosphatase, Serum creatinine, and blood urea nitrogen were estimated using standard methods. Results: among all tested phytochemicals, Z. officinale lacks tannins, steroids, Steroids and terpenoids, while A. sativum lacks saponins and glycosides. No mortality was observed after the acute toxicity study. Group 4 rats, which were treated with Z. officinae, A. sativun, and doxorubicin, showed lower serum levels of alanine aminotransferase, alkaline phosphatase, creatinine, and blood urea nitrogen than the control group. Conclusion: Z. officinale-A. sativum combination showed a favorable safety profile and also exhibited significant protective effects against chemotherapeutic liver and kidney toxicities.
Key words: Allium sativum, doxorubicin, kidney toxicity, liver toxicity, Zingiber officinale
INTRODUCTION
Background of the study
The liver and kidneys of the human body actively deal with processes concerning detoxification, metabolism, and the excretion of waste products. The protective role of natural products derived from plants against drug-induced damage to the organs has received significant attention. Zingiber officinale and Allium sativum are two widely used herbs in culinary and medicinal fields. They are well studied for their chemoprotective, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant properties. (Oraekei et al., 2024). Z. officinale contains gingerol and shogaol, and A. sativum contains allicin and ajoene, and these are some of the active constituents that have properties to avert oxidative damage and enhance the functions of organs (Mao et al., 2019). Doxorubicin’s molecular composition leads to the production of free radicals and triggers oxidative stress, which is associated with cellular damage (Tacar et al., 2013). Doxorubicin is a chemotherapeutic agent that is effective in treating various cancers; it is known to induce oxidative stress, leading to hepatotoxicity and nephrotoxicity (Kciuk et al., 2023). Doxorubicin, also known as Adriamycin, is a widely used anthracycline antibiotic that’s actually derived from the bacterium Streptomyces peucetius. (Arcamone et al., 1969). Doxorubicin has been noted to have harmful effects on the liver (Abdulrhaman et al., 2025). It also decreases other protective components like cytochrome P-450 and glutathione in the rat’s liver (Timm etal., 2022). Notably, high glutathione levels have been shown to protect liver cells from Doxorubicin’s toxic effects (Deng et al., 2015). Doxorubicin’s long-term use is limited by severe side effects, including a potentially fatal heart condition that worsens with higher doses. (Belger et al., 2023). The combined use of Z. officinale and A. sativum may offer synergistic effects, potentially mitigating the toxic impact of chemotherapeutic agents like doxorubicin. This study aims to test the liver and kidney protective functions of a combination of Z. officinale and A. sativum in rats treated with doxorubicin. Through biochemical assays, the research seeks to determine whether this herbal blend can mitigate doxorubicin-induced toxicity and support liver and kidney health.
Aim of Study
The aim of the study is to test the liver and kidney protective effects of a combination of Z. officinale and A. sativum in Wister rats treated with doxorubicin.
Scope of Study
This study was narrowed to evaluate the biochemical changes in liver and kidney functions due to doxorubicin toxicity, assess key biomarkers like alanine aminotransferase (ALT), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), creatinine and blood urea nitrogen (BUN).
Literature review
Studies have shown doxorubicin to be a highly chemotherapeutic agent used in treating various cancers. Its use is limited due to the toxic effect it causes on various organs, including the liver and kidneys (Alshabanah et al., 2010). Renal and Hepatic functions are assessed by testing biomarkers such as Alanine aminotransferase (ALT), Aspartate aminotransferase (AST), Alkaline phosphatase (ALP), Creatinine levels, and Blood urea nitrogen (BUN) (Lala et al., 2023). Treatment with Z. officinale showed significant improvement in AST, ALT, and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activities (Abdel-Azeem et al., 2013). Z. officinale administered alone at 530 mg/kg body weight had a greater hepato-protective effect than when given in combination with A. sativum (Oraekei et al., 2024); and this study showed that Z. officinale significantly reduced liver and kidney damage, and the combination containing a higher proportion of Z. officinale was most protective than the other tested combinationse. High levels of ALP or BUN may indicate liver disease or a certain bone disorder or kidneys not functioning well (Lowe et al., 2023).
Herbal medicine combination in pharmacotherapy
When herbs are combined, a lot of interactions can occur, but the desirable interactions are those that can result in enhanced therapeutic benefit. The effects of herbal medicine combinations are usually variable. A herb can be used to potentiate the effect of another herb. An example is the combination of ginseng root and aconite daughter root in an anti-shock remedy (Che et al, 2013). In this combination, the aconite daughter root potentiated the effects of ginseng. Herbal drug combinations can also be antagonistic in their actions. An example is the interaction between turnip root and ginseng root, where ginseng is used as a tonic drug, but when used in the presence of turnip root, its effect will be reduced (Che et al, 2013).
Herb-Drug combination
The use of herb-drug combinations can lead to various clinical presentations, such as potentiation, as seen in the potentiation of the effect of oral corticosteroids by liquorice (Kahraman et al., 2021). The impact of herb-drug combinations can also provide effects that may be additive or antagonistic. Herb-drug combinations can lead to alterations in the gastrointestinal functions, which can affect drug absorption (Brantley et al., 2014). It can also cause induction and inhibition of metabolic enzymes and transport proteins (Fasinu et al., 2012). It can also lead to alteration of renal excretion of drugs and their metabolites (Dresser et al., 2002). Long-term use of St. John’s wort can lead to reduced clinical effectiveness of cytochrome P450 subtype CPY3A4 substrate drugs by CPY3A4 induction, which can cause rapid metabolism and a decrease in the dosage of the drugs (Markowitz et al., 2003).
Possible Herb-Drug Interactions
Herb-drug interactions can occur when herbal supplements are taken with prescription drugs and affect how the medications work in the body. There are so many herb-drug interactions like garlic increasing bleeding when taken with an anticoagulant (Hu et al., 2005). Ginseng interacts with anticoagulants and calcium channel blockers reducing their effects (Jiang et al., 2004). St John’s Wort poses high risks with drugs like cyclosporine, oral contraceptives, and indinavir (Roby et al., 2000).
Brief description of Zingiber officinale
Z. officinale is a rhizome that is widely used as a spice and a medicinal herb. It can be used fresh, dried, or in powdered form in the making of teas and cooking. It contains bioactive compounds like gingerol, which have anti-inflammatory or antioxidant properties. It is used in the treatment of nausea and for relief of cold (Mao et al., 2019).

Figure 1: Image of Z. officinale

Brief description of Allium Sativum
A. sativum is a bulbous plant in the onion family. It is widely used as a culinary spice and in traditional medicine. It has a pungent flavor, which comes from sulfur compounds like allicin. It enhances the cardiovascular system, supports the immune system, and has antimicrobial properties. (Ansary et al., 2020).
Figure 2: Image of A. Sativum.
Materials
Animals
Female Wister rats (230 – 240 g) were used for this study. All the animals were obtained from the animal house of the Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Enugu State University of Science and Technology, Enugu State, Nigeria. The animals were housed in standard laboratory conditions of 12 hours’ light, room temperature, 40-60% relative humidity, and fed with rodent feed (Guinea Feeds Nigeria Ltd). They were allowed free access to food and water. All animal experiments were conducted in compliance with the NIH guide for care and use of laboratory animals (National Institute of Health (NIH), 2011) Pub No: 85-23), and animal protocol was approved by Animal care and ethics committee of Enugu State University of Science and Technology with approval number ESUT/2025/AEC/0962/AP 845.
Plant materials
Fresh Z. officinale rhizome and A. sativum bulb were purchased from Ogbete main market in Enugu state, Nigeria.
Drug
Doxorubicin was used for this research.
Equipment
Glass column, flasks, beakers, test tubes, surgical blade, measuring cylinder, forceps, scissors, white transparent paper, Analytical Weighing balance(Metler H30, Switzerland), Electric oven, Water bath (Gallenkamp, England) Water bath, disposable pipette tips (Labcompare USA), intubation tubes, stop watch (Avi Scientific India), BUN and creatinine test kits (Teco Diagnostics, USA), precision pipettes (25, 50, 100, and 300 μl, 1,000 µL) (Labcompare USA), AST test kit (Span Diagnostics Ltd., India), UV-VIS spectrophotometer (Model 752, China), distilled or deionized water (SnowPure Water Technologies USA), micropipette (Finnipipette® Labsystems, Finland), disposable hand gloves (Supermax Malaysia), National Blender (Japan), ALP test kit (Span Diagnostics Ltd., India), ALT test kit (Span Diagnostics Ltd., India), plethysmometer (Biodevices, New Delhi, India).
Methods
Phytochemical analysis
The qualitative phytochemical analysis of the extracts was carried out using standard methods described by Odoh et al. (2019).
Test for alkaloids: The plant extracts (0.2 g) were heated in 20 mL of 2% acid solution (HCL) individually in a water bath for about 2 minutes. The resulting solutions were allowed to cool and then filtered, and then 5 mL of the filtrate was used for Hager’s test. The samples (5 mL) were placed in labeled test tubes, and a few drops of Hager’s reagent (saturated picric acid solution) were added. Formation of a yellow precipitate indicated the presence of alkaloids.
Test for glycosides
The samples were extracted with 1% H2SO4 solution in a hot water bath for about 2 minutes. The resulting solution was filtered and made distinctly alkaline by adding 4 drops of 20% KOH (confirmed with litmus paper). One milliliter of Fehling’s solution (equal volume of A and B) was added to the filtrates and heated on a hot water bath for 2 minutes. Brick red precipitate indicated the presence of glycosides.
Test for saponins
The plant extracts (0.2 g) were dissolved in methanol individually, and the resulting solutions were used for Frothing test. The samples (5 mL) were placed in labeled test tubes, and 5 mL of distilled water was added and the mixtures were shaken vigorously. The test tubes were observed for the presence of persistent froth.
Test for tannins
The plant extracts (0.2 g) were dissolved in methanol individually, and the resulting solutions were used for the test. To 3 mL of each of the samples, a few drops of 1% Ferric chloride were added and observed for brownish green or a blue-black coloration.
Test for flavonoids
Using methanol, 0.2 g of the plant extracts and fractions were dissolved individually, and the resulting solutions were used for Ammonium hydroxide test. A quantity of 2 mL of 10% ammonia solution was added to a portion of each of the samples and allowed to stand for 2 minutes. Yellow coloration at the lower ammoniacal layer indicated the presence of a flavonoid.
Test for steroids and terpenoids
Salkowski test: The plant extracts were dissolved in methanol individually, and the resulting solutions were used for the test. A 5 mL of each of the samples was mixed with 2 mL of chloroform, and concentrated H2SO4 was carefully added to form a layer. A reddish-brown coloration at the interface indicated a positive test.
Acute toxicity studies
Acute oral toxicity of the combination of Z. officinale, A. sativum (6:4) and doxorubicin (318, 212, and 5 mg/kg respectively) was performed according to the Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD, 2021) guideline 425 for testing of chemicals (Up and down method). The single combination dose was administered to the animal based on their body weight. The animals were closely observed for the first 30 minutes, then for 4 hours. Food was provided after 2 hours of dosing. After the survival of the first treated animal, 4 more animals were treated with the same dose at an interval of 48 hours each. The control group of rats (n = 5) was administered with distilled water (vehicle used in preparing the herbal mixture) in the same volume as that of the treated group. All the groups were closely observed for 6 hours and then at regular intervals for 14 days. The animals were weighed and observed for mortality, salivation, diarrhea, asthenia, hypo-activity, hyperactivity, piloerection, hyperventilation, aggressiveness, yellowing or loss of hair fur, drowsiness, convulsion, tremor, dizziness, and other obvious signs of toxicity.
Experimental design
Bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS) from Escherichia coli, purchased from Sigma-Aldrich, was used to induce systemic inflammatory and oxidative stress states. The animals were pretreated for 14 days with the combined extracts of Z. officinale and A. sativum alone; the extracts with doxorubicin; and doxorubicin alone. LPS at 1 mg/kg intraperitoneal (I.P) dissolved in normal saline was given daily to the animals along with the treatments for an additional 14 days. Treatment was done 30 minutes before the LPS injection. On the last day, 2 hours after injection of LPS, the animals were anesthetized with ketamine and xylazine, and blood samples were withdrawn from the retro-orbital plexus of the animals into plain tubes.
Animal grouping (5 animals per group)
A total of 25 rats were allocated into five groups of five rats each. Group 1 were uninduced control (Naïve) and were treated with normal saline + 5 ml/kg distilled water via the oral route (p.o.). Group 2 were the negative control and was treated with LPS 1mg/kg i.p + 5 ml/kg distilled water p.o. Group 3 were treated with Z. officinale and A. sativum combination 6:4 (318:212 mg/kg p.o.) + LPS 1mg/kg i.p. Group 4 were treated with Z. officinale: A. sativum: doxorubicin combination (318:212: 5 mg/kg) + LPS 1 mg/kg i.p. While group 5 were treated with doxorubicin 5 mg/kg i. p.
Serum preparation
At the end of the study, blood samples were collected through retro-orbital plexus into a plain covered test tube. The blood samples were allowed to clot by leaving them undisturbed at room temperature for 30 minutes. The clots were removed by centrifuging at 2,000 x g for 10 minutes in a refrigerated centrifuge. The resulting supernatant (serum) was immediately transferred into a clean polypropylene tube using a Pasteur pipette. The samples were maintained at 2–8 °C while handling and apportioned into 0.5 ml aliquots.
Hepatic function tests.
Quantitative determination of alanine aminotransferase (ALT)
Serum alanine transaminase was estimated by the method described by Oraekei et al., (2024) using the ALT test kit (Span Diagnostics Ltd., India). A 0.25 ml of mixture of L-alanine (200 mmol/l), α-oxoglutarate (2.0 mmol/l), and phosphate buffer (100 mmol/l) was added to 0.5 ml of each sample and blank (containing distilled water). They were mixed and incubated at 37 °C for exactly 30 minutes in a water bath. A 0.25 ml of 2,4- dinitrophenylhydrazine was added to the sample and blank test tubes and incubated again at room temperature for 20 minutes. A 2.5 ml of sodium hydroxide (0.4 mol) was then added to all the test tubes, and the absorbance of the sample was read against the blank at 546 nm using a UV-VIS spectrophotometer (Model 752, China). The ALT concentration was extrapolated from a graph of concentration against wavelength absorbance of known ALT concentrations.
Quantitative determination of alkaline phosphatase (ALP)
Alkaline phosphatase was estimated by the method described by Colville (2002) using the ALP test kit (Span Diagnostics Ltd., India). A 0.5 ml of Alkaline Phosphatase substrate was placed in the sample and blank labeled test tubes and equilibrated to 37 °C for 3 minutes. At a timed interval, 0.05 ml each of standard, control (deionized water), and sample was added to its respective test tubes. The mixture was incubated for 10 minutes at 37 °C. A 2.5 ml of alkaline phosphatase color developer (0.1 M Sodium Hydroxide and 0.1 M sodium Carbonate) was added and properly mixed. The absorbance of the samples was read at 590 nm using a UV-VIS spectrophotometer (Model 752, China) and recorded. ALP concentration was calculated using the equation below;
Calculation of ALP concentration
ALP= (Abs of samples x value of standard (IU/L¬))/(Abs of standard)
Where Standard Value = 50 IU/L
Renal function tests
Serum creatinine and blood urea nitrogen (BUN) were estimated by the method described by Tietz (1976) and Heinegard and Tiderstrom (1973), respectively, using creatinine and BUN test kits (Teco Diagnostics, USA).
Quantitative determination of creatinine
Creatinine working reagent was prepared by combining equal volumes of 10 mM picric acid and Creatinine buffer reagent (10 mM sodium borate, 240 nM sodium hydroxide). Then 3.0 ml of this reagent was added to labelled tubes (test, blank, and standard) to which 100 µl of serum (test), 5 mg/dl of Creatinine (Standard), and distilled water (blank) were added and mixed in their designated test tubes. The tubes were incubated at 37 °C for 15 minutes, and the absorbance was measured spectrophotometrically at 520 nm against a test blank. The concentration of Creatinine (mg/dl) was calculated thus:
Creatinine= (Abs of Test)/(Abs of Std) ×Conc.of Std
Where Abs = Absorbance, Std = Standard
Quantitative determination of blood urea nitrogen
A 1.5 ml of BUN Enzyme reagent (containing 10,000 µ/l Urease, 6.0 mmol/l sodium salicylate, 3.2 mmol/l sodium nitroprusside) was added to 10 µl of Test (serum), Standard (20 mg/dl), and Blank (distilled water) followed by incubation for 5 minutes at 37 °C. At a timed interval, 1.5 ml of BUN color developer (6 mmol/L of sodium Hypochlorite and 130 mmol/l sodium hydroxide) was added to each of the labelled tubes and were incubated for another 5 minutes at 37 °C. The absorbance of the tests and standards was measured spectrophotometrically at 630 nm against a blank. Urea nitrogen concentration (mg/dl) was calculated thus:
BUN= (Abs of Test)/(Abs of Std) ×Conc.of Std
Where Abs = Absorbance, Std = Standard
Results
Table 1: Phytochemical analysis of Z. officinale and A.sativum
Phytocompounds Zingiber officinale Allium sativum
Alkaloids + +
Saponins + –
Tannins – +
Flavonoids + +
Steroids and terpenoids – +
Glycosides + –
Yield 44.8 g (11.2%) 62.4 g (15.6%)
Key: + = Present; – = Absent
Acute toxicity study
No mortality was observed throughout the observational period. Reduced physical activities were observed after drug administration, but normalcy was restored 30 minutes later. Other observations were similar to those of the control group that received the vehicle. Delayed signs of toxicity were not recorded within the 14-day observational periods.
Liver and kidney function tests
Figure 1: Serum level of alanine aminotransferase (ALT)
Figure 2: Serum level of alkaline phosphatase (ALP)

Figure 3: Serum level of creatinine
Figure 4: Serum level of blood urea nitrogen (BUN)
Discussion
In the present study, the phytochemical composition and protective effects of a combined extract of Z. officinale and A. sativum against doxorubicin-induced toxicity were investigated, with a particular focus on liver and kidney function biomarkers. The phytochemical analysis revealed that both Z. officinale and A. sativum contain bioactive compounds such as alkaloids and flavonoids, known for their antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and hepatoprotective properties. Z. officinale showed the presence of saponins and glycosides, which were absent in A. sativum, while A. Sativum uniquely contained tannins and a combination of steroids and terpenoids, which were absent in Z. officinale. These differences suggest that the combination of both plants could offer a wider spectrum of protective phytochemicals than each of the herbs alone. A study conducted by Mao et al., (2019) confirmed the presence of bioactive compounds like flavonoids and gingerols in Z. officinale, which exhibited antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties.
The acute toxicity assessment showed no mortality or significant adverse effects in the treated animals over a 14-day observation period. Although a temporary reduction in physical activity was observed shortly after extract administration, the animals recovered within 30 minutes. This rapid return to normal behavior, coupled with the absence of delayed toxicity signs, suggests that the herbal combination is safe at the administered dosage. Z. officicinale was shown to be safe when administered in rats at doses up to 2000 mg/kg. (Rong et al., 2009)
Biochemical analyses further supported the extract’s protective effects. Doxorubicin, known for its potent chemotherapeutic activity as well as its hepatotoxic and nephrotoxic side effects, significantly elevated serum markers of liver and kidney injury. Alanine aminotransferase (ALT), a key indicator of liver cell damage, increased significantly following doxorubicin administration. However, animals pre-treated with the Z. officinale-A. sativum combination exhibited a significant reduction of ALT levels compared to the doxorubicin-only group, indicating a strong hepatoprotective effect of the extracts. Similarly, levels of alkaline phosphatase (ALP), another marker of hepatic function, were elevated by doxorubicin treatment but attenuated in animals co-treated with the extracts. The extract alone maintained ALP and ALT levels close to those of the healthy control group, suggesting it has no intrinsic hepatotoxicity and may even support liver health under normal conditions.
Renal functions, assessed via serum creatinine and blood urea nitrogen (BUN), also deteriorated significantly in response to doxorubicin. However, treatment with the Z. officinale-A. sativum combination weakened these effects. Although creatinine and BUN levels remained higher than those of untreated controls, they were significantly lower than in the doxorubicin-only group, indicating nephroprotection. The extract alone maintained creatinine and BUN levels within normal ranges, again reinforcing its safety and potential therapeutic value.
Overall, the results demonstrated that the combined extract of Z. officinale and A. sativum can effectively reduce biochemical signs of liver and kidney toxicity induced by doxorubicin. This protective effect is likely due to the synergistic action of the various phytochemicals present in both plants. Alkaloids, flavonoids, saponins, glycosides, tannins, and terpenoids are all known to contribute to antioxidant defense mechanisms and membrane stabilization, which may account for the observed mitigation of organ damage.
Conclusion
From this study, the Z. officinale-A. sativum combination not only showed a favorable safety profile but also exhibited significant protective effects against chemotherapeutic toxicity. These findings suggest that such a combination could serve as a promising adjunct therapy to reduce organ damage in patients undergoing doxorubicin treatment.

Acknowledgement
I am thankful to God for his unwavering support throughout this study. My appreciation also goes to Dr. Ajaghaku Lotenna Daniel and the laboratory technologists of the Pharmacology and Toxicology department, Enugu State University of Science and Technology, for their expertise that enabled the smooth completion of this study.
Disclosure of conflict of interest
Daniel Ikechukwu Oraekei declared no conflict of interest
Odinachi Anthony Okoye declared no conflict of interest
Ogbonnaya Mba declared no conflict of interest
Harrison Odera Abone declared no conflict of interest
Onyeka Chinwuba Obidiegwu declared no conflict of interest
Statement of ethical approval
Maintenance and care of all animals were carried out in accordance with EU Directive 2010/63/EU for animal experiments. Guide for the care and use of Laboratory Animals, DHHS Publ. # (NIH 86-123) were strictly adhered to. Animal protocol was approved by the Animal Care and Ethics Committee of Enugu State University of Science and Technology with approval number ESUT/2025/AEC/0962/AP 845. There was additional approval by the Nnamdi Azikiwe University’s Ethical Committee for the use of Laboratory Animals for Research Purposes (Approval number is NAU/AREC/2025/0077).

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India’s Evolving Role in Environmental Protection: A Study in Post-Globalization Era

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Citation

Papparaya, & Yatanoor, C. M. (2026). India’s Evolving Role in Environmental Protection: A Study in Post-Globalization Era. International Journal of Research, 13(1), 599–607. https://doi.org/10.26643/ijr/2026/v13i1-2

Papparaya

Research Scholar

Department of Political Science

Gulbarga University, Kalaburagi, 585 106

Karnataka

papparaya123@gmail.com

Prof. Chandrakant. M. Yatanoor

Senior Professor & Chairman

Department of Political Science

Gulbarga University, Kalaburagi, 585 106

Karnataka

cmyatanoor@rediffmail.com

Abstract:

         The advent of globalization, particularly following India’s economic liberalization in 1991, has presented a complex and often contradictory set of challenges and opportunities for the nation’s environmental governance. This paper examines India’s evolving role in environmental protection in this transformative period. It argues that globalization has acted as a dual-edged sword, concurrently accelerating environmental degradation through rapid industrialization and consumerism, while also providing access to green technologies, international finance, and a platform for global environmental diplomacy. The paper analyses the trajectory of India’s domestic environmental policy, highlighting the critical role of judicial activism and the strengthening of legal and institutional frameworks, such as the National Green Tribunal. It further explores India’s transition on the international stage from a cautious participant to a proactive leader, exemplified by its instrumental role in the Paris Agreement and the launch of initiatives like the International Solar Alliance (ISA). Despite these advancements, significant challenges persist, including a persistent gap between policy formulation and implementation, the contentious development-versus-environment debate, and acute vulnerability to climate change. The paper concludes that India’s future role is pivotal; its ability to successfully navigate the intricate nexus of economic growth and ecological sustainability will not only determine its own developmental trajectory but also have profound implications for global environmental security.

Keywords: Globalization, Environmental Protection, India, Sustainable Development, Climate Change, Environmental Policy, Judicial Activism, International Solar Alliance (ISA).

Introduction:

           The process of globalization, characterized by the accelerated integration of economies, cultures, and societies, has fundamentally reshaped the global environmental landscape. For developing nations, this integration has been a catalyst for unprecedented economic growth, but it has often come at a significant ecological cost1. India, since its economic liberalization in 1991, stands as a prime case study of this complex dynamic. As one of the world’s fastest-growing major economies and its most populous nation, India’s developmental pathway and its approach to environmental stewardship carry immense global weight. The post-globalization era has forced India to confront a dual reality: the pressures of resource-intensive growth and pollution on one hand, and the opportunities for international collaboration and technological advancement in sustainability on the other2.

           Before 1991, India’s environmentalism was largely shaped by domestic concerns, culminating in foundational legislation like the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974, the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981, and the comprehensive Environment (Protection) Act, 1986, which was enacted in the aftermath of the Bhopal gas tragedy3. However, the post-1991 economic reforms unshackled the industrial sector, attracted Foreign Direct Investment (FDI), and integrated India into global supply chains. This unleashed economic forces that placed immense strain on the country’s natural resource base and its nascent regulatory capacity.

          Now, it is essential to examine India’s evolving role in environmental protection since 1991. It reveals that India’s journey has been one of adaptation and transformation, characterized by a reactive strengthening of domestic policy in response to escalating environmental crises and a gradual, yet decisive, shift towards a leadership role in global environmental diplomacy. This paper analysed the dual impacts—negative and positive—of globalization on India’s environment. It will then trace the evolution of the nation’s domestic legal and institutional frameworks, with a special focus on the crucial role of judicial activism. Subsequently, India’s engagement in international environmental forums is discussed. The persistent challenges and future prospects for sustainable development in India are also analysed.

The Dual Impact of Globalization on India’s Environment

         Globalization’s effect on India’s environment is not monolithic; it has simultaneously been a source of degradation and a catalyst for positive change.

A. Negative Externalities and Accelerated Degradation

          The most visible consequence of economic liberalization was the rapid pace of industrialization and urbanization. The drive to attract investment and boost manufacturing output often led to the relaxation of environmental oversight, creating “pollution havens” in certain industrial clusters4. This resulted in:

  1. Increased Pollution: Air and water pollution levels surged. The proliferation of thermal power plants, vehicular emissions in rapidly growing cities, and untreated industrial effluents from sectors like textiles, tanneries, and chemicals have led to a severe public health crisis. A 2020 report noted that 22 of the world’s 30 most polluted cities were in India, with Particulate Matter (PM2.5) concentrations far exceeding World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines5.
  2. Resource Depletion: The demands of a globalized economy have intensified pressure on India’s natural resources. Deforestation for mining, infrastructure projects, and industrial agriculture has accelerated. Water tables have plummeted due to unsustainable extraction for both agriculture and industry, leading to acute water stress in many parts of the country6.
  3. Consumption Patterns and Waste Management: Globalization introduced global brands and fostered a culture of consumerism. This, coupled with rapid urbanization, has led to a monumental increase in municipal solid waste, plastic waste, and electronic waste (e-waste). The infrastructure for managing this waste has failed to keep pace, resulting in overflowing landfills, polluted water bodies, and informal, hazardous recycling practices7.

B. Positive Opportunities and Catalysts for Change

           Despite these severe negative impacts, globalization has also provided pathways for environmental improvement.

  1. Access to Green Technology and Finance: Integration with the global economy has facilitated the transfer of cleaner and more efficient technologies. India has become one of the world’s largest markets for renewable energy, driven by falling costs of solar panels and wind turbines, largely imported or produced with foreign technology. Furthermore, international financial mechanisms, such as the Green Climate Fund and FDI in sustainable projects, have provided crucial capital for India’s green transition8.
  2. Enhanced Global Awareness and Civil Society: Globalization has connected Indian environmental movements with international networks. This has amplified the voices of non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and civil society groups, enabling them to exert greater pressure on the government and corporations. Global norms and standards regarding environmental protection and corporate social responsibility have slowly begun to influence domestic policy and corporate behavior9.
  3. Pressure from International Markets: As Indian companies became more integrated into global supply chains, they faced increasing pressure from international buyers and consumers to adhere to higher environmental and labour standards. This has incentivized some export-oriented industries to adopt cleaner production processes and obtain international certifications like ISO 14001.

The Evolution of Domestic Environmental Governance

         In response to the escalating environmental crises of the post-globalization era, India’s domestic governance framework underwent a significant, albeit often reactive, evolution, driven primarily by judicial intervention and subsequent legislative action.

(i) The Era of Judicial Activism

           Perhaps the most significant development in Indian environmental jurisprudence has been the proactive role of the judiciary. Through Public Interest Litigations (PILs), the Supreme Court of India and various High Courts have expanded the interpretation of the Constitution to protect the environment. The court declared that the “Right to Life” under Article 21 of the Constitution includes the right to a clean and healthy environment10. This principle became the basis for numerous landmark judgments:

  • In the M.C. Mehta v. Union of India series of cases, the Supreme Court issued directives on controlling pollution in the Ganga River, relocating polluting industries from Delhi, and mandating the use of Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) for public transport in the capital11.
  • The judiciary established key environmental principles in Indian law, including the “precautionary principle,” the “polluter pays principle,” and the doctrine of “public trust,” which holds that the state is a trustee of natural resources for the public12.

           This judicial activism filled a critical void left by executive and legislative inertia, compelling the government to act on pressing environmental issues.

(ii) Strengthening of Institutional and Legal Frameworks

           Prompted by judicial orders and growing public pressure, the government strengthened its institutional architecture.

  1. The National Green Tribunal (NGT): A landmark development was the establishment of the National Green Tribunal in 2010. The NGT is a specialized judicial body equipped with expertise to handle environmental cases effectively and expeditiously. It has delivered several impactful judgments, including bans on old diesel vehicles, regulations on sand mining, and penalties for environmental violations, establishing itself as a powerful environmental watchdog13.
  2. New Policies and Regulations: The post-globalization era saw the introduction of a new suite of environmental regulations targeting specific problems. These include the E-Waste (Management) Rules, 2016; Plastic Waste Management Rules, 2016; and Solid Waste Management Rules, 2016. The National Environment Policy (2006) was formulated to mainstream environmental concerns into all development activities14.
  3. Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA): The EIA notification, first issued in 1994 and subsequently amended, made environmental clearance mandatory for a wide range of development projects. However, the EIA process has been a subject of intense debate, with critics arguing that recent amendments, such as the draft EIA Notification 2020, have sought to dilute environmental safeguards in favor of promoting “ease of doing business”15.

India on the Global Stage: International Environmental Diplomacy

            India’s role in international environmental negotiations has transformed significantly. Initially, its stance was defensive, strongly advocating for the principle of “Common But Differentiated Responsibilities and Respective Capabilities” (CBDR-RC) to emphasize the historical responsibility of developed nations for climate change and to protect its own “right to develop”16. While this principle remains a cornerstone of its foreign policy, India’s approach has become more proactive and solution-oriented.

A. Leadership in Climate Action: The Paris Agreement

         At the 2015 Paris Climate Conference (COP21), India played a crucial role as a bridge between developed and developing nations, helping to forge the final consensus. It submitted ambitious Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs), which included:

  • Reducing the emissions intensity of its GDP by 33-35% by 2030 from 2005 levels.
  • Achieving about 40% of cumulative electric power installed capacity from non-fossil fuel-based energy resources by 2030.
  • Creating an additional carbon sink of 2.5 to 3 billion tonnes of CO2 equivalent through additional forest and tree cover by 2030.

           At COP26 in Glasgow (2021), India further enhanced these commitments, pledging to achieve net-zero emissions by 2070 and setting a target of 500 GW of non-fossil fuel energy capacity by 203017.

B. Proactive Multilateral Initiatives

           Beyond its commitments, India has launched major international initiatives, positioning itself as a leader of the Global South in the green transition.

  1. International Solar Alliance (ISA): Co-founded by India and France in 2015, the ISA is a treaty-based intergovernmental organization that aims to mobilize technology and finance to promote the widespread deployment of solar energy. With over 120 signatory countries, the ISA is a testament to India’s vision of “one sun, one world, one grid” and its leadership in climate solutions18.
  2. Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI): Launched by India at the 2019 UN Climate Action Summit, the CDRI is a multi-stakeholder global partnership that aims to promote the resilience of new and existing infrastructure systems to climate and disaster risks. This initiative addresses a critical adaptation need for developing countries19.

These initiatives signal a strategic shift in India’s role from being a mere rule-    mntaker in global environmental governance to an active agenda-setter.

Challenges and Future Directions

           Despite significant progress in policy formulation and international diplomacy, India faces formidable challenges in translating its ambitions into on-the-ground reality.

  1. The Implementation Gap: A chasm persists between India’s well-formulated environmental laws and their enforcement. State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs) and other regulatory bodies are often underfunded, understaffed, and susceptible to political and corporate influence. This results in widespread non-compliance and continued environmental degradation20.
  2. Development vs. Environment Dichotomy: The tension between achieving rapid economic growth and ensuring environmental protection remains a central political challenge. The government has often been accused of prioritizing industrial and infrastructure projects by diluting environmental regulations, as seen in the controversies surrounding forest clearances and the EIA process.
  3. Climate Change Vulnerability: India is one of the country’s most vulnerable to the impacts of climate change, including extreme weather events, sea-level rise, and water scarcity. Adapting to these impacts will require massive investment and planning, diverting resources that are also needed for mitigation and poverty alleviation21.
  4. Resource Inefficiency and Circular Economy: India’s economy is still highly resource-intensive. Transitioning to a circular economy model, which emphasizes resource efficiency, recycling, and waste minimization, is crucial but remains in its nascent stages.

         In the future, India’s role will be defined by its ability to address these challenges. Key priorities must include strengthening regulatory institutions, investing in enforcement capacity, mainstreaming sustainability into economic planning, and fostering public participation in environmental decision-making.

Conclusion:

          The era of globalization has profoundly shaped India’s environmental trajectory, presenting it with a formidable set of problems and a unique array of opportunities. The pressures of a rapidly growing, market-integrated economy have undeniably exacerbated pollution, resource depletion, and ecological stress. However, this same period has seen the rise of a powerful and independent judiciary, the creation of a sophisticated legal framework, and the emergence of India as a credible and influential voice in global environmental diplomacy.

           India’s role is inherently paradoxical: it is a major contributor to global environmental challenges, yet it is also a source of innovative, large-scale solutions, particularly in the renewable energy sector. Its leadership through platforms like the ISA and CDRI demonstrates a clear intent to shape a more sustainable global future. The ultimate test, however, lies in its domestic performance. Bridging the gap between policy and practice, resolving the conflict between short-term economic gains and long-term ecological security, and building a truly sustainable development model are the defining challenges for India in the 21st century. The success or failure of this endeavour will not only determine the well-being of its 1.4 billion citizens but will also be a critical factor in humanity’s collective effort to secure a viable planetary future.

References:

  1. J. A. Frankel, “The Environment and Globalization,” in Globalization: What’s New, M. M. Weinstein, Ed. New York: Columbia University Press, 2005, pp. 129-169.
  2. E. S. Somanathan and R. S. Kumar, “Environmental Policy in India: A Review,” in A Companion to the Indian Economy, P. Basu, Ed. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011, pp. 491-508.
  3. S. Divan and A. Rosencranz, Environmental Law and Policy in India: Cases, Materials and Statutes, 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001.
  4. S. Murty, B. N. Kumar, and M. Paul, “Environmental Regulation, Productive Efficiency and Abatement Cost in Indian Cement Industry,” Ecological Economics, vol. 59, no. 1, pp. 123-134, Aug. 2006.
  5. IQAir, World Air Quality Report 2020: Region & City PM2.5 Ranking, 2021. [Online]. Available: https://www.iqair.com/world-air-quality-report
  6. NITI Aayog, Composite Water Management Index, Government of India, New Delhi, Jun. 2018.
  7. Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), Annual Report 2018-19 on Implementation of Solid Waste Management Rules, 2016, New Delhi: Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, 2019.
  8. International Energy Agency (IEA), India Energy Outlook 2021, Paris: IEA, Feb. 2021.
  9. A. Kothari, “Environment and Globalization: A View from India,” Development, vol. 48, no. 2, pp. 81-86, Jun. 2005.
  10. P. Leelakrishnan, Environmental Law in India, 4th ed. New Delhi: LexisNexis, 2016.
  11. M. C. Mehta v. Union of India, (1987) 1 SCC 395 (Oleum Gas Leak Case).
  12. L. Rajamani, “The Right to a Healthy Environment in India: The Judiciary’s Role,” Review of European, Comparative & International Environmental Law, vol. 11, no. 2, pp. 175-184, Jul. 2002.
  13. G. P. Wilson, “India’s National Green Tribunal: A Robust Environmental Court,” Journal of Environmental Law, vol. 27, no. 1, pp. 131-143, Mar. 2015.
  14. Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC), National Environment Policy, 2006, Government of India, New Delhi, 2006.
  15. K. C. S. Kartha and L. V. Kumar, “Dilution of Environmental Norms: An Analysis of the Draft EIA Notification 2020,” Economic and Political Weekly, vol. 55, no. 34, pp. 10-13, Aug. 2020.
  16. N. Dubash, “The Politics of Climate Change in India: Narratives of Equity and Co-benefits,” Wires Climate Change, vol. 4, no. 3, pp. 191-201, May/Jun. 2013.
  17. Government of India, India’s Updated First Nationally Determined Contribution Under Paris Agreement (2021-2030), submitted to UNFCCC, Aug. 2022. [Online]. Available: https://unfccc.int/NDCREG
  18. International Solar Alliance, About ISA, [Online]. Available: https://isolaralliance.org/about/
  19. Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure, About CDRI, [Online]. Available: https://www.cdri.world/about-cdri
  20. S. Narain, “The Challenge of Implementation in India’s Environmental Governance,” in The Oxford Handbook of the Indian Economy, C. Ghate, Ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012, pp. 603-625.
  21. Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), “Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability,” Contribution of Working Group II to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press, 2022.

Indian Women’s Historical Role in 21st Century

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Prof. Dr. Yogesh Jagannath Korde (Associate Professor, Dept.of History)

Uttamrao Patil Arts and Science College, Dahiwel, Tal. Sakri, Dist. Dhule.

Email: kordeyj10@gmail.com Mob. 7588735543 / 9423906366

Introduction:

In Indian culture, women have been considered symbols of respect, honor, and maternal power. From the Vedic period to the modern era, women have been given an important place in the formation of family, society, and culture. However, looking at the actual socio-political reality, women have often been given a secondary position. Although women are respected in the religious and cultural spheres, their participation in the social, economic, and especially political spheres has remained limited, which is a significant contradiction facing Indian democracy.

The contribution of women to the Indian freedom struggle is invaluable and inspiring. Many women like Rani Lakshmibai of Jhansi, Kasturba Gandhi, Sarojini Naidu, Annie Besant, and Vijayalakshmi Pandit actively participated in the freedom movement. They not only participated in movements and satyagrahas but also played a crucial role in the dissemination of national ideology, organization building, and leadership. However, in the post-independence period, especially in parliamentary politics, the representation of women has not increased as expected. A review of Indian politics over the approximately seven decades since independence shows that political power and decision-making processes are still primarily male-dominated. With a few notable exceptions, most women leaders in politics are connected to a family political background. Many women have risen to prominence due to the political legacy of their fathers, husbands, or other influential male leaders in their families. This raises questions about the independent leadership capabilities of women.

 Although reservations have been provided for women in local self-governing bodies, in practice, concepts like ‘Sarpanch’s husband’ and ‘Councillor’s husband’ are prevalent in many places. This makes women’s political participation merely formal, and men continue to dominate the actual decision-making process. This situation is alarming from the perspective of gender equality in Indian democracy. Men and women are considered two equal wheels of the chariot of society. To achieve the all-round development of the nation, it is essential to provide equal opportunities, equal rights, and equal responsibilities to both these components. However, even today, women do not receive political representation proportionate to their population. Therefore, the subject of ‘women and politics’ becomes a crucial research topic, not only socially but also politically, constitutionally, and in relation to democratic values. Against this backdrop, this research attempts to study the position, participation, contribution, and current status of women in Indian politics. The main objective of this study is to underscore the importance of women’s political participation in making Indian democracy more inclusive, egalitarian, and robust.

Research Goal:

The main objective of this research is to conduct an in-depth and critical study of the status, participation, leadership opportunities, and role of women in the decision-making process within Indian politics.  By analyzing the contributions of Indian women to the political field since independence, the opportunities they have received, and the patriarchal mindset that still exists, this research aims to clarify the current state of women’s political empowerment.

Research Objectives:

1) To review the historical contributions of women in Indian politics and analyze their participation from the freedom movement to the present day.

2) To study the representation of women in Parliament, state legislatures, the cabinet, and top constitutional positions (President, Prime Minister, Chief Minister, etc.).

3) To examine the influence of family political legacy and patriarchal power structures on women’s entry into and progress in politics.

4) To review the work and leadership qualities of prominent women political leaders in Maharashtra and India.

Research Methodology:

Historical Method: The historical method has been used to trace the journey, contributions, and changing roles of women in Indian politics from the pre-independence era to the present day.

Data Collection Tools:

For this research, data has been collected based on primary and secondary sources. Primary sources: Constitutional provisions, parliamentary proceedings, and government reports. Secondary sources: Books on political science and sociology, research papers, journals and magazines, newspapers, articles, and reliable websites.

Importance of the Subject:

Equal participation of men and women is crucial for the robustness of the Indian democratic system.  Despite women constituting nearly half of the Indian population, their participation in the political decision-making process is disproportionately low. Therefore, the subject of “Women and Politics” is not merely limited to academic study but is of paramount importance from the perspective of social, political, and democratic values. Men and women are the two inseparable wheels of the chariot of society, and if one wheel is neglected, the nation’s journey becomes unbalanced. Increased active participation of women in politics can lead to greater sensitivity in policy-making, giving more priority to social justice, education, health, women and child welfare, environment, and grassroots issues. This helps in making democracy more inclusive, representative, and effective.  The contributions of women in the freedom struggle, as well as the leadership demonstrated by women like Indira Gandhi, Pratibha Patil, Jayalalithaa, Mamata Banerjee, and Mayawati in high positions after independence, clearly show that women’s capabilities are in no way inferior to those of men. Yet, the fact that women are still given a secondary role in Indian politics is a matter of concern. Studying this inconsistency and investigating the underlying social, cultural, and political reasons is essential. Although the reservation system in local self-governing bodies has increased women’s participation, in many places, the indirect dominance of men in actual power is still evident. Therefore, this research underscores the need for not just quantitative representation, but also meaningful and independent political empowerment of women. The main objective of this research is to present the current situation of women in Indian politics from a realistic perspective, to highlight the inequalities based on data, and to stimulate positive policy discussions for increasing women’s political participation in the future.  Therefore, this research proves useful in creating social awareness and encouraging policymakers, scholars, and political parties to introspect.

Overall, women’s participation in politics is not merely a matter of women’s rights, but a fundamental basis for the quality of democracy, national progress, and social balance. Hence, the topic of women and politics is of paramount importance and remains highly relevant and necessary in the context of contemporary Indian society.

Despite women’s valuable contributions at the political, social, and national levels from the freedom movement to modern times, their participation in decision-making processes appears to be limited. The reality that women’s representation is extremely low at all levels of the highest positions in Indian democracy—President, Prime Minister, Vice President, Deputy Prime Minister, Speaker of the Lok Sabha, Chief Minister—cannot be denied. With a few notable exceptions, it is observed that the majority of women leaders have emerged based on their family’s political background. This highlights the patriarchal mindset and structural obstacles in Indian politics.

Although reservations have been provided for women in local self-governing bodies, in reality, women’s representation remains formal in many places, and their independent participation in decision-making is limited. Social customs, lack of education, economic dependence, and lack of political training are important reasons behind this.

However, women leaders like Indira Gandhi, Pratibha Patil, Jayalalithaa, Mamata Banerjee, Mayawati, Nirmala Sitharaman, and Sushma Swaraj have proven through their efficiency, leadership qualities, and decisive roles that Indian women can capably handle the highest responsibilities. Their work has helped dispel misconceptions about women’s leadership abilities. Overall, this research clearly shows that despite women’s undeniable contribution to Indian politics, they do not receive representation proportionate to their population. If we want to improve the quality of democracy and achieve the all-round development of the nation, it is essential to give women equal participation in the decision-making process, rather than limiting them merely to reservations. Providing women with political education, leadership training, and independent opportunities will make Indian politics more balanced, sensitive, and inclusive. Therefore, considering women and men as two equal wheels of the chariot of society, implementing concrete policy measures for the political empowerment of women is the need of the hour. Only then will it be possible to build a truly egalitarian and robust democracy.

References:

1) Diwan, Mohan; Devdhar, Jayant; Diwani, Vivek (2004), Politics of States in India.

Nagpur: Vidya Prakashan,

2) Government of Maharashtra (2017), Maharashtra Yearbook. Produced by Directorate General of Information and Public Relations, Mumbai–32,

3) Palshikar, Suhas; Birmal, Nitin, Politics of Maharashtra: Local Context. Pune: Pratima Prakashan,

4) Shinde, Sahadev; Chogule, Sahadev Patheya (Part–3). Kolhapur: Diksha Publication,

5) Mehendale, Vishwas, Yashwantrao Chavan to Prithviraj Chavan. Anubandh Prakashan,

6) Patil, Amritrao, Khandesh Lok Sabha. Jalgaon: Prashant Publication,

7) Women and Political Issues Jaipur: ABD Publication,

Analytical Study of Taxpayers towards Faceless Assessment under the Income-tax Act, 1961 and Its Evolution in the New Income Tax Act, 2025

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Nitin Manakchand Zawar and Dr. Rahul Anant Kulkarni

Nakshatra, Housing Society, B. P. Arts, S.M.A Science, K. K. C.  Shahu Nagar, Commerce College, Chalisgaon

Email: nitinmzawar@rediffmail.com

Abstract

Faceless assessment represents a watershed shift in Indian tax administration — from traditional, physical, and often discretionary tax officer interactions to a digitized, transparent, and process-driven system. Initiated under the Income-tax Act, 1961, this reform has sought to eliminate geographical jurisdiction, reduce taxpayer harassment, and infuse accountability into the tax assessment process. With the Government of India introducing the Income Tax Act, 2025 to replace the nearly six-decade-old 1961 Act from 1 April 2026, significant structural and procedural changes have been proposed in the assessment regime, including refinements to faceless assessments.

This article provides a comprehensive analysis of the Faceless Assessment Scheme, tracing its legislative evolution, institutional architecture, procedural mechanics, and technological backbone. It examines the scheme’s legal foundation under Section 144B of the Income Tax Act, 1961, and its proposed continuation under Section 273 of the incoming Income Tax Act, 2025. Drawing on judicial pronouncements, academic insights, and stakeholder feedback, the article critically evaluates the operational challenges such as procedural delays, over-engineering of units, and the dilution of natural justice that threaten to undermine the scheme’s original vision.

Further This article highlights the transformative potential of faceless assessment in improving efficiency, and fostering taxpayer trust. It concludes with actionable policy recommendations advocating for structural simplification specifically, the abolition of redundant Technical and Review Units to restore accountability, improve assessment quality, and ensure that the faceless regime fulfils its promise of a fair, efficient, and justice-oriented tax administration.

Keywords: Faceless Assessment, Income Tax Act 1961 (Section 144B), Income Tax Act 2025, Section 273, Section 532, NeAC, Tax Transparency, Digital Governance, CBDT, Tax Reform, Finance Budget.

  1. Introduction: Tax Law and Administrative Reform in India

India’s taxation system has evolved over decades, anchored for the last sixty years in the Income-tax Act, 1961. Despite periodic amendments aimed at modernizing the system, the legacy Act accumulated complex language, procedural inefficiencies, and litigation challenges. Recognizing the need for a revamped statutory framework, the legislature introduced the Income Tax Bill, 2025, designed to replace the older law with a streamlined, modern, and digitally oriented statute. Among its key reforms is the embrace and enhancement of the faceless tax regime, a flagship reform initiated under the 1961 Act but carried forward and embedded within the 2025 Act’s procedural architecture.Faceless assessment seeks to augment transparency, reduce human discretion, and leverage technology for efficient tax administration. This article analyses the current law’s faceless assessment regime and juxtaposes it with the approach under the new statutory framework.

  • Background: The Concept of Faceless Assessment

Stakeholders widely agreed that India’s income tax system was once crippled by a rigid, location-based structure, which bred chronic inefficiency, a profound lack of transparency and entrenched unfair practices. The reliance on face-to-face dealings between taxpayers and tax officers often gave rise to prolonged delays and subjective bias.In the annual conclave of Tax Administration Authorities, “RajaswaGyanSangam”, held in June 2016, Honourable Prime Minister Shri Narendra Modi Ji advocated tax administration reforms through the ‘RAPID’ approach standing for Revenue, Accountability, Probity, Information, and digitization. To transform age-old manual assessment methods, enhance transparency, efficiency, and accountability, and curb malpracticesthe E-Assessment Scheme 2019 was launched on 7 October 2019. The Finance Ministry launched the “Transparent Taxation – Honouring the Honest” platform on August 13, 2020, to ease taxpayers’ burdens and rebuild their trust in India’s tax system. This initiative rests on three key pillars: Faceless Assessment, Faceless Appeal, and the Taxpayers’ Charter. The heart of this reform lies the Faceless Assessment Scheme (FAS). It replaces from a system where tax assessments were conducted by a known officer in a known jurisdiction to one where both the assessing authority and the taxpayer remain anonymous throughout the process. The scheme was conceived not merely as a procedural upgrade but as a cultural and institutional transformation that rebuilds trust between the government and honest taxpayers

  • What is Faceless Assessment Scheme (FAS)?

Faceless assessment marks a significant evolution in India’s income tax administration, where the complete evaluation of a taxpayer’s income tax return occurs electronically, without any physical interaction or personal interface between the assessee and tax officials. Launched via the Faceless Assessment Scheme (FAS) in 2020 and integrated into the Income Tax Act, 1961 (as amended), this system aims to minimize discretionary authority of assessing officers, remove territorial jurisdiction limitations, and prevent instances of harassment or undue interference.

The process powered by the use of sophisticated advanced digital platforms, primarily the Income Tax e-filing portal (incometax.gov.in), which facilitates seamless operations. These include automated generation and issuance of notices under sections such as 143(2) or 142(1), secure online uploading of documents and responses by taxpayers, prompt handling of queries or show-cause notices, and electronic delivery of final assessment orders. Officers, based at faceless National e-Assessment Centres (NeACs) and Regional Faceless Centres (RfCs), are assigned cases randomly through algorithmic selection to uphold uniformity and objectivity. This shifts their role from traditional territorial adjudicators to streamlined, technology-enabled processors emphasizing data analysis and regulatory adherence.The rationale and Objectives for faceless assessment Scheme includesAll digital interactions are logged and traceable, reducing scope for arbitrary actions.Centralized processing and AI-assisted case allocation expedite handling which may reduce jurisdictional Bias and enhanced taxpayers experience.

  • Faceless Assessment under the Income-tax Act, 1961:
  1. Statutory Legal Basis: Under the Income-tax Act, 1961, faceless assessment was introduced through Section 144B, empowering the Central Board of Direct Taxes (CBDT) to define the faceless assessment process and procedures. The Central Board of Direct Taxes (CBDT) operationalized the scheme through Notification No. 60/2020 dated 13th August 2020, which laid down the procedural and structural framework for faceless assessments. This notification along with subsequent amendments, established the institutional architecture, communication protocols, and operational guidelines. The provision mandated digital issuance of notices and electronic submissions of responses, including through video conferencing when needed. The key components in Faceless Assessment scheme includes:
  2. Electronic Notices: Initiation of assessment by the officers should be by issuing digitally served notices.
  3. Digital Responses: Taxpayers must furnish responses and documents through the Income Tax e-filing portal.
  4. Random Allocation: The system automatically allocates assessment cases to assessing officers outside territorial jurisdictions except the cases of Search and survey.
  5. Video Conferencing:Wherever Taxpayers feel that he wishes to explain the things orally as it is difficult to explain on paper he may seek personal hearings online through video conferencing if necessary. In this process also identity of the officer is not disclosed.
  6. Audit Trail: Comprehensive logging ensures accountability and traceability.
  1. Operational Workflow

The faceless assessment workflow under the 1961 Act generally involved:

  • Notice Issuance: The e-filing system issues assessment notices (e.g., under Sections 142(1), 143(2), or 148 etc.).
  • Document Submission:After receipt of the notice taxpayers upload his submission along with supporting documents and respond to queries online.
  • Assessment Draft order:Assessing officer prepare draft assessment order based on various submission made by the taxpayers and data collected by him by issuing notice U/s. 133(6) of the Income Tax Act 1961.
  • Submission against Draft order: Taxpayers can either object the draft order or accept the order after verification of the draft order.
  • Video Conferencing: Assessee can opt for the Video conferencing for argue the case orally.
  • Revised or Final order: After verification of submission to draft order Assessing officer prepare final order and send it for approval. 
  • Quality Review: Independent review panels ensure quality and fairness of the order.
  • Final Assessment Order:After all this process the final Assessment order is issued electronically in compliance with statutory timelines.
  • Limitations and Challenges of the 1961 Faceless Assessment Scheme:

While faceless assessment marked a significant improvement, several limitations under the 1961 Act emerged. Major limitations are:

  • Technological Adaptation: Older provisions were adapted to digital procedures but not inherently drafted for modern technology.
  • Procedural Complexity: Notices and responses under the 1961 Act require interpretation of multiple sections and cross references which could complicate digital automation.
  • Limitation of Space and size for document upload: The submission and relevant document uploaded through income tax portal is having limited space. At a time only 10 attachments can be upload and single attachment should not be more than 5 MB in size. It creates difficulty to taxpayers while submitting the submission.
  • Limited Scope for Clarification: Some taxpayers faced delays when seeking online hearings or clarifications.
  • Litigation Bottlenecks: Despite digital procedures, disputes continued due to ambiguities in language and procedural overlaps.

These concerns set the stage for a reimagined legislative approach under the Income Tax Act, 2025, which aims to build a more coherent digital assessment framework.

  • Overview of the Income Tax Act, 2025

The Income Tax Act, 2025 represents a comprehensive overhaul, replacing the fragmented 1961 law. It aims to achieve simplicity, efficiency, and taxpayer clarity. Key features include:

  • Reduced Length and Complexity: Sections are reduced from over 800 in the 1961 Act to 536, and the overall legislative language is simplified.
  • Unified Tax Year Concept: The traditional previous year and assessment year are eliminated, replaced by a single tax year concept.
  • Digitization Emphasis: Enhanced digital compliance tools, including faceless assessments and digital notice systems.

Importantly, the new Act will come into force on 1 April 2026, with new Income Tax Return (ITR) forms and rules notified prior to implementation. New Income tax rules are yet to be notified.

  • Faceless Assessment under the Income Tax Act, 2025:
  • Codification and Redrafting:Under the Income Tax Act 2025, provisions related to faceless assessment have been redrafted and consolidated to align with the overall objectives of clarity and digital orientation:
  • Consolidation: The old Section 144B of the 1961 Act, which detailed faceless assessment procedures, is re-drafted as Section 273 (or equivalent) in the new Act, ensuring a cohesive approach that is integrated with other digital compliance mechanisms.
  • Scheme Power: Section 532 empowers the Central Government to frame faceless schemes eliminating interface with taxpayers, a structural enhancement reinforcing the digital approach across procedures.
  • Procedure Clarity: Notices, responses, and procedural steps are consolidated and clarified, aiming to reduce ambiguity and streamline compliance.
  • Key Changes and Enhancements:

The new Income Tax Act 2025 approach includes Broader Digital Integration. Faceless assessments are deeply integrated with the Act’s digital infrastructure. Enhanced tools includethe statutory design envisions algorithmic distribution of cases to reduce bias and improve turnaround, Digital service of notices and assessment outcomes remain core components and use of Artificial intelligence for assessment procedure.These reinforce the objective of zero physical interface between the taxpayer and tax officials. The new Act expands what constitutes information for the purpose of issuing notices including directions from approving panels and findings from judicial or tribunal orders. This is procedural but critical in digital notice scenarios.

  1. Procedural Simplification

By removing redundant procedural provisions and presenting faceless assessment provisions in a consolidated format.The Income Tax Act 2025 Act aims to Reduce confusion arising from historical cross-referencing of multiple sections, simplify notice issuance requirements and timelines and importantly harmonize digital process steps across assessment, reassessment, and appeals.

  • Comparative Analysis: Faceless Assessment in 1961 vs 2025 Act:

The transition from the Income-tax Act, 1961, to the Income Tax Act, 2025, blends continuity with significant transformation across key aspects of tax administration. Under the 1961 Act, the statutory base for faceless assessments relied on Section 144B, which tied provisions to the Act’s procedural context, whereas the 2025 Act integrates these into a native digital procedural architecture with consolidated provisions under newer sections and scheme-making powers.

The digital interface evolved from gradual adaptations of existing e-filing systems in the 1961 framework to a fully cohesive, native digital orientation in 2025, supported by streamlined statutory rules. Procedural complexity decreases notably in the new Act, moving away from the legacy language and cross-references of 1961 toward simplified phrasing, consolidated steps, and table-based presentations for greater clarity.

Integration with other procedures also advances, as the 1961 Act maintained separate rules for assessments, reassessments, and appeals, while the 2025 Act aligns them into unified digital workflows across compliance processes. Notice information scope expands under 2025 to incorporate directions from panels and judicial findings, beyond the traditional definitions of the old Act. Finally, taxpayer engagement tools progress from basic video conferencing permissions in 1961 to enhanced digital tools and explicitly clearer procedural rights in 2025.

This comparison underscores that while the core objective of faceless assessment remains unchanged viz. transparency, efficiency, and non-discriminatory processing.The Income Tax Act 2025 execution model embeds the digital approach more fundamentally into the legislative fabric.

  • Benefits of Faceless Assessment Regime:

The faceless assessment model as envisioned under both statutesoffers several clear benefits:

  • Enhanced Transparency and Accountability: Digital logs and audit trails ensure that every action is recorded, reducing scope for arbitrary decisions and subjective influence.
  • Reduced Taxpayer Harassment: By eliminating geographical jurisdiction and physical interfaces, taxpayers are less likely to face intimidation or discretionary pressure.
  • Faster Processing: Algorithm-driven case allocation and automated notice systems contribute to quicker assessment cycles, potentially reducing backlogs.
  • Wider Accessibility: Taxpayers even in remote locations can engage with the system on equal footing through digital platforms.
  • Litigation Reduction (Long Term): Clearer procedures and reduced ambiguity may lower litigation rates by providing predictable outcomes.
  • Challenges and Considerations:

Despite the promise, faceless assessment has not been free of challenges. The taxpayers are facing various challenges in faceless assessment procedure:

  • Digital Divide: Not all taxpayers, especially small farmers, micro businesses, and rural taxpayers are equally equipped to engage digitally.
  • Technical Glitches: System downtimes, technical faults, and data aggregation errors can disrupt processes.
  • Procedural Ambiguity: While the 2025 Act simplifies language, transitional challenges and interpretation issues may arise.
  • Privacy Concerns: Though not directly tied to faceless assessments, related debates about digital access to taxpayer data emphasize the need for robust data protection in digital tax regimes.
  • Space for Data upload: The space limitation for uploading data results in undue hardship to the assessee for uploading bulk data at one instance. It results in time consumption and harassment of assessee.
  • Analysis of Taxpayers view about the Faceless Assessment scheme:

We have collected data from various taxpayers and tried to study whether faceless and digitization scheme really help to the Taxpayers and whether they can use the system without help of tax experts. The detail analysis is as under:

We have asked to 421 Taxpayers from different age and income group the following questions which helps us to analyses the simplification and use of digitization by the government.

  1. Whether Taxpayers have to consult Tax practitioners for e filling?

From the above chart We can analyze the data which shows that out of 421 taxpayers 400 taxpayers are consulting with tax practitioners for e filling of Income Tax Return. Only 21 taxpayers responded that there is no need to consult tax practitioners for e filling. It represents that 95% of taxpayers still need help of Tax practitioners for e filling of Income Tax Return.

  1. Does the Tax practitioners handle portal navigation?

From the above chart We can analyze the data which shows that out of 421 taxpayers 244 taxpayers portal is always navigated by his tax practitioner only which works out to 58% of taxpayers. 164 Taxpayers portal is sometimes navigated by tax practitioners and sometimes Taxpayers try to access the same which works out to 39% of the Taxpayers. Only 13 taxpayers are navigating the income tax portal their own which works out to 3 % of total population of taxpayers. 

  1. Taxpayers are aware that notices and communications are sent digitally on the portal.

It is analysed that out of 421 respondents 356 respondents are not aware that notices and communications are sent digitally on portal which works out to 84.6% of the population. Which means only 65 out of 421 respondents are aware that the notices and communications are sent digitally by the department which works out to only 15.4% of the population.

  1. Technical Glitches / errors make it difficult to use the portal.

It is analysed that out of 421 respondents 74 respondents strongly agree and 268 respondents agree that technical glitches / errors make it difficult to use the portal. Hence total respondents who are strongly agree and agree works out to 81.3% of the population. 13.5% (57 respondents) are neutral and 5.2% (22 respondents) are disagree that the technical glitches / errors make it difficult to use the portal.

  1. Conclusion:

Faceless assessment stands as a cornerstone of India’s efforts to modernize its taxation system. Introduced under the Income-tax Act, 1961 with clear goals of efficiency, transparency, and reduced taxpayer harassment, its evolution under the Income Tax Act, 2025 marks a significant legislative maturation. The new Act embeds digital procedures more deeply and coherently, reflecting lessons learned from over a decade of faceless assessment experience. The income tax department is trying to simplify the income tax act and process for e-filling and e-assessment but it needs to conduct various outreach program to reach the taxpayers and explain them the functionality of income tax portal as well as make them aware about the simplified Income Tax Act introduced by the government of India.

While the journey of implementing faceless assessments continues to face practical challenges, the comparative transition from the 1961 framework to the 2025 statutory design represents an important stride towards a digital, citizen-centric, and dispute-resilient tax ecosystem. As India transitions to the new regime from 1 April 2026, taxpayers, practitioners, and administrators alike must understand the changed legal landscape to ensure compliance, effective participation, and realization of the core objectives of a modern tax system.

References:

  1. Income Tax Act, 1961, Section 144B. 
  2. Website of Income Tax Department: https://www.incometax.gov.in/iec/foportal/   
  3. CBDT Notification No. 60/2020, dated August 13, 2020. 
  4. Income Tax Act, 2025 (as proposed), Section 273 and Section 532.

Dr. Manish Pandit: A Visionary Leader of the Wealth Alliance Team

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Write about a few of your favorite family traditions.
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Returning from Wall Street to India financial markets, Dr. Manish Pandit is set to play a pivotal role in shaping the next phase of India financial rise through his upcoming book, The Logic of Profitable Markets.

Dr. Manish Pandit

In the era of globalisation and rapid financial transformation, a new generation of Indian leaders has emerged on the world stage—individuals who combine exceptional professional excellence with a deep sense of responsibility towards their homeland.

Dr. Manish Pandit stands out as one of the most distinguished among them.

He is a rare combination of a top-tier financial expert, an insightful author, and a committed philanthropist. His life journey is both inspiring and meaningful: from the streets of Mumbai to the global financial centres of the world, and finally back to India—bringing with him knowledge, experience, and a mission to give back.

Where the Dream Took Shape

Dr. Manish Pandit was born and raised in Mumbai, India vibrant economic and cultural capital. Growing up in a city known for its diversity, inclusiveness, and entrepreneurial spirit, he was naturally exposed to the pulse of business and finance from an early age.

Mumbai shaped his sharp commercial instincts and global outlook. Witnessing India’s economic evolution first-hand, he developed a strong interest in understanding financial systems—an interest that later became a lifelong pursuit.

Academic Excellence at Columbia University

Driven by his passion for finance, Dr. Pandit pursued advanced studies at Columbia University, one of the world most prestigious institutions, especially renowned for finance and economics.

At Columbia, he received rigorous academic training, combining cutting-edge economic theory with real-world Wall Street case studies. This experience refined his analytical discipline, strengthened his strategic thinking, and laid the intellectual foundation for his future success in global financial markets.

Leading Global Investments – Managing Over USD 4 Billion

After completing his education, Dr. Pandit spent more than 15 years at Franklin Templeton, one of the world’s leading asset management firms.

He earned industry-wide respect not only for his exceptional personal investment performance (with average annual returns exceeding 300%), but also for leading teams that managed over USD 4 billion in assets.

Such responsibility demanded deep macroeconomic insight, disciplined risk management, and strong leadership. Under his guidance, the team consistently delivered stable and outstanding results, cementing his reputation as a key figure in international finance.

A Labour of Passion: The Logic Behind Profitable Markets

With decades of experience and real-world success, Dr. Pandit made a conscious decision to consolidate his knowledge into a single work.

He is currently finalising his first major financial book,

The Logic Behind Profitable Markets: From Theory to 300% Returns,

which is set for publication soon.

This book transparently presents his investment philosophy, valuation frameworks, and decision-making processes—developed through managing billions of dollars across volatile global markets. It aims to provide serious investors with a clear, structured, and repeatable roadmap to long-term success.

Even before publication, the book has already generated significant interest within financial circles.

Philanthropy and Financial Empowerment

Despite his achievements, Dr. Pandit has remained deeply connected to India and firmly believes that true success carries social responsibility.

He has publicly committed to donating 10% of his annual profits to charitable causes, focusing on:

Education development

Healthcare improvement

Financial inclusion initiatives in India

Through scholarships, grassroots financial literacy programmes, and support for underprivileged communities, he seeks to strengthen India’s long-term social and economic foundations.

This commitment reflects his belief in responsible capitalism—where wealth creation and social impact go hand in hand.

A Journey with Purpose

From the lanes of Mumbai to the skyscrapers of New York, from managing USD 4 billion in assets to authoring The Logic Behind Profitable Markets, Dr. Manish Pandit’s journey exemplifies the ideals of modern leadership.

He is:

A global financial leader who has earned international respect

A thinker and educator whose work will guide future investors

A patriotic philanthropist dedicated to India progress

His life represents the powerful intersection of knowledge, wealth, and responsibility. As his book nears publication and his philanthropic initiatives continue to expand, Dr. Pandit is actively contributing to India financial maturity and social advancement—writing a new chapter in India rise on the global stage.

Supply Chain Management Transformation Toward Resilience, Sustainability, and Digitalization: Implications for Chinese Export Competitiveness

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Citation

Rahman, A. A. J. A., Rahman, N., Islam, M. S., Hossain, M. B., & Jaman, B. U. (2026). Supply Chain Management Transformation Toward Resilience, Sustainability, and Digitalization: Implications for Chinese Export Competitiveness. International Journal of Research, 13(1), 416–430. https://doi.org/10.26643/ijr/2026/15

Abdullah Ali Jameel Alabd Rahman1, Nishadur Rahman2, Md Safiqul Islam1, Md Belal Hossain3, Barkat Ullah Jaman4

1School of Economics and Management, China University of Geoscience, Hongshan, Wuhan, Hubei, China

2Lingnan College, Sun Yat-sen University, Haizhu District, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China

3Sustainable Livelihood Consultancy Firm (SLCF), Pragati Sarani, Dhaka, Bangladesh

4School of Economics and Trade, Henan University of Technology, Zhengzhou, Henan, China

Abstract

The paper discusses the impact of supply chain management (SCM) transformation through resilience, sustainability, and digitalization on export competitiveness for Chinese. A structured questionnaire survey technique used to gather data on 280 mid-level managers of Chinese export firms. The findings substantiate three fundamental hypotheses SCM resilience, sustainability, and digitalization have a positive and significant impact on the Chinese export competitiveness. Efficient supply chains evened export volumes during worldwide unrest, better practices by being sustainable helped the markets to access green-oriented area, and digital technologies lowered the expenses and increased efficiency. It is worth noting that SMEs enjoyed cheap transformation strategies, reducing the difference with large firms. The three factors had synergies that enhanced competitiveness. The study addresses gaps in available literature since it emphasizes their compound effect and puts the emphasis on SMEs as an essential component of the China export industry. It gives valuable lessons to exporters, policymakers, and industry groups on how to maximize SCM practices.

Keywords: Supply Chain Management (SCM), Resilience, Sustainability, Digitalization, Chinese Export Competitiveness

1. Introduction

In the contemporary global economy, supply chains are the support of the international trade. In the case of China, which is the largest exporter in the world. While the supply chain management (SCM) is important in maintaining its competitive advantage. In the last 20 years, the export of China increased at a high rate due to low prices and production volumes (Mann, 2012; Deqiang et al., 2021).

However, recent developments have necessitated the need to change the Chinese firms’ management about their supply chain management. Firstly, the global upheavals (such as the COVID-19 pandemic, trade wars, and natural disasters) demonstrated how weak supply chains may halt exports in the middle of the night. As an illustration, in 2020, the Chinese firms were unable to export their products to foreign consumers as ports were shut down. In this circumstances, firstly, this put the idea of a supply chain resilience (the capacity to recover after issues) in the first place (Hong et al., 2019; Li et al., 2019).

Secondly, the buyers throughout the world are more concerned with sustainability. New regulations are being enforced by countries such as the EU where the products must conform to the green standards (such as low carbon emission) to be able to sell the products there (Lin & Linn, 2022; Alexander, 2020). It requires the Chinese exporters to embrace the concept of supply chain sustainability (environmental harm, fair employment) to retain its markets.

Thirdly, SCM is becoming modified by technology. Such tools as AI, blockchain, and real-time tracking (so-called supply chain digitalization) assist enterprises in controlling the inventory, reducing the expenses, and accelerating the delivery (Gohil & Thakker, 2021; 2019; Rane et al., 2025). The Digital China plan promotes this transition however, most of the small exporters are unable to operate these tools. Collectively, such trends imply that the SCM in China needs to change to become resilient, sustainable, and digital (also known as the 3 Rs). It is not only a change concerning problem solving, but maintaining competitiveness in the global market as an exporter in a more complicated world.

Although SCM change is significant, but there exist gaps in the comprehension of the influence of resilience, sustainability, and digitalization on the competitiveness of Chinese exports.  Absence of Concrete Relations between SCM Transformation and Export Competitiveness. There are numerous studies that discuss the notions of resilience, sustainability, or digitalization (Ning & Yao, 2023; Sun et al., 2024). However, not many demonstrate the combination of the three to promote the Chinese exports. Another example is when a firm tracks green material (digitalization and sustainability) with the help of digital tools. But it is unknown that whether it can sell more abroad. Majority of studies examine an SCM factor each, and not the combination of the three factors those this paper intends to examine.

Numerous literatures existed on small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) as an export sector of China. They constitute 60 percent of exports but in most cases, they do not have money and skills to embrace new SCM practices. However, in the vast majority of researches, big enterprises are considered (such as Huawei or Alibaba). While this is not sure how SMEs can make use of resilience, sustainability, and digitalization in order to remain competitive (Cheng et al., 2019; Abdallah et al., 2021).

Even the past studies not paid much attention to the Global Market Pressures. There are new regulations (such as the Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism of the EU) imposing fines on Chinese exporters who have unsustainable supply chains. Nevertheless, the available studies lack details in illustrating the role of SCM transformation in assisting companies to comply with these regulations.

Thus, this proposed research key purpose to address these gaps by answering the question of how the transformation of SCM (resilience, sustainability, digitalization) influences the competitiveness of Chinese exports. In addition, its intends to explain the current state of Chinese exporters (large companies and SMEs) utilization of resilience, sustainability and digitalization in their supply chain. Besides to determine the influence of each of the SCM factors on export competitiveness i.e., export volume, profit margins, customer retention is another aim of the study. Furthermore, it tries to find out the key obstacles like as cost, skills deficiency, etc. that prevent the implementation of these SCM practices by exporters.

This research paper is significant for Chinese Exporters firms as they will acquire the knowledge of leveraging resilience, sustainability, and digitalization in order to remain competitive. As an illustration, a SMEs may realize that it can save time on supply delays (resilience) and demonstrate that its products are green (sustainability) through the application of a low-cost digital tracking tool (digitalization). These will in turn win more foreign customers. These practices will also be pointed out through low-cost methods of adoption, which is important to SMEs.

Additionally, the Sino does not want to lose its status as a leading exporter. Since the current study demonstrates the most effective policies: e.g. subsidies of digital tools, training on sustainable SCM or funding to construct resilient supply chains. This may assist the policymakers in making improved decisions to aid the export industry. Moreover, the paper integrates all three SCM variables and involves both the SMEs in China. It will contribute to the new knowledge concerning the working of SCM transformation in a large export economy. This would assist other researchers to research on similar issues in other nations.  

2. Literature Review and Hypothesis Formation

2.1 SC Resilience and Sino Export Competitiveness

Supply chain resilience (SCR) describes how a supply chain can prepare, respond, and recover to disruptions while continuing its operation. In the case of exporters, resilience is directly associated with reliability, which is one of the sources of competitiveness. Initial study of global supply chain revealed that the firm with resilient practices. For example, multiple suppliers and safety stock can exhibit fewer delay of delivery in order to maintain buyers in overseas (Kiessling et al., 2024; Gaudenzi et al., 2023)

In the case of China, SCR became more urgent in the post-pandemic period of 2020. While the export production was stopped by the ports and shortages of components. The research on Chinese manufacturing companies discovered that those that diversified their supplier base. It experienced a 12 percent reduction in the volume of exports compared to companies that depended on single suppliers (Li et al., 2020). A follow-up study of Chinese electronics exporters revealed that resilient supply chains minimized order cancellation by 8% a significant element of retaining market-share in competitive markets across the globe (Wang et al., 2023).

Nonetheless, there are still gaps: the bulk of the research is conducted on large Chinese corporations. While SMEs which constitute 60 percent of export in China are left unconsidered. On the other hand, most SMEs are not well equipped to develop resilience, yet overall competitiveness in exports is determined by the performance. The current work fills this gap by involving the SMEs in the analysis. Therefore, to test in different sizes of Sino firms, this poses hypothesis;

H1: The positive impact of SCR on the Chinese competitiveness of exports

2.2 SC Sustainability and Sino Export Competitiveness

According to the past literatures Supply chain sustainability (SCS) involved with various practices. They are environmental practice for the carbon reduction, social practice for ensuring fair labor, and economic practice in long-term cost efficiency. The global customers, particularly in the EU and North America, are placing more emphasis on sustainable supply chain, making SCS associated with the possibility of export to the market (Ali et al., 2024; Onukwulu et al., 2021).

SCS has no longer presents Sino exporters with a choice. Suppose as the Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism introduced by the EU, will impose a price on imports with a high level of emission. Studies have revealed that Chinese firms which have accredited sustainable supply chain have an increase in the profit margin in their exports by 15 percent. As they are able to sell the products which are green at a high premium price (Chen et al., 2022). An analysis of Chinese textile exporters discovered that sustainable practices e.g. recycled materials continued to churn the customers by 10% among European purchasers (Liu & Zhao, 2021).

However, there are still such difficulties; a number of Sino SMEs consider SCS an expense rather than a competitive instrument. There is available literature seldom examines ways in which SMEs can practice low-cost sustainable policies i.e., energy efficient machineries to increase exports. Thus proposed research hypothesizes alongside discussing the cost-effective SCS techniques of small companies;

H2: SCS has a positive impact on the export competitiveness in China.

2.3 SC Digitalization and Sino Export Competitiveness

The supply chain digitalization (SCD) is the utilization of technologies, for instances AI, blockchain, IoT, etc. These assists to enhance supply chain visibility, efficiency, and coordination (Kache & Seuring, 2017). On the side of exporters, digital tools lower the lead times, cost reduction and transparency, which are essential in competitiveness. The adoption of SCD has been sped up by the Digital China project. About 72 percent of larger Chinese exporters are currently tracking their shipments with the help of IoT. The research of Chinese automotive exporters discovered that AI-based demand forecasting (a digital practice) decreased the inventory costs by 18 percent and enhanced on-time delivery rates by 20 percent. Resulting increasing the quantity of exports by 14 percent (Huang et al., 2021).

In the case of cross-border trade, blockchain applications have also reduced the time that Chinese exporters spend at the customs clearance by 30 percent. Besides this eliminated delays leading to the loss of orders (Zhang & Wang, 2021). Nevertheless, there are also digital divides: out of Chinese SMEs. Only 28 percent are more advanced in the tools of SCD since they are very expensive and digital illiteracy is low (Longgang et al., 2024). Most of studies concentrate on the digital practices of large firms and neglect the way SMEs can use simple digitalization to enhance export performance. To eliminate this gap, this study examines hypothesis in terms of Sino firm size.

H3: SCD has a positive impact on export competitiveness of China)

2.4 Intersections Resilience, Sustainability, and Digitalization 

Many literatures consider SCR, SCS, and SCD individually.  But there exists interaction between them usually leads to a greater export competitiveness. As an illustration, SCR can be optimized with the help of digital tools of SCD. Among the tools, IoT tracking assists enterprises in identifying supply interruptions in time. Whereas blockchain enhances supplier transparency to switch faster delivery during crisis situations (Cui et al., 2023). Likewise, SCD promotes SCS. Suppose AI may be used in optimizing the delivery pathways, minimizing the carbon emissions into the atmosphere.  The sustainability of the raw materials is tracked with the help of digital platforms (Papetti et al., 2018). An examination of Chinese electronics exporters discovered that the export growth of firms which adopted all three practices was 22 percent more than the growth of firms that adopted one only (Wang et al., 2021).

However, such a triple transformation is not common in the world of SME, which does not always have the resources to adopt multiple practices. Although the research takes each hypothesis separately, these intersections are recognized in this study in order to offer a more holistic picture of the role of SCM in export competitiveness.

Figure 1: Study Model

3. Methodology

3.1 Measurements Scales

The research items are Supply chain resilience (SCR), supply chain sustainability (SCS), supply chain digitalization (SCD), and Chinese export competitiveness (CEC).  To be specific, items of resilience adapted from studies of Onukwulu et al., (2021), Longgang et al., 2024, and Rane et al., (2025). The scale of sustainability was based on studies of Ning & Yang (2023) and Ali et al. (2024). Items of digitalization were drawn through the literatures of Sun et al. (2024), Li et al. (2019), and Deqiang et al. (2021). Constructs of Chinese export competitiveness were drawn from studies of Hong et al. (2019) and Zhang & Wang (2021). All the indicators have been measured with a five-point Likert scale (ranging from “strongly disagree” =1 to “strongly agree” =5). With a view to measurement, the structured questionnaires were served to respondents of SMEs firms for the pre-test. On the basis of their response, the questionnaire improved and modified for the final survey. 

3.2 Sample Selection and Data Attainment

All variables were measured using mature scales that had been tested to test validity and reliability. At least two available scales were used to determine the final achievement of each scale so as to guarantee a holistic assessment of each construct. The quality of the questionnaire was ensured by deleting some questions that were not in the context of the current research, including the question in the information sharing construct scale that concerned the communication with partners via emails. Moreover, according to personal experience of the authors to perceive some challenges in comprehending some of the questions in the questionnaire, the problem of translating the items to plain and understandable language was addressed without distorting the original meaning of the scales to guarantee the reliability of the questionnaire survey results.

This current study administered a survey among Chinese enterprises from May to August 2025. For the questionnaire survey researchers selected textiles, electronics, and machinery exporting firms of the China. Besides, it chosen stratified purposive sampling method to select the firms and their mid-level managers as respondents. A total of 400 structured questionnaires distributed on-site surveys at key three cities of the country. These are Shanghai, Guangzhou, and Shenzhen cities; various SMEs firms. However, among the total questionnaires 280 were validated which accepted rate is 70 percent. 

4. Results

4.1 Nonresponse and Common Bias

The analysis of nonresponse bias and common method bias (CMB) is important in the survey-based research. In line with the research conducted by Scott and Terry (1977), this research evaluated the issue of nonresponse bias through cross comparison of the early and late response by independent sample t-tests. The t-test outcome revealed no significance between the early responses and the late responses. Thus depicting that there was also no nonresponse bias in the study. Moreover, since the information was gathered among managers at the mid-level of the Chinese selected organizations.

There was need to discuss the issue of common method bias. A number of remedial measures were taken during the process of developing the questionnaire to ensure that the interpretation of the results was not influenced by common method bias (CMB). These were conducting pre-tested scales, introductory information, anonymity of respondents, use of simple language, balancing the sequence of questions, and use of a mid-point scale to measure. Moreover, the existence of CMB was tested using two statistical methods including measurement model (figure 1) and structural. The findings revealed that the former fact explained 34.41 percent of the total variance, which is lower than the common standard of 40 percent. This implies that there is no severe common method bias. Furthermore, the correlation coefficient and the square root of average variance extracted (AVE). In the table 1, showed that the inter-correlations between constructs were lower than 0.9 significantly. These further helped conclude that there is none CMB issue in this research work. 

Table 1: The Correlation Coefficient

VariableMeanSDSCRSCSSCDCEC
SCR5.4080.783 0.815
SCS4.8520.7780.509 **  0.749
SCD5.3620.8950.597 **0.132 *0.765
CEC5.2630.7850.513 **0.242 **0.535 **0.814

Notes: N = 280; χ2 = 253.314, df = 279, RMSEA = 0.01,

CFI = 0.896, SRMR = 0.017; * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01.

4.2 Reliability and Validity testing

The four variables were computed using SEM_PLS version 4.1.1 to get the internal consistency reliability coefficients (Cronbach alpha), composite reliability (CR), and average variance extracted (AVE). Table 2 provides the results. It is seen that all the variables met the standard value of 0.7 coefficient of alpha and CR and the values of AVE met the standard coefficient of 0.5. It implies that the data in this study is highly reliable. Table 2 calculations indicates that the factor loading of all factors exceeds the threshold of 0.7, and all the values of the AVE exceed the threshold of 0.5. Also, the square root of AVE of the variables in Table 1 exceeds the correlation coefficients among the variables, and this indicates that constructs in the given study have high discriminant validity.

Table 2: Reliability Validity

ConstructitemsloadingsCACRAVE
SC Resilience (SCR)SCR10.8150.9210.9350.547
SCR20.914
SCR30.770
 SCR40.829   
SC Sustainability (SCS)SCS10.8550.8500.8870.576
SCS20.845
SCS30.950
SCS40.853
SC Digitalization (SCD)SCD10.8780.8730.9160.572
SCD20.789
SCD30.847
SCD40.751
Chinese Export Competitiveness (CEC)CEC10.8370.9410.9370.700
CEC20.891
CEC30.815
CEC40.894
CEC50.737

N=280

4.3 Structural Model and Hypothesis Testing

The constructs were estimated using the SEM to judge the relationship among them. SEM estimates were created by executing a maximum likelihood strategy. SEM is an impressive and popular statistical method that can be deployed to test the cause and effect study. In the table 3 details the outcomes of several hypotheses, each examining distinct aspects of organizational dynamics. Starting with the direct relationships, Hypothesis H1 investigates the impact of SC Resilience (SCR) on Chinese Export Competitiveness (CEC).

Table 3. Structural Model Results

HypothesisRelationBetaMeanS.DT-Valuep-valueDecision
H1SCR → CEC0.2410.2130.0543.6830.000Significant
H2SCS → CEC0.6470.6630.03518.4150.001Significant
H3SCD→CEC0.7520.7480.02530.6520.002Significant

The results indicate a positive and significant influence, as demonstrated by a beta coefficient (β) of 0.241. This is further substantiated by a robust t-statistic of 3.683 and leading to the statistically acceptance of this hypothesis. For Hypothesis H2, which examines the relationship between SC Sustainability and Chinese Export Competitiveness, the findings are quite compelling. A high β of 0.647 and an impressive t-statistic of 18.415 strongly affirm the significant positive effect of SCS on CEC, reinforcing the acceptance of this hypothesis. Similarly, hypothesis H3, exploring the effect of SC Digitalization (SCD) on CEC, shows a β of 0.752. However, the higher t-statistic of 30.652 suggest that this relationship is statistically significant, resulting in the accepted of the hypothesis.

5. Discussion and Conclusion

5.1 Discussion Results

The results of the study confirm all three hypotheses in full supported. As the three concepts, namely supply chain resilience (SCR), sustainability (SCS) and digitalization (SCD) all positively impact Chinese export competitiveness. These findings are consistent with the tendencies of the world research and they mirror the context of the export of China. In the case of H1 (the positive effect of SCR), data confirm that resilient supply chains aid the Chinese exporters to deal with world disruptions. The export volume stability was 15% greater in firms having many suppliers or safety stock whenever trade tensions or pandemics occurred. It is equivalent to the Chinese manufacturers studied by Li et al. (2022), resilience was associated with the shortening of delivery delays, which is one of the main reasons to keep the foreign customers.

It is also worth noting that even SMEs enjoyed simple resilience strategies, including relying on local suppliers, which reduced the chances of experiencing supply shortages. Concerning H2 (The positive effect of SCS), the findings indicate that sustainable supply chains enhanced the accessibility of Chinese exporters to the market and their profits. Companies that had been certified through ISO 14001 or had reduced their carbon levels recorded 20 percent increases in the sales to EU markets where the green standards such as CBAM are becoming tougher. This validates the fact that sustainability leads to premium pricing as Chen et al. (2021) found. Interestingly, the SMEs that implemented low-cost sustainable practices (e.g. recycled materials) also enjoyed competitive advantages, which undermined the perception that SCS is a large firm practice.

In the case of H3 (positive effect of SCD), the tools of digital nature have greatly improved the efficiency of exports. Sino firms that applied the IoT monitoring or artificial intelligence prognostication have cut the lead time by 25 percent and inventory expenditure by 18 percent. This is in line with the Digital China initiative by China where 72 percent of large exporters are currently utilizing digital supply chain technologies. Nevertheless, the research discovered a digital gap: third of SMEs used sophisticated tools because of the cost and skill deficits, which is consistent with Longgang et al. (2024).

The findings also indicate synergies in the three factors. Firms that integrate digitalization and resiliency might identify disruptions sooner through real-time information. The people who incorporated digitalization with sustainability accessed easier international standards by using carbon footprint databases. This is a resemblance of Wang et al. (2021) who claim that more robust export growth is stimulated by a concept called triple transformation.

5.2 Implications

The three factors need to be even more integrated in large firms. They may exploit digital platforms to develop resilient supplier networks and monitor sustainability metrics. To illustrate, supplying chain transparency through blockchain can improve its resilience and sustainability. Transformational strategies, requiring low costs, are needed in SMEs. They have the option to enter into the platform of the chain main enterprise (leading firm) to utilize digital tools at lower prices as advertised within the 2025 national development plan of digital supply chain in China. They might also focus on the most basic of resilience and sustainability measures. Such as dual sourcing of the major materials, and recycled packaging. Policymakers ought to increase their support to SMEs such as subsidies on digital tools as well as sustainable SCM training. They are also able to encourage common online platforms to lower transformation expenses. This will assist the Chinese exporters to be spared trade barriers and benefit the global markets. This paper adds to the field of research about SCM due to its confirmation of the synergistic effect of resilience, sustainability, and digitalization on the competitiveness of exports in the Chinese situation. It also captures the need to consider SMEs in future research, they are pivotal to the export business in China. Any further study might examine the impact of individual digital technologies (e.g., AI, blockchain) in various export sectors. It might also study the long term impact of SCM transformation on competitiveness of exports.

5.3 Conclusion

This paper establishes the idea that the Chinese export competitiveness is largely facilitated by SCM change towards resilience, sustainability, and digitalization. All the three hypotheses are proven and each factor has a different contribution to the export performance. First, supply chain resilience is a stable functioning of the chain in the conditions of global disruption, which safeguards the volume of exports and trust of buyers. Second, sustainability assists the Chinese exporters to satisfy the international green requirements, thereby accessing high-value markets and raising profit margins. Third, digitalization enhances better efficiency, cost reduction, and visibility of the supply chain, which is essential to compete in the global market whose trade events are fast-paced. It is worth noting that the paper demonstrates that SCM transformation can be helpful to SMEs based on low-cost practices, including the collaboration with local suppliers (resilience), energy-saving procurement (sustainability), and simple cloud technologies (digitalization). Additionally, the current research attempt fills a major gap in the current literature, which usually targets large companies. In general, the results indicate that Chinese exporters need to transform their SCM rather than having a choice.

References

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 Spatiotemporal Mapping and Analysis of the Land Use and Land Cover in Makurdi, Nigeria 

 Ibrahim, A. D., & Umoru, K. (2026). Spatiotemporal Mapping and Analysis of the Land Use and Land Cover in Makurdi, Nigeria. International Journal of Research, 13(1), 278–286. https://doi.org/10.26643/ijr/2026/6

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Abakpa David Ibrahim1, Kebiru Umoru2*

1University Library, University of Abuja, Nigeria

2National Centre for Remote Sensing, Jos, Nigeria

Correspondence: t.omali@yahoo.com

Abstract 

This study employed geospatial techniques to capture the process of land conversion taking place. The objectives include mapping the land use types. The methodology involved geospatial technique which uses remote sensing and GIS techniques to identify the past and current condition of land use change occasioned development activities in the Makurdi Metropolis for the period of 1999, 2009 and 2019. The result shows that overall, there was progressive and increasing change in built-up area and water body categories, at (17.00%) and (1.73%) respectively during the period of study. However, vegetation cover, farm land, bare land and wetland decreased by (2.51%), (3.51%), (4.61%) and (8.08%) respectively. Residential buildings are fast encroaching the flood plain of River Benue in Makurdi. There is a need to sensitize the residents on the danger of flooding and provisions should be made to relocate those already occupying the location.

Keywords: GIS, land use change, Imagery, Mapping, remote sensing

  1. Introduction

The population of the world is growing at different rates relative to the total population (Omali, 2020), and it is becoming more urbanized (Enoch, John, and Jonathan, 2020). Changes in land use and land cover (LULC), which are more common in developing countries, are a result of this population growth. Due to the “push” of rural areas and the “pull” of urban centers, Nigeria’s high rate of urbanization is changing its land use (Aluko, 2013). Unprecedented alterations in the ecosystem and environmental processes have, of course, been brought about by natural forces and human activity (Okeke and Omali, 2016). This has resulted in a decline in biodiversity and environmental degradation. Land use and cover change is a global phenomenon. While urban centers are growing in population and area the surrounding open/agricultural lands are rapidly changing. Construction is putting increasing pressure on the land use to make room for a variety of urban land uses. There are severe consequences from the ruthless reduction of available land per person, including low or decreased food production, ecological degradation, environmental problems, and socioeconomic difficulties.

Current methods for managing natural resources and keeping an eye on environmental changes heavily rely on studies on changes in land use and land cover (LULC) (Okeke and Omali, 2016). This makes it feasible to comprehend human interactions with natural resources, both past and present, as well as their effects. To get the desired outcome, the conventional approach to LULC assessment is inadequate (Okeke and Omali, 2018). Therefore, it’s critical to use cutting-edge technologies, such as sophisticated computers, remote sensing, geographic information systems (GIS), GPS, and the power of spatial information systems (Okeke and Omali, 2016). Since remote sensing is the only affordable technology that provides data on a global scale, it provides an important means of detecting and analyzing spatiotemporal dynamics on geographical entities (Omali, 2018a). Through the use of aerial or spaceborne sensors, remote sensing gathers data about Earth without requiring the sensors to come into direct physical contact with the target or object of interest (Omali, 2022a). According to Omali (2021) the electromagnetic radiation serves as the transmission medium for information. GIS is typically employed in the gathering, storing, modifying, analyzing, visualizing, and presenting of georeferenced data and information (Omali, 2022b). Through the manipulation, analysis, statistical application, and modeling of spatial data, it provides us with the ability to handle spatially referenced data (Omali, 2022c). In general, remote sensing data and GIS techniques have emerged as incredibly helpful tools for mapping natural resources, such as vegetation and changes in land use/cover over geographic areas. This has allowed for the removal of many of the constraints associated with traditional surveying techniques and the acquisition of a continuous and comprehensive ecosystem inventory. In light of this, research on the LULC in Makurdi was conducted using geospatial technologies over a 20-year period, from 2009 to 2019.

  • Methodology
    • Data

Both primary and secondary sources provided data for the study; some of these are listed in Tables 1a and 1b. Satellite imagery and field observations make up the main sources. During the field campaign, training site coordinates were recorded using a handheld GPS device (Garmin Etrex 32). With the GPS using satellite, almost anywhere on Earth can be located at any time (Omali, 2023a). Furthermore, it is important to note that time-series data, such as remotely sensed data from various eras, must be applied in order to study and monitor LULC (Omali, 2023b). As a result, the time-series satellite data from three epochs of multi-spectral Landsat TM/ETM/OLI imagery were used in this study. Other materials such as newspapers, journals, textbooks, World Bank publications, and maps are included in the secondary sources.   

Table 1a: Maps used in the study

 TypeDate of ProductionSourceScale
Landuse/landcover mapSecondary1999Military Air Force Base Makurd1:1000000
A base map of Makurdi LGASecondary2019Benue State Ministry of Land and Survey1:50000

      Table 1b: Satellite imageries used in the study

 TypePath/RowDate of ImagerySourceResolution
 TM (Band 1-7)Primary188/55July 5, 1999Global Land Cover Facility (GLCF) database.30m
 ETM+(Band 1-7)Primary188/55August 4, 2009Global Land Cover Facility (GLCF) database.30m
OLI+Primary188/55July11, 2019Global Land Cover Facility (GLCF) database.30m
  • Pre-processing of the Satellite Imagery

It is crucial to pre-process satellite images for accurate change detection (Andualem et al., 2018). Time series analysis requires this crucial step in order to reduce noise and improve the interpretability of image data (Yichun et al., 2008). The processes and methods used in satellite image processing include geometric correction, atmospheric and radiometric correction, and masking study areas. To produce a consistent and trustworthy image database, radiometric and atmospheric correction is applied to account for variations in the viewing geometry and instrument response characteristics, as well as atmospheric conditions related to scene illumination. Pre-processing techniques used in this study included study area masking, image enhancement, and correction for atmospheric and radiometric errors. In order to bring the image scene and the scanned topographic maps into the same coordinate system, they were also co-registered into UTM zone 32N, WGS 84.

  • Image Classification

The goal of the imagery classification process was to assign each pixel in the digital image to one of many land cover classes, or “themes” (Omali, 2018b). This allows for the creation of thematic maps of the land cover present in an image. Finding the land use and land cover class of interest was the first stage in this study’s mapping and change analysis of land use and land cover. In this investigation, we employed six classes, as indicated in table 2, by incorporating and adapting the classification scheme from Andersen et al. (1971). The classes listed in Table 2 were utilized in this study. Also, the maximum likelihood supervised classification technique was used to classify LULC images from Landsat data. The study’s training sites were first located and defined. Fieldwork yielded training samples in line with Lu and Weng (2007). For the actual supervised classification of the study area, signature files containing statistical data about the reflectance values of the pixels within the training site for each of the LULC types or classes were developed in line Ojigi (2006). The supervised classification algorithm was imputed with the signatures.

        Table 2: Land Use/Land Cover Classification Scheme

Land UseDescription
Built-up Areacomprises all developed surfaces including residential, commercial, industrial complexes, public and private institutions, recreational areas, Airport, Factories, Interstate highways, roads networks that linked most of the areas together.
Vegetation,areas covered with plants of various species. This category includes grassland and non-agricultural trees and shrubs they are mostly wild plants.
Farm Land,land used primarily for cultivation of food and fibre, it includes cropped areas, fallow land and plantations (Ochards, nursery, vineyard etc.), harvested areas and herbaceous croplands.
Bare Surface,includes open surfaces, rocky outcrops, sandy area, strip mines, quarries, gravel pits, silt etc. Exposed soil devoid of vegetal cover, that is, open spaces.
Water body,includes areas covered with water bodies such as rivers, streams, lakes, flood plain, Reservoirs. It also includes artificial impoundment of water like dam used for irrigation, flood control, municipal water supplies, recreation, etc.
Wetland.an area where water covers the soil either at or near the surface of the soil all year or for varying periods of time during the year, including during the growing season.  

       Source: Adapted and modified from Anderson et al., (1971)

  • Land Use and Land Cover change Detection

There are numerous approaches for detecting changes in multi-spectral image data, such as time series analysis, vector analysis of spectral changes, and characteristic analysis of spectral type. Time series analysis is the most common method, and it was used in this study. Its objective is to analyze the course and trend of changes by tracking ground objects using continuous observation data from remote sensing (Adzandeh, et al., 2014). Naturally, post-classification comparisons can yield results of change that are acceptable and provide “from-to” data (Okeke and Omali, 2018).

  • Results and Discussion
    • Land Use and Land Cover Classification Result

The satellite imageries covering the study area were classified in GIS environment. Tables 2 reveal that there is a progressive and significant increase in built-up area which is necessitated by the increase in commercial activities, residential growth, economic and social activities. This is in line with the findings of Etim and Dukiya (2013) who opine that urban encroachment on agricultural land has reduced the productivity of most farmers in Makurdi. The water body recorded little increase due to the increase in water works like construction of Kaptai Lake, which is the largest artificial lake in the country. The farm land, vegetation, bare land and wetland decreases throughout the period of study.

           Table 3: Land use and land cover distribution of Makurdi

  Class1999           20092019
Area (km2)(%)Area (km2)(%)Area (km2)(%)
Built-up98.07911.97170.96820.86237.4628.97
Vegetation138.2016.86125.69515.33117.65314.35
Farm Land203.5624.83184.60822.52174.73521.32
Bare Land142.48717.38122.24914.91104.56112.77
Water Body22.45902.7429.16403.5636.65804.47
Wetland214.8926.22186.9922.78148.69618.14
Total819.670100819.670100819.670100

The classified images (false colour composite) for the different periods 1999, 2009 and 2019 of study area are shown in Figures 5.1, 5.2 and 5.3 respectively. These colour composite shows the visual distribution pattern of the distribution and change taking place in the images of the areas throughout the period of study. The dominating land use and land cover category in 1999 as shown in Table 3 and figure 1 is the wetland covering an area of 214.89km2 (26.22%). This is understandable as Hemba, et al. (2017) describes the relief of Makurdi town as lying entirely in the low- laying flood Plain with River Benue forming the major drainage channel. Farm land covers 203.56km2 representing 24.83% of Makurdi.

                                        Figure 1: Land Use and Land Cover of Makurdi in 1999

 Most residents engage in farming, either crop production or livestock farming as the soil is fertile and the weather is conducive for agricultural practices. This assertion supports the views of Hula, (2010) who noted that most farmers in Makurdi cultivate land for crop production, rearing of animals for consumption and selling part of the produce to generate money to meet other needs. The populace of Makurdi comprises of indigenous farmers and migrants who are mostly engaged in farm activities as noted by Oju et al. (2011). Due to farming and hunting and other activities like sand mining carried out  in Makurdi, the size of bare land is observed to occupy large space of about 142.487km2 represented by 17.38% in 1999. This is because farmers have enough space to cultivate. Farmers relocate to other lands whenever a particular land becomes unproductive and this has been the major cause of bare land in the study area. These contradicts Tee (2019) who argued that hunting, grazing  and other factors, which lead to clearing of land through manual, mechanical and chemical means have greatly changed the original vegetation cover to bare land and other classes of land use in Makurdi. The vegetation covered a reasonable size of land and it was 138.20km2 (16.86%).This is attributed to the few number of settlers in Maukurdi and low level of human activities taking place within the urban centre as at the time. The water body was 22.459 km2 (2.74%) with River Benue forming the major drainage system in the area and is the main source of water for human use. This is in line with the views of Nnule and Ujoh, (2017) who pointed out that Benue River is the main source of water in Makurdi. This doesn’t mean that other form of water sources like borehole, ponds and dams are not important.

Table 1 and figure 2 shows that the wetland had the largest area coverage of about 186.99km2 (22.78%) in 2009 as the entire land fall within the Benue Valley and Trough. The geology of the study area influence the wetland, this infect is also confirmed by Iorliam, (2014). The farmland occupies 184.608km2 (22.52%), as most residents are farmers. The number is significant as civil

                              Figure 2: Land Use and Land Cover of Makurdi in 2009.

servants also own farms. The built-up, which was 170.968km2 (20.86%) recorded a high increase due the increase in population. This corroborates the findings of Jiang, et al. (2013) which stated that the urban expansion on agricultural land is associated with both shrinking agricultural land area and a higher level of urban development. It also agrees with the findings of Araya and Cabral (2010) that substantial growth of urban areas has occurred worldwide in the last few decades with population increase being one of the most obvious agents responsible. The vegetation cover depreciated to 125.695km2 (15.33%). This may be attributed to deforestation as more forest was cleared to provide more space for increasing human development. This is buttressed by Mugish and Nyandwi (2015) that housing development on arable farm land in most cities has become an issue on the global agenda in recent times. Bare land, which was 122.52km2 (14.91%) decreased as the spaces were being covered with more structures but the water body 29.164km2 (3.56%) slightly increased. Of course, this is an indication that most of the human activities use water and other sources of water are being developed to meet the need of the increasing populace.

The level of human activities in the year 2019 was very high, although Makurdi has no functional Master Plan to check the developmental activities, however, as shown in the image Fig5.3 and Table5.1, The built-up area of 237.46km2 (28.97%) in 2019 almost tripled its size recorded in 1999.This supports the assertion by United Nations Department of Economy and Social Affairs (UNDESA, 2010) that urban cities have changed from small isolated population

                                 Figure 3: Land Use and Land Cover of Makurdi in 2019.

centres to large interconnected economic, physical, and environmental features. In recent time, issues of Herdsmen/Farmers crisis are among factors contributing to the migration of people from neighbouring villages to Makurdi Town for safety. These numbers of people who mostly settled along the urban hinterland, which is mostly used for agricultural purpose, have converted the land for building of houses and other socioeconomic infrastructures. The farm land occupies 174.735km2 (21.32%) as it decreases with population upsurge settles in the study area. Farmers move outside of Makurdi to get land for their activities which make the cost of cultivation expensive than expected. Agencies with the mandate of protecting natural ecosystem are weak in areas of law enforcement in Makurdi as infrastructural developments are indiscriminately carried out. This observation contradicts the views of Wade quoted in Nico et al. (2000) that Various NGOs, government and international Agencies have been supporting the urban agriculture (UA) since 1970s in major world regions. There was reduction in wetland to 148.696km2 (18.14%) and vegetation cover to 117.653km2 (14.35%) compared to the previous ten years while the water body 36.658km2(4.47%) increases during the same periods.

  • Conclusion

The research findings revealed that built-up area increased all through the period of study while arable land decreases due to infrastructural development. The rapid increase in built-up area is because the surrounding agricultural land is fast decreasing. Bare land, vegetation and wetland decreased throughout the period of study as human settlement increases over the years. Of course, it was observed that the effect of the development was concentrated more to the north eastern part of Makurdi as residential buildings with high rate of economic activities is observed in the region. Generally, this study has been able to show that conversion of open/agricultural land for infrastructural development was mostly due to increase in number of people through migration and natural means of population growth. The land use and land cover change detection for the period of 20 years revealed the extent and type of conversion. The study recommends Green areas within and around the city should be properly preserved as this allows for ventilation. All effort should be put in place to prevent unofficial development and measures should be in place to curb population growth which has encouraged urban sprawl on prime agricultural land as this is feasible around Makurdi hinterland.

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Kricon Group Launches a New Generation of ISOPA-Certified Tank Containers for Isocyanate Logistics

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If you could make your pet understand one thing, what would it be?
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The transportation of isocyanates such as MDI (Methylene Diphenyl Diisocyanate) and TDI (Toluene Diisocyanate) remains one of the most demanding areas in chemical logistics. Strict safety requirements, temperature sensitivity, and regulatory oversight leave no room for compromise. In response to these challenges, Kricon Group has introduced a new generation of tank containers engineered specifically to meet the highest standards of safety, reliability, and operational efficiency.

According to an article on Logistics IT, Kricon Group has developed these ISOPA-certified tank containers to ensure safe and compliant transport of MDI and TDI across Europe and international markets, reinforcing its role as a trusted partner in chemical logistics.

Addressing the Complexities of Isocyanate Transport

MDI and TDI are critical raw materials for a wide range of industrial applications, including polyurethane foams, coatings, adhesives, and elastomers. However, their chemical properties make transportation particularly complex. These substances require precise temperature control, secure handling procedures, and equipment that fully complies with industry-specific standards such as those set by ISOPA (European Diisocyanate & Polyol Producers Association).

Any deviation from recommended transport conditions can pose risks to personnel, the environment, and supply chain continuity. As a result, logistics providers and chemical manufacturers increasingly seek purpose-built equipment rather than adapted or generic tank containers.

Designed in Full Compliance with ISOPA Guidelines

Kricon Group’s newly introduced tank containers are designed and manufactured in strict alignment with ISOPA recommendations. Compliance is not treated as a formality but as a core design principle that influences every aspect of the container’s construction.

The containers incorporate standardized connection points to ensure seamless compatibility with ISOPA-approved loading and unloading systems. Enhanced insulation supports stable temperature conditions throughout transit, while integrated safety features help reduce the risk of contamination, leakage, or operational error. These design choices support traceability and accountability at every stage of the logistics process.

By aligning container specifications with ISOPA standards from the outset, Kricon enables chemical producers and logistics partners to operate with greater confidence and regulatory assurance.

Engineering Solutions Tailored to MDI and TDI

Unlike general-purpose chemical containers, Kricon’s latest units are specifically engineered to meet the unique demands of isocyanate transport. Materials used in the construction are selected for their resistance to corrosion and chemical interaction, helping to preserve product integrity over long distances and repeated use cycles.

Temperature control options play a central role in the container design. Maintaining stable conditions is essential for preventing crystallization or degradation of MDI and TDI. The new containers can be equipped with advanced insulation systems and temperature management solutions that support consistent performance in varying climatic conditions.

In addition, intelligent monitoring technologies allow operators to track key parameters during transit. This data-driven approach improves visibility, enables early detection of potential issues, and supports continuous improvement in logistics planning.

Safety as a Strategic Priority

Safety is not limited to regulatory compliance; it is also a strategic differentiator in chemical logistics. Kricon Group’s investment in high-specification tank containers reflects a broader commitment to protecting people, cargo, and infrastructure.

Enhanced valve systems, reinforced structural components, and optimized design for handling operations reduce the likelihood of incidents during loading, transport, and unloading. These features are particularly valuable for logistics partners operating across multiple jurisdictions with varying regulatory expectations.

By prioritizing safety at the equipment level, Kricon helps its clients mitigate risk, reduce insurance exposure, and strengthen trust with downstream partners.

Supporting Efficiency and Sustainability

Beyond safety and compliance, the new generation of tank containers is designed to improve operational efficiency. Standardized specifications simplify fleet management, while durable construction supports long service life and reduced maintenance requirements.

Efficient thermal performance and optimized design also contribute to sustainability goals. By minimizing product loss, reducing the need for reprocessing, and supporting more predictable transport conditions, these containers help lower the environmental footprint associated with chemical logistics.

Sustainability considerations are increasingly important for chemical manufacturers facing pressure from regulators, investors, and customers alike. Equipment that supports both safety and environmental responsibility offers a clear competitive advantage.

Backed by a Global Logistics Network

Kricon Group’s tank container solutions are supported by its established global logistics network. This enables seamless deployment across key industrial regions and ensures that clients can access consistent equipment standards regardless of route or destination.

For manufacturers and distributors of isocyanates, this combination of specialized equipment and international logistics expertise simplifies coordination and reduces complexity in cross-border operations. It also supports scalability as demand grows or supply chains evolve.

Setting New Benchmarks in Chemical Transport

The introduction of ISOPA-certified tank containers for MDI and TDI transport underscores Kricon Group’s role in shaping best practices within the chemical logistics sector. Rather than responding reactively to regulatory change, the company is proactively investing in solutions that anticipate future requirements.

As chemical supply chains become more complex and expectations around safety, transparency, and sustainability continue to rise, purpose-built logistics equipment will play an increasingly central role. Kricon’s latest tank containers represent a step forward in aligning operational performance with industry standards and long-term strategic goals.

Conclusion

Transporting MDI and TDI safely is a challenge that demands specialized expertise, advanced engineering, and strict adherence to industry guidelines. Kricon Group’s new ISOPA-certified tank containers address these demands through thoughtful design, robust safety features, and a clear focus on compliance and efficiency.

For companies involved in the production, distribution, or logistics of isocyanates, these containers offer a reliable solution that supports both operational excellence and regulatory confidence. As chemical logistics continues to evolve, innovations of this kind will be essential in setting new standards for the industry.