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Exploring the Place of the AU in Fighting Organised Crime in Africa

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Citation

Nwokoroeze, C. N. (2026). Exploring the Place of the AU in Fighting Organised Crime in Africa. International Journal of Research, 13(3), 18–29. https://doi.org/10.26643/ijr/2

Nwokoroeze, Chinonye Nnenna 

Department of Political Science,

Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities, Enugu State University of Science and Technology, Agbani Email: chinonye.nwokoroeze@esut.edu.ng  

ORCID: https://orcid.org/0009-0008-0449-9036

Abstract

The African continent faces a persistent and expanding threat from organised crime. These criminal networks operate across borders, harming peace, security, and economy. The AU  has taken on a critical mission to address these complex concerns. A rising understanding of the interdependence of stability and development throughout the continent is reflected in its shift from a non-interventionist stance to a more proactive involvement in peace and security. This article addresses the AU’s initiatives to prevent organised crime, analysing its established normative frameworks and the practical restrictions that often hinder its usefulness. The study employs a qualitative technique, drawing on secondary data from official AU publications, United Nations reports, and academic literature. The study contends that even though the AU has created a wide range of legal and policy tools, their influence is usually diminished by barriers to cross-border collaboration, a lack of persistent political commitment, and a lack of financial and technical resources. The conclusion emphasises the ongoing disconnect between idealistic aspirations and practical reality. It promotes enhancing the AU’s participation in the fight against organised crime by encouraging greater political resolve and improved resource mobilisation.

Keywords: AU, Organized Crime, Threat, Resources mobilization, United Nations

Introduction

The paper used a 2024 UNODC research to show that organised crime makes violence worse in places like the Sahel and is a vital source of cash for people who are economically challenged. This means that organised crime is not merely a business; it is firmly ingrained in the social and economic institutions of some communities, which makes it a very tough problem to overcome. For example, the drug problem is a concern in all five African regions. The continent has become a key transit route, user, and source for drugs including cocaine and heroin. (2019, the African Union).
The United Nations (2025) said that human trafficking is a severe violation of human rights. It is a sort of modern-day slavery in which traffickers target people who are weak, like those who are poor, in conflict, or displaced. A lot of people are trafficked across borders from Africa, and this is often linked to war, being forced to leave home, and poverty (Tefera, 2019). Illicit financial flows (IFFs) make these difficulties worse by taking $88.6 billion out of Africa’s economy every year, which is 3.7% of the continent’s gross domestic product (GDP) (United Nations, 2021). These outflows make it hard to make essential investments in education, health, and productive sectors, which keeps the cycle of underdevelopment running. Because these problems are connected, organised crime is both a cause of conflict and an indication of underdevelopment. The money earned from unlawful operations promotes wars and degrades institutions and democracy (Thelma et al., 2024). At the same time, the instability and poverty that result from these activities make it easier for criminal networks to emerge as a way to live. This makes things worse and worse.

The African Union (AU) formally takes the place of the Organization of African Unity (OAU) in 2002. The AU was formed up by the Constitutive Act in 2000 (Maluwa, 2012). This transition was a huge step away from the OAU’s stance of not becoming involved and toward a more comprehensive and collective action approach to peace, security, and stability on the continent (ACCORD, 2024). The Peace and Security Council (PSC) is the African Union’s key body for making decisions about how to stop, handle, and settle disputes. This is a fundamental feature of the African Peace and Security Architecture (APSA) (African Union [AU]). The PSC is quite powerful. It can stop and avoid wars, make peace, build peace, approve peace support missions, and deal with challenges including unconstitutional changes of government and transnational organised crime (ACCORD, 2024).


This amendment in the AU’s mission illustrates that there is an increasing, albeit tough, commitment to proactive security governance. Organised crime is a significant security concern, as evidenced by the PSC’s 2019 decision to make a yearly conference on transnational organised crime a permanent agenda item (AmaniAfrica, 2025). However, the fact that this annual session has not been consistently held since its institutionalisation, last meeting in May 2022, and the general problems mentioned with the PSC’s reactive approach and slow response (ACCORD, 2024), show that while the normative framework is in place, the political will and practical application to fully realise this proactive mandate are still not consistent. This illustrates the fundamental argument of this article—that there is a discrepancy between the declared purpose and what actually occurs. This article’s objective is to examine the African Union’s regulations for combating organised crime and identify the obstacles to its complete implementation. It examines the various forms of organised crime that are prevalent in Africa, the AU’s legal and policy instruments, the issues that arise when these instruments are applied, and the collaborations and initiatives taken to combat these threats.

A full collection of legal and policy tools of the AU

  1. The Assembly’s Special Declaration on Illicit Financial Flows (2015). This declaration committed AU leaders to eliminating persistent illicit financial flows and guaranteeing the recovery of lost financial resources to Africa to support the continent’s development agenda. It called for African institutions and skills to be improved in areas like recovering stolen property, collecting taxes, and making contracts (United Nations, 2021).
  2. The African Union’s Constitutive Act, which was passed in 2000, replaced the OAU Charter. This marked a big change in how the continent deals with peace and security (Maluwa, 2012). The OAU was mostly based on the idea that its member states shouldn’t interfere in each other’s internal affairs. This made it hard for the OAU to deal with internal crises or problems with governance (UNODC, 2018). The AU, on the other hand, gave the “right of the Union to intervene in a Member State pursuant to a decision of the Assembly in respect of grave circumstances, namely: war crimes, genocide and crimes against humanity” (African Union, 2000, p. 9). This development provided a more robust legal foundation for the AU to actively address peace and security issues, particularly those concerning transnational organised crime.
  3. The African Union Convention on Preventing and Combating Corruption (AUCPCC, 2003). This convention, which was signed in Maputo, shows that everyone in the region agrees on how to stop, punish, and encourage international cooperation in the fight against corruption. It includes a wide range of crimes, such as bribery, illegal enrichment, money laundering, and asset recovery (African Union, 2024a). It also calls for the end of corruption in both the public and private sectors (African Union, 2003). As of January 2020, 43 states had signed this agreement.
  4. The African Union Plan of Action on Drug Control and Crime Prevention (AUPA, 2019–2023). This strategy framework, which is the fifth of its kind, promotes a balanced, integrated, and multi-sectoral approach to drug control and crime prevention. It is based on what happened at the 2016 UN General Assembly Special Session (UNGASS) on the world’s drug problem. The AUPA has a lot of different ways to cut down on drug use and supply, stop crime, reform the criminal justice system, and work together with other countries to stop drug trafficking, guns, corruption, and money laundering (African Union, 2019).
  5. The Protocol Relating to the Establishment of the Peace and Security Council of the African Union, which was signed in 2002, made the AU’s security role more effective (ACCORD, 2024). Karahalios (Karahalios, 2021) says that the PSC was set up to be the main group that makes decisions about how to stop, handle, and solve conflicts. Its mission is to deal with new dangers, like international organised crime. This change in the law from non-interference to interventionism creates the necessary normative space for anti-crime action. This lets the AU see and treat problems like organised crime as threats to peace and security on the continent. Without this basic change, many of the later anti-crime agreements would not have a clear legal basis for continental involvement. It is important to create this normative space, but it is not enough on its own because other things are needed to make it happen.
  6. The African Union’s 2013 plan for controlling the illegal spread, circulation, and trafficking of small arms and light weapons. The goal of this plan is to stop, stop, and completely get rid of the illegal spread of SALW across all of Africa. AmaniAfrica (2022) says that it is focused on building capacity, getting stakeholders to work together and coordinate better, and improving international aid.
  7. The Ouagadougou Action Plan to Stop Human Trafficking, Especially for Women and Children (2006). The goal of this strategy is to create general guidelines for fighting human trafficking, raise awareness and prevention, protect and help victims, put in place the right legal frameworks, improve law enforcement, and encourage cooperation. It stresses a “three-pronged strategy” of Prevention, Protection, and Prosecution d) Niamey Convention on Cross-Border Cooperation (2014). This was put in place to encourage cooperation between countries and the peaceful resolution of border disputes. This convention also says that countries should work together to stop piracy, terrorism, and cross-border crime. It needs 15 countries to sign it before it can go into effect (African Union, 2024a).
  8. The Assembly’s Special Declaration on Illicit Financial Flows (2015). This declaration committed AU leaders to eliminating persistent illicit financial flows and guaranteeing the recovery of lost financial resources to Africa to support the continent’s development agenda. It called for African institutions and skills to be improved in areas like recovering stolen property, collecting taxes, and making contracts (United Nations, 2021).

The evolving environment of transnational organised crime in Africa

Illegal use of natural resources: UNODC (2025) claims that organised crime groups play a major role in illicit gold mining, which harms the environment and is fuelled by money laundering, fraud, and corruption. Trafficking in wildlife is also a big problem. Perche et al. (2020) say that organised crime groups that make money off of endangered species are often involved. Organised crime relies heavily on taking advantage of natural resources, which makes environmental problems and problems with governance worse. This shows that illegally taking resources can be a big source of income for criminal gangs, which means that environmental crimes and financial crimes that weaken government control are linked. So, strong management of the natural resource sectors and dealing with the social and economic factors that make people want to illegally exploit resources are both important parts of successful counter-TOC efforts.


Drug trafficking: The United States Department of State Bureau for International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs (2024) says that West and Central Africa are becoming important places for cocaine and heroin to pass through on their way to Europe. These drugs often come from South America and Afghanistan. According to the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) World Drug Report 2020, cocaine seizures in Africa rose by 66% in 2018 and were expected to rise even more in 2019. This shows that Africa is becoming more important as a transit region (UNODC, 2020). This shows that the problem is getting worse because the continent is now a growing market and supply for illegal drugs, as well as a transit hub. For instance, Nigeria and South Africa have shut down illegal methamphetamine labs (UNODC, 2020). The study also found that tramadol, an opioid that isn’t monitored by any international body, is a serious public health issue, especially in West and Central Africa, where it was responsible for 79% of all seizures in 2018. This change in Africa’s role in the global drug market from mainly a transit point to also a place where drugs are made and used means that counter-narcotics strategies must now be multi-faceted, with the goal of fighting both supply and demand on the continent.


Illicit financial flows (IFFs): It noted that the significant loss, amounting to 3.7% of the continent’s GDP, hinders development and exacerbates poverty and inequality. IFFs are closely linked to other illegal activities, like drug trafficking, human trafficking, and selling weapons illegally (African Union, 2024a). These flows are a major roadblock to African development and a major facilitator of other organised crimes. They make conflicts worse and get in the way of sustainable development by weakening institutions and democracy, shrinking the tax base, and taking important resources away from public services like healthcare and education (African Union, 2024a). The estimated $88.6 billion lost each year is a sign of lost opportunities for growth, lost jobs, and rising poverty. This means that fighting IFFs is not only important for keeping money safe, but it is also necessary for long-term growth and stopping crime.

Smuggling migrants and trafficking people : Human trafficking is a serious violation of human rights that is often called “modern-day According to UNODC (2024a), Africa is the source of the most destinations, both inside and outside the continent. One-third of all cross-border human trafficking flows involve people from Africa. The data shows that the number of child victims is alarmingly rising. In Africa in 2022, kids made up 38% of all victims found. Traffickers use technology to lure victims by working online and using social media and encrypted communication tools (United Nations, 2025). This digital growth of human trafficking is scary because it lets criminal groups reach more people and take advantage of them more easily. This shows that technology can be both helpful and harmful, as it can be used by criminals in new ways. Because of this, cybersecurity and digital forensics must be part of anti-trafficking efforts. But the strong link to vulnerable groups shows that technology fixes alone aren’t enough. It’s still important to deal with the root causes of vulnerability, like poverty and violence.

Bringing weapons into the country illegally: Firearms trafficking is a major cause of conflicts, especially in places like the Sahel (AmaniAfrica, 2025). UNODC (2024) says that most of the guns that are trafficked illegally come from legitimate manufacturers but are sold on the black market. This highlights a critical area for intervention. It means that illegal arms trafficking is the most profitable illegal business, allowing organised crime groups to protect their illegal businesses and employees. It is not just a crime on its own; it is also a key part of the whole criminal ecosystem, which includes drug trafficking and illegal use of natural resources. So, limiting the flow of weapons is a good way to break up organised crime groups and bring about peace.

Challenges confronting the AU

  1. Different national laws and rules could make it very hard for regions to work together to fight organised crime. To get around these legal problems, it is important to make national laws more similar and adopt universal standards. This is a big legal problem for transnational crime because criminals take advantage of gaps in jurisdiction. The Niamey Convention aims to promote integrated border management and cross-border cooperation (Cassidy-Neumiller et al., 2024). The University for Peace (2022) says that Africa is a good place for illegal businesses and organised crime because of its porous borders and areas that are not controlled. Criminal groups use these open borders to start their activities in very organised and complicated ways, which makes the borders unsafe. Another problem with international cooperation in criminal cases is that people don’t work together when there aren’t any relevant bilateral agreements (UN General Assembly, 2025). It is hard to get mutual legal aid agreements, which makes it hard to prosecute criminals across borders even when they are found. This means that even though the AU has ways for member states to work together, it is often hard to put them into action because of the rights of each member state and the problems that come with enforcing laws across borders. There is a natural conflict between national sovereignty and the international nature of crime that causes legal and practical problems.
  2.  Even though AU leaders have promised to do better, they have shown a “persistent lack of genuine and sustained political will,” which has made it hard for them to deal with important problems, such as armed conflicts that hurt civilians and widespread attacks on basic rights (ICG, 2025). The AU’s response to crises is often inconsistent, and sometimes they use the principle of subsidiarity to regional authorities as an excuse not to act.70 There is a big difference between what the AU says it will do and what the member states are actually doing to make it happen and pay for it.  The chaotic running of the Sudanese civil war, where strong African leadership was badly needed but never happened, and the AU Commission’s silence during the fighting in Ethiopia’s Tigray area are two examples of this gap.67 The AU’s power has also gone down in the central Sahel. This is mostly because there hasn’t been a consistent political commitment to staff and give power to its regional offices to help solve conflicts.67 The AU has a big problem because it has to follow the Lomé Declaration, which says that states must be suspended after illegal transfers of administration. This is in line with democratic norms, but some African leaders are starting to realise that keeping lines of communication open with military governments is very important. This makes it hard for everyone to work together.67 This shows that the problem isn’t just a lack of resources; it’s also about how member states work together and prioritise turning continental goals into national action, which can be hard when national interests are at odds with each other. Such discrepancies directly undermine the efficacy of the normative frameworks.
  3. The AU’s ability to deal with peace and security issues is always limited by a lack of resources (International Crisis Group [ICG] 2025). The AU Peace Fund was started in 1993 and then revived in 2018. Its goal is to provide long-term funding for peace and security projects, especially those that fight organised crime. The fund reached its initial goal of $400 million by mid-2024, mostly from member states. However, this is still far less than the huge cost of dealing with Africa’s wars (Soumahoro, 2025). Soumahoro (2025) says that the AU Transition Mission in Somalia (ATMIS) cost $1.5 billion a year in 2023. This shows how big the gap is between the money that is available and the needs of the mission. The AU and UN need to work together to fill the 25% burden-sharing gap left by UN Security Council Resolution 2719, which says that UN-assessed contributions can only cover 75% of AU-led peace assistance operations (Zeyede, 2025). This means that even with strong rules and guidelines, the AU can’t do large-scale, long-term anti-crime measures because it doesn’t have enough reliable money. This reliance on foreign funding and unpredictable internal contributions is a major threat to the AU’s ability to do its job. Also, it is still hard to fight some crimes, like human trafficking and smuggling migrants, because there aren’t enough resources to do so. This has a direct effect on how well intelligence sharing and operational responses can be funded.
  4. African countries are very worried about not having enough resources. This is true in fields like digital forensics and electronic evidence. This is often because the technology infrastructure is weak, people don’t have enough digital skills, and they don’t have enough money (UN General Assembly, 2025). This means that even with laws in place, it is very hard to look into modern crimes like cybercrime. Coordination among various AU entities responsible for combating transnational organised crime continues to be hindered by resource limitations and insufficient horizontal integration (AmaniAfrica, 2025). This means that the digital and human infrastructure needed to fight cross-border crime is not good enough, which gives criminal networks a chance to take advantage of operational weaknesses. Also, some people are said to be unwilling to share important information, which makes it harder to stop human trafficking and migrant smuggling (Development Policy and Performance Portal, 2025).

The operational responses and partnerships of the AU

  1. The Continental Operational Centre (COC) for trafficking in persons and smuggling of migrants. A practical reaction to diverse forms of crime is illustrated by the formation of specialised operations centers. The Continental Operational Center (COC) for Trafficking in Persons (TIP) and Smuggling of Migrants (SOM), formed in 2019, is a significant part of Africa’s efforts to curb irregular migration (African Union, 2024b). A structured framework for collaboration between member states, Regional Economic Communities (RECs), and law enforcement agencies was established in December 2024 when the COC validated continental guidelines for information and intelligence sharing to combat TIP and SOM, according to Development Policy and Performance Portal (2025). This shows that the AU is developing specific operational institutions in order to move beyond broad mandates, realising that complex situations require specialised expertise and a coordinated response.
  2.  Partnerships with UNODC, INTERPOL, and Regional Economic Communities (RECs). External collaboration and regional integration are vital force for the AU’s anti-crime initiatives. The AU works closely with international partners like UNODC and INTERPOL to promote police cooperation and counter transnational threats across the continent (INTERPOL. (n.d.)). The African Union and INTERPOL’s Special Representative Office in Addis Ababa work closely to establish synergies and ensuring that the law enforcement voice is heard in AU initiatives. The PSC has also recommended for coordinated actions with the Committee of Intelligence and Security Services of Africa (CISSA), INTERPOL, and UNODC to identify and assess unlawful flows (AmaniAfrica, 2025). These partnerships offer vital operational support, information sharing, training, and technical assistance that the AU and its member nations frequently lack internally (UN General Assembly, 2025). Furthermore, the AU fosters the harmonisation and coordination of activities between regional mechanisms, such as the Regional Economic Communities (RECs) and Regional Mechanisms (RMs), and the AU itself, in the promotion of peace, security, and stability (ACCORD, 2024). RECs are vital for establishing constraints against tiny firearms and light weapons.
  3. The role of AFRIPOL’s initiatives and the Peace and Security Council (PSC): The PSC is responsible for managing, preventing, and resolving disputes and is the primary pillar of the African Peace and Security Architecture (APSA). It has regularly expressed worry over the expansion of transnational organised crime in Africa (AmaniAfrica, 2025). A formal recognition and priority of the problem may be shown in the PSC’s 2019 decision to create an annual session on transnational organised crime as a standing agenda item. Also, AFRIPOL, founded as the continent’s law enforcement coordination mechanism, is a significant institutional framework designed to cope with transnational organised crime. It provides a framework for police coordination at strategic, tactical, and operational levels throughout African states (Soumahoro, 2025). The execution of “Operation TAPI,” a cross-border project carried out by AFRIPOL in collaboration with INTERPOL, is a concrete illustration of AFRIPOL’s impact on the ground. This program, which encompasses six AU member nations, tackles a variety of criminal activities, such as drug trafficking, pharmaceuticals, guns, counterfeit or smuggled commodities, and environmental crimes (AmaniAfrica, 2025).

Conclusion

In order to combat organised crime throughout the continent, the African Union has made impressive progress in creating a comprehensive normative framework. The OAU’s move from a non-interventionist position to a more aggressive and interventionist mandate reveals that the threat posed by transnational criminal networks has been clearly identified. Conventions against corruption, action plans for drug control, strategies for arms control, and protocols for human trafficking and cross-border cooperation are only a few of the various legal and policy tools that the AU has set up. International standards are often in line with these frameworks. This entails a knowledge at the continental level of the complex nature of organised crime and the need for a multi-sectoral response.  However, a number of practical restrictions, similar as resource shortages and the continuous lack of genuine and sustained political will among member states, regularly test the usefulness of these normative frameworks. Operational vulnerabilities brought about by a lack of expertise in areas like digital forensics and an unwillingness to share intelligence are easily exploited by criminal networks. Cross-border law enforcement entails jurisdictional complexity and challenges due to the inherent tension between national sovereignty and the transnational nature of crime. This makes coordinated action tougher. Consequently, the practical realities on the ground create a huge gap between desire and achievement, even while the AU’s normative frameworks offer a solid foundation and demonstrate a deep grasp of the organised crime problem. The symbiotic relationship between organised crime and violence, fuelled by illegal economies and socio-economic deficiencies, further distorts the image.

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Interrogating the Nigeria Police Force and Its Counter-terrorism Approaches

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Citation

Egwu, F. O., Arua, M. C., Okeh, P. I., Onwe, D. C., & Onuoha, O. O. (2026). Interrogating the Nigeria Police Force and Its Counter-terrorism Approaches. International Journal of Research, 13(3), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.26643/ijr/1

1Egwu, Francis Ogbonnia

Department of Criminology and Security Studies,

Alex Ekwueme Federal University, Ndufu-Alike, Ebonyi State, Nigeria

Email: francis.egwu@funai.edu.ng

ORCID:  https://orcid.org/0009-0009-8519-8303

2**Arua, Mercy Chioma***

Department of Criminology and Security Studies,

Alex Ekwueme Federal University, Ndufu-Alike, Ebonyi State, Nigeria

Email: mercy.arua@funai.edu.ng

Corresponding author****

ORCID:  https://orcid.org/0009-0005-6625-477X

3Okeh, Peter Igboke

Department of Criminology and Security Studies,

Alex Ekwueme Federal University, Ndufu-Alike, Ebonyi State, Nigeria

Email: ptrgbk@gmail.com 

ORCID:  https://orcid.org/0009-0007-5991-8560

4Daniel Chidiebere Onwe

Department of Criminology and Security Studies,

Alex Ekwueme Federal University, Ndufu-Alike, Ebonyi State, Nigeria

Email: onwedaniel1990@gmail.com 

ORCID:  https://orcid.org/0009-0003-4168-148X

5Onuoha, Ogobuchi Onuoha

Department of Sociology,

Ebonyi State University, Abakaliki, Nigeria

Email: onuohaogobuchi@gmail.com  

ORCID:  https://orcid.org/0009-0008-1011-2168

Abstract

The paper used a theoretical method to look at how the Nigeria Police are involved in counter-terrorism efforts in Nigeria. It aimed to find out how the police participate, how effective their involvement is, and what can be done to improve their performance in these operations. The structural functionalism theory was adopted to theoretically underpin the study. The outcome of the study reveals that the police force plays a variety of roles which manifest in different forms in the fight against terrorism. These forms are not limited to intelligence gathering, synergy with other sister agencies, liaison with community leaders to fish out terrorist enclaves and so on. The study also revealed that the police’s regular use of overt force diminishes the effectiveness of their operations, as there is a need to fight the root cause of terrorism. The study recommends that the police should be specially trained on conflict resolution strategy while adopting the principle of community policing. To enhance counter-terrorism operational efficiency, the police should be given adequate and sophisticated equipment and, as well, undergo training and retraining to face the terrorist group.

Keywords: Police, Terrorism, Counter-terrorism, Police Operation, Nigeria                                              

Introduction

The Nigeria Police was established based on the provision of Section 214(1) of the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, and several laws have given it responsibilities and authority (Nwauzi & Ogon, 2018). The force is tasked with the duties of investigating crimes, protecting people and property, and enforcing all laws and regulations. They may also be responsible for traffic control and prosecution in any court in the country. (Alemika & Chukwuma, 2000, as cited in Edet, 2017). The extant and primary law in Nigeria that highlights the specific responsibilities and capabilities of the Nigerian Police is the Police Act (Nwauzi & Ogon, 2018). The Nigeria Police also performs a variety of secondary responsibilities, including providing aid in times of need and managing and regulating highway traffic, among others (Madubuike-Ekwe & Obayemi, 2019). However, given the vast nature of police officers’ responsibilities and authority, the preceding list of police officer tasks and powers is not all-inclusive (Nwauzi & Ogon, 2018). The composition, establishment and operational control of the Police Force are clearly stated in the 1999 Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, Section 214(1), that “There shall be a Police Force for Nigeria, which shall be known as the Nigeria Police Force, and subject to the provisions of this Section no other police force shall be established for the Federation or any part thereof” (CFRN, 1999). These provisions are reinforced in the Police Act and Regulations of 1990, Chapter 359, which classified the duties of the police to include prevention and detection of crime, apprehension of offenders, preservation of law and order, protection of life and property, enforcement of all laws and regulations with which they are directly charged and the performance of such military duties within or without Nigeria as may be required of them by or under the authority of the Act or any other act.

Nigeria is currently grappling with a myriad of security challenges. The country has been plagued by a plethora of threats, including Boko Haram, herdsmen/farmers conflicts, kidnapping and banditry, ritual killings and cannibalism, cattle rustling, drug and human trafficking, militancy, illicit proliferation of small arms, and violent extremism. These security challenges have had far-reaching consequences, undermining the country’s stability, economic growth, and social cohesion (Ezinwa, 2019). For long, the country has, particularly, been battling with the insecurity issue posed by the activities of terrorist groups. Topping the list of these groups is the Boko Haram Sect (BHS) in the northeast of Nigeria. Terrorism is a global phenomenon in the atmosphere of criminality (Aiyesimoju, 2015) and has become a major threat to world peace and order (Abodunrin et al., 2021). The militant actions of Boko Haram have become one of the biggest security risks in Africa, particularly around the region surrounding Lake Chad (Oyewole, 2015). In Nigeria, the devious and nasty actions of this terrorist organisation cannot be disregarded because of the attacks the organisation has carried out, which have resulted in loss of life, destruction of property worth billions of Naira, serious infrastructure damage, and loss of investment, capital, and income, among other things (Abodunrin et al., 2021). Since 2009, the Boko Haram Sect (BHS) and other terrorist organisations’ operations have impeded sustainable development and made the nation hazardous for people to live in, conduct business in, and invest in (Isiaka et al., 2023). We also have the Fulani herders in the northeast, the Delta militants in the south-south, the Indigenous People of Biafra (IPOB) and Eastern Security Network (ESN) in the southeast, the Amotekun agitators in the southwest and the newly emerged terror group, the Lukarawas, in northwestern Nigeria.

The International Terrorism and Security Research (ITSR) alludes to the fact that terrorism is not new and that even though the word has been used since the beginning of recorded history, it can be relatively hard to define. Terrorism, according to the ITSR, has been described variously as both a tactic and strategy, a crime and a holy duty, and a justified reaction to oppression and an inexcusable abomination. The United States Department of Defence (USDD) defines terrorism as “the calculated use of unlawful violence or threat of unlawful violence to inculcate fear; intended to coerce or to intimidate governments or societies in the pursuit of goals that are generally political, religious, or ideological.” Within this definition, there are three key elements: violence, fear, and intimidation. Each element produces terror in its victims. The FBI defines terrorism as “the unlawful use of force and violence against persons or property to intimidate or coerce a government, the civilian population, or any segment thereof, in furtherance of political or social objectives.” The U.S. Department of State (USDS) defines terrorism as “premeditated politically motivated violence perpetrated against noncombatant targets by sub-national groups or clandestine agents, usually intended to influence an audience.” Boko Haram and splinter groups such as JAMBS (presently known as ISWAP) are believed by analysts to be largely a product of widespread socioeconomic and religious insecurities, and their ideology resonates among certain communities because of both historical narratives and modern grievances (Audu & Zakimayu, 2021). It has become increasingly clear that national security agencies can no longer work alone in preventing future attacks. They must work in partnership with other public and private agencies, most importantly with local police.

‘Counter-terrorism’ means the measures undertaken by a government to defeat terrorism. It integrates and synchronises political, security, legal, economic, developmental and psychological activities to create a holistic approach that aims at weakening the terrorists while bolstering the government’s legitimacy in the eyes of the people. Several scholars clarified the meaning of counter-terrorism. For instance, Grey (2012) defined counter-terrorism as a set, or combinations, of diverse and multifaceted activities used in combating any terrorist violence in a given society. Campbell and Weitz (2005) also consider counter-terrorism to refer to all actions, activities, principles and tactics used by regular security groups in waging war against any terrorist group in a given political setting. To clarify it further, the United States Army (2006) defined counter-terrorism as military, paramilitary, political, economic, psychological and civic actions taken by government to defeat terrorism. However, the focus of most counter-terrorism measures in this study is centred on the Nigeria Police Force. Police counter-terrorism refers to all forms of conventional combat adopted by the police force and other paramilitary and military forces in combating terrorism in a given political entity. It is a kinetic component of the counter-terrorism response to guerrilla warfare. According to Sampson (2015), the main principle of the counter-terrorism strategy is the application of aggressive force involving violent destruction of the enemy force and threatening of the local population to withdraw support for the terrorists. Therefore, counter-terrorism relies on operations that involve the use of aggression, such as detention of suspects, brutal elimination of individual terrorists, disruption of terrorists’ support networks, and decapitation of terrorist organisations. To contend with these terrorist activities in Nigeria, the federal government of Nigeria, irrespective of statutory restrictions, still deploys Nigeria police personnel to quell unwholesome loss of life and property from these theatres of terrorism in Nigeria.

Problem Statement

Nigeria is grappling with the pressing issue of terrorism, which has become a leading concern for national security. This menace has sparked intense discussions and varied comments in current national discourse (Aiyesimoju, 2015). Despite the Nigerian government’s best efforts, terrorist group activities have continued to grow throughout the northern area, with Boko Haram leading at the forefront, and they pose a severe threat to Nigeria and the region around Lake Chad (Sadau, 2015). Different approaches have been used by the Nigerian government to subdue and curtail the activities and operations of the numerous terrorist groups present in the country. Since terrorism continues to be a threat to Nigeria’s stability and peace, these measures, however, have not produced fruitful and beneficial results. The administration has largely focused on using the military strategy rather than alternative non-military ones to calm terrorism operations. Hence, there is the need to examine other non-military approaches, especially the criminal justice system, in the fight against terrorism. The urgent need to combat terrorism and the roles of critical stakeholders in the fight against terrorism have been investigated in literature. For instance, Aiyesimoju (2015) examined the role of the media in containing terrorism by outlining how the activities of the media can be used to aid as well as thwart the activities of terrorism groups in the country. Ike (2018) examined the need to re-conceptualise the role of law in countering terrorism in Nigeria and explained the rationale behind strengthening Nigeria’s criminal justice system. However, the emphasis in these studies is on the efficacy of the police operational duties in terms of countering terrorism. Against this background, this study aims to explore the forms of Nigeria Police participation in counter-terrorism operations, the effectiveness of Nigeria Police involvement in counter-terrorism operations and measures that could enhance police performance in counter-terrorism operations in the country.

 Theoretical Framework

Structural functionalism is a sociological theory that explains why society functions the way it does by emphasising the relationships between the various social institutions that make it up. The basic underpinnings of structural functionalism were built by French sociologist Émile Durkheim in the late nineteenth century, at least in part as a response to evolutionary theories of thinkers such as E. B. Tylor (Porth et al., 2015). Durkheim’s original goal was to explain social structures as a shared means for individuals in society to meet their own biological needs; he also wanted to explain the worth of cultural and social features in terms of their contribution to the general operation of society and life. Later, structural functionalism’s focus shifted to the manner in which social structures in society meet the social requirements of individuals inside that society. This theory was adopted as a theoretical framework for the study because of its strengths and strategic importance. The theory placed emphasis on the interdependency and interconnectedness of security formations, including the police force, and the necessity and urgency for them to form a synergy with the local civilian security formation in the host community for harmonious living. It was reported by Stearns (2013) that structural functionalism views society as functioning as an organism with the various social institutions working together as organs in the human body to maintain stability and integration. Radcliffe Brown espoused the interaction or interdependence of human activities in the social institutions that give rise to the cohesion, stability and peaceful coexistence of human society (Mediha, 2013; Palmer, 2013). Seeing the imperativeness of structural functionalism in understanding and explaining the police force as a subset of security organisations that contributes meaningfully to the existence and survival of the whole social system, the theory was found much more relevant to and apt in examining police involvement in community security, with emphasis on counter-terrorism.

Forms of Police Participation in Counter-terrorism Operations

One cannot overemphasise the duties and responsibilities of the police in any given society. The police are recognised members of the society charged with the responsibility of security of lives and property, maintaining law and order and prevention of all crimes, including terrorism. The roles the Nigeria police play are not just confined to the statutory description of their duties and responsibilities. Alongside other primary duties such as crime prevention and investigation, maintenance of law and order, and enforcement of all laws and regulations, the police also have a role to play in countering terrorism in Nigeria. This was confirmed from the above submission but is also partly stated in section 4 of the Police Act under “such military duties within or outside Nigeria as may be required by them by this or any other Act” (The Police Act, Cap [P19]). Nwauzi and Ogon (2018) also stated that the listed duties and powers of police officers are not exhaustive, as the duties and powers of police officers are expansive. The Nigeria Police discharge other specific secondary duties like highway traffic control and management, provision of assistance during disasters and the conduct of prosecution before any court in the country (Madubuike-Ekwe & Obayemi, 2019).

Detailed explanation of some forms of police participation in curbing the menace of terrorism in Nigeria. The forms in which the police manifest in its duty of counter-terrorism include but are not limited to the following: Involvement in intelligence gathering and sharing with other security agencies to buffer counter-terrorism operations; counselling people as well as relevant stakeholders in the country about the need for peace in the society. This is done in a bid to write off the wrong and poisonous orientation people might have received concerning situations in the country; mopping up arms and ammunitions, drugs and narcotic substances in the society; working in synergy with relevant stakeholders, bodies and national institution agencies such as the NDLEA, EFCC, NAFDAC and others; working with other security agencies such as the Nigerian Military, Nigeria Security and Civil Defence Corps (NSCDC) to enhance synergy towards countering terrorism; training and re-training of police personnel on recent crime fighting modes in order to effectively engage the terrorist groups; engaging the religious and community leaders in talks about peace and giving proper orientation to their members so as to proactively repel the desire to engage in terrorism;  striving to administer and dispense justice to improve people’s trust and confidence in the justice system so that aggression will not set-in on an aggrieved party thereby leading to terrorism.

Effectiveness of Nigeria Police Involvement in Counter-terrorism Operations

Challenges to the police role in counterterrorism have marred the effectiveness of police involvement in counterterrorism operations. Some challenges facing the police in their fight against terrorism are found as follows: First, there is insufficient training for the officers facing terrorists, and being sent to fight well-trained and equipped terrorists sounds like a suicide mission. Second, there is an allegation of misappropriation of funds allocated for counterterrorism operations. This leaves the police with insufficient funds and resources that, in turn, affects their efficiency and effectiveness in the fight against the terrorist. Third, political interference and corrupt practices among policymakers are also alleged. This kind of interference and corruption can always delay actions against the terrorist, thereby limiting the effectiveness, efficiency and productivity of the police. Fourth, command friction between the police and their military partners in the Joint Task Force. This fourth challenge is to be expected between military and paramilitary agencies whose ranking and protocols are similar but still unique. So the issue of superiors and subordinates in the face of command and order-controlled organisation can always be an issue, especially when there are no laid-down rules of operation and command protocols. Therefore, it becomes necessary to take further study into the rules of engagement of the Joint Task Force in order to find out the cause of this challenge and root it in the bud. The fifth challenge found is the existence of some moles (spies or traitors) in the joint military-police-civilian task force on counter-terrorism, which jeopardises the effectiveness of their operations. These findings support previous research reports (Bamidele, 2016; Nnam et al., 2020), which all agreed that concerted efforts to overcome the odious act of terrorism have been sabotaged and frustrated by some civilians in the host communities, politicians and security personnel, who provide corresponding assistance (such as leaking of security tactics and strategies, intelligence and information) to the terrorists (Nwakanma, 2022).

The effectiveness of the use of force approach adopted by the Nigeria Police counter-terrorism is pointed out, and the heavy-handed approach by Nigeria’s security sector against members of terrorist groups exacerbated sentiments of communal insecurity. In an extensive military operation, the Nigerian state destroyed the compound of the group and killed scores of terrorists. Disproportionate force and extrajudicial killings by the statutory security sector cause some terrorist groups to respond with revenge attacks against the institutions of the state. The lack of capacity and capability in Nigeria’s law enforcement and military, coupled with a failure to appreciate the importance of community engagement in counter-terrorism, set the state on a collision course with the group and its followers. Samson (2015) asserts that, while assessing the dilemma of counter-terrorism and human rights in Northern Nigeria, he argued that the aggressive approach of the SJTF perpetrated through gross violations of human rights undermined the support of the population. This assertion connotes that the excessive use of brutal force by the police force, alongside other security agencies, serves as a restraint to the effectiveness of police involvement in counter-terrorism operations.

Similarly, Kalid (2021), while being interviewed by the BBC, pointed out the ineffectiveness of using a force approach to terrorism, thus: the over-reliance on a military strategy to confront terrorist groups is at the heart of the state’s inability to deal with the threat. That is why, unfortunately, almost 11 or 12 years into the counter-terrorism operation, there seem to be no major successes recorded. The reality is that to address terrorism, you need more than a brutal force operation. You need to address the root causes of the terrorism emergence. Paradoxically, Sampson (2015) also claimed that since its engagement in the counterterrorism, the SJTF, including the police, has become anathema to the local communities in the Northeast. According to him, the indiscriminate use of force and other arbitrary acts have led to an unwarranted loss of life and destruction of valuable property, as well as constituted an extensive humanitarian crisis in the Northeast. He further maintained that, in addition to the direct offensive approach, the operation was reinforced by the adoption of draconian laws like the massive imposition of dusk-to-dawn curfews, restriction of vehicular movement, and bans on the use of communication lines. The overall effects of these measures thus undermined the support of the population for counter-terrorism. This indicates that there can never be a purely forceful solution to violent extremism. There is therefore a need to abandon the conventional force-centric approach as the one and only option for terrorism and other asymmetric conflicts. While not ignoring the importance of using a force approach, stability, political-economic-social development, rule of law, popular well-being, and sustainable peace all depend on effective and legitimate control of the national territory; the force-centric approach must be balanced with a population-centric approach for maximum effectiveness and legitimacy (Jerome, 2015).

Measures to Enhance Police Performance in Counter-terrorism Operations

Given the complexity of the security situation in Nigeria, blended with the economic, political, and social strife, projects and programs designed to counter terrorism should be built around community resilience, enhance cooperation among law enforcement agencies, and strengthen judicial institutions. Hence, strategy and the importance of collective efforts to counter terrorism in an increasingly interdependent and interconnected Nigeria have become imperative. Hence, some measures that could be used to counter terrorism in Nigeria were extensively examined.

Measures to enhance police performance in counter-terrorism target a different aspect of what Piombo (2007) calls the four “Ds” of fighting terrorism: ‘Defeat terrorists and their organisations; Deny sponsorship, support and sanctuary to terrorists; Diminish the underlying conditions that terrorists seek to exploit, and Defend citizens and interests at home and abroad.’ Another way to consider these programmes’ effectiveness is that they should attempt to fight the supply of terrorists, the demand for terrorist networks, and the ability of terrorists to operate and manoeuvre. Counterterrorism measures are captured in the below headings.

1. The Meghalaya Model

The Meghalaya model is a multi-sector approach involving government, law enforcement, judiciary, and civil society organisations that created a comprehensive framework for combating trafficking in Northeast Asia in 1999 under the five “Ps”: prevention, protection, policing, press, and prosecution (Kharbhih, 2010). The Meghalaya Model is designed to track and rescue trafficked children in Northeast Asia; to facilitate rehabilitation; and to make sure that survivors do not get re-trafficked. It also provides families with livelihood alternatives, provides evidence to prosecute offenders, and raises awareness through the media. The process of the Meghalaya Model is the five “Rs”: reporting, rescue, rehabilitation, repatriation and re-education. It is believed that these activities that are pillars of the Meghalaya model to counter human trafficking are relevant to counter-terrorism, as they could fight the supply of terrorists, the supply of mercenaries for terrorism, and the demand for terrorist networks. This is imperative because, despite international agreements and a plethora of national laws on counter-terrorism, the issue remains one of the fastest-growing criminal violence in the world. Its proliferation is due to its cross-border nature and thus requires cooperation and collaboration between states if it is to be tackled effectively. However, throughout the world, often counterterrorism initiatives have failed to incorporate all relevant stakeholders. Hence, the Meghalaya Model, though originally designed to track and rescue trafficked children, could be adopted or adapted to counter terrorism in Nigeria, as there are insinuations of mercenaries and conscripted fighters for terrorists. And with the porous nature of Nigerian borders and the rate of human trafficking in the country, these mercenaries and conscripted fighters could be trafficked victims from neighbouring countries. This model is relevant to counter-terrorism in Nigeria because through a collaborative and far-reaching security network of stakeholders in counter-terrorism (security and intelligence agencies, NAPTIP, the media, civil society and NGOs), terrorists, mercenaries and terror suspects are more likely to be arrested and will face prosecution.

2. Countering Terrorism through Public-Private Partnerships (CTPPP)

While combating terrorism is a primary responsibility of nation states, developing partnerships with the private sector can be beneficial, especially in areas where state resources and expertise are limited. The public-private partnerships (PPPs) concept is gaining attention in the business world but at a much slower pace in the security domain. For instance, Jonathan Lucas, Director of the United Nations Interregional Crime and Justice Research Institute (UNICRI), argues that progress to build partnerships on security matters has been hampered by a lack of legislation to facilitate information exchange between the public and private sectors, as well as the absence of incentives because ‘too often no incentives are provided to encourage the private sector to invest in the protection of vulnerable targets, as the private sector usually considers funding of PPP initiatives in security sectors as a cost rather than an investment’ (2012, p. 8). However, the Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy explicitly encourages such partnerships in capacity-building and information exchange. Hence the United Nations Counter-Terrorism Implementation Task Force (CTITF) working group on countering the use of the Internet for terrorist purposes argues how it benefited from private sector expertise in ‘the technical and legal aspects on how the Internet could be used to counter terrorist narratives’ (2012, p. 8). Russia, for example, has been engaging with Moscow State University and People’s Friendship University of Russia to exchange new ideas and expertise in countering terrorism. Because in their view, ‘private-public cooperation should not be limited to the business community alone but should also include non-governmental organisations, media, tourism and hotels, youth associations, the academic community and religious leaders’ involvement in the security sector’ (Yudintsev, 2012).

3. Empowering Youth as Peace-Entrepreneurs and Peace-Seeds

There is growing evidence from the social science literature on the links between youth unemployment and armed conflict, and donors have increasingly used programmes that create jobs for youth as a tool to address armed violence. Many donors now identify addressing youth unemployment as an urgent priority, both in the field of peace buildinpeacebuildingg and in efforts to foster economic development (World Bank, 2008; ILO, 2010; UN, 2009). Similarly, the link between job creation and peacebuilding has been affirmed by the UN Secretary General’s approval of the ‘UN Policy For Post-Conflict Employment Creation, Income Generation And Reintegration’ in 2008, as well as by the ILO’s 2010 Guidelines on Local Economic Recovery in Post-Conflict (UN, 2009; ILO, 2010). However, studies find that both the theoretical and empirical cases for using youth employment programmes as a ‘standalone’ tool to reduce violent conflict are extremely weak, because donor interventions have been poorly evaluated and evidence of success typically only demonstrates increases in employment levels, with little effort made to assess the impact on conflict. Hence, evidence on using job creation as part of an integrated or comprehensive armed conflict or Anti Violence Response (AVR) strategy is stronger: some government-led initiatives in countries that experience high levels of armed violence (such as Brazil and South Africa) are positive examples. So, the emphasis on the youth Anti Violence Response (AVR) strategy should be based on holistic, comprehensive, and integrated approaches that go beyond simply addressing a lack of economic opportunities and seek to tackle the more complex array of factors (such as belief systems, religious, political, and ethnic fundamentalism) that turn youth into entrepreneurs of violence rather than peace-seeds. This is imperative because Omale (2013) argues that, if youth involvement in terrorism is becoming a real threat, then the primary step is to try to understand the phenomena systems andphenomenonof increase, anphenomenonincrease andd the causes of such criminal deviance. Because in the word increase andwordsof Socrates,words, ‘Fundamentum Omnius Cultus animae’ (i.e.,, the soul of all improvement is the improvement of the soul). For instance, the goal of most national educational curricula in modern times is to produce professionals such as scientists, lawyers, doctors, and engineers for society. How much of our school curriculum includes active citizenship education, youth leadership skills, civil courtesies, and relationship-building communication?building? The earlier we begin to instilinstil the skills of ‘learning to live together’ and respect for humanity and society through active citizenship education, the better for our society.

4. Women-Gender Intelligence (WGI)

The innovation of “Women-Gender Intelligence” (WGI), particularly in the events of volatile conflict and endemic suicide bombings in Nigeria, has become imperative. For instance, with the continued violent conflict in Jos and the emerging suicide bombings in the country, the “Women for Change and Development Initiative” of the Office of the First Lady of Nigeria orchestrated media campaigns and jingles of “Women: See Something; Say Something!” and “The One that gives life must Protect Life!” The impact of these jingles and campaigns, this author would argue, motivated a rural woman in a village called Haya Biu, Niger State, to assist the State Security Service in Nigeria to unravel the hideout of some Boko Haram extremists on 6th September, 2011, who until then had been hiding there and making IEDs. By this revelation, it could be argued that women can be strong agents of change and development if adequately harnessed. In terms of security and counterterrorism in Nigeria, this paper argues that if women voluntarily and unanimously agree to stop insecurity, they can because there is no terrorist or criminal that does not have a mother, a spouse, or a girlfriend. The Women Gender Intelligence (WGI) is even more relevant in the Nigerian context since it is insinuated that some Boko Haram perpetrators are youth who cannot afford to pay a bride price for a wife and are so brainwashed and recruited to kill so as to be rewarded with seven virgins in Aljena. In this case, therefore, if women are granted protection as whistleblowers, they can be a good source of intelligence on counterterrorism in Nigeria.

5. Counter Extremism and De-radicalisation Programmes (CEDP)

Religion and cultural differences are among the most important causes of conflicts and violence in Nigeria. A very worrisome dimension of the role of religion in conflicts is the tendency and frequency with which some politicians and leaders exploit it for selfish reasons, as sometimes public statements on issues of religion tend to ignite or exacerbate conflicts, justifying the need for conflict sensitivity. Our world – as an American sociologist, Peter Berger, notes – is ‘fiercely religious’, and Nigeria has witnessed rising essentialism within all the major religions. For instance, a Muslim cleric was once criticised by the media for publicly preaching to his followers in a mosque in Kano (northern Nigeria) that “Un ka kama Mary ko Chinyere ka chisu” (meaning “if you catch a girl with a name Mary or Chinyere, rape her”). This is hate-based preaching that encourages young Muslim boys to rape girls bearing Christian or South Eastern names in Nigeria. In the same vein, some Neo-Pentecostal and evangelical Christians in Nigeria see themselves (the “born again” brethren) as holier than the ‘Other’. Similarly, crusades that dwell much more on the Biblical verse of Mathew 11:12, which states, “And from the days of John the Baptist until now, the kingdom of heaven suffered violence, and the violent takes it by force,” are becoming common citations among youth in Nigeria. Whereas, this Biblical injunction does not encourage violence, perverse interpretations of these religious injunctions, however, have crept into the minds of some people. This radical mindset has created many of the world’s violent outbreaks, both present and past. Lammy (2013) argues in an article written after the May 22nd killing of a Woolwich soldier by a terrorist suspect (Michael Adebolajo) that ‘radical Islamism suffocates conventional Islamic beliefs with a diet of anger, hate and intolerance among young men, who perhaps are already convinced of being outcasts and are intoxicated by teachings that not only entrench this difference further but also demand that they despise the society they leave behind.’ Hence, it is not uncommon for fringe groups of all ideological persuasions to systematically target these men by manipulating their sense of hopelessness and lack of belonging (Lammy, 2013). However, if religion could be used to cause conflict, it could be used to resolve conflict. Because even in this climate of global religious turbulence, religions offer the potential for generosity, wisdom and an ethical sense of transcendence capable of creating a strong link between people, beyond their differences. People might have different beliefs and dogmas and adhere to different schools of philosophical and metaphysical thought, but I strongly believe that it is possible to share a pragmatic universal system of ethics that would allow us all to live together. So Counter Extremism and De-radicalisation Programmes (CEDP) can work and could be an effective way of countering the spread of radical-violent ideology and activism, provided that the right conditions for success exist. These include, among others, political will, a vibrant civil society, and a robust developmental and political capacity within the Nigerian state.

 6. Security Inter-Operability (SIO)

 In every human society there are those that could not be safely contained in the community. Security interoperability that encourages security networking and intelligence sharing could root out the bad eggs in the society. For instance, if the police, SSS, EFCC and NIA work collaboratively, they could unravel the local and international sponsors and financiers of Boko Haram. Similarly, if the Customs, Immigration and the NDLEA work collaboratively, they could unravel the criminal importation of foreign mercenaries, drugs, arms and ammunition that are sustaining the Boko Haram insurgencies. In the same vein, the SSS and police working collaboratively with the Prisons Service could plant pseudo inmates who are fluent in Arabic, Hausa, Fulani and Kanuri in strategic prison cells for intelligence gatherings from detained Boko Haram suspects. The Military Joint Task Forces (JMTF) could as well invest in telemetric security and cable detection technology and use fewer roadblocks. Where these security strategies are done well, the use of the Military Joint Task Forces (MJTF) fire operations would only be the last resort. But if terror attacks do occur, a coordinated and well-equipped MJTF that comprises the military forces, NEMA, the fire service and the Red Cross should be on standby for effective evacuation and other needed humanitarian and relief services. However, in a system like Nigeria where security and law enforcement agencies struggle for supremacy and lay claim to arrests and security breakthroughs (as was the case in Kabiru Sokoto’s arrest), interoperability becomes difficult to achieve. Nigeria does not lack the institutions to counter terrorism, but what Nigerian security and law enforcement agencies need to understand is that “success for one is success for all”. ”.

7. Community Policing Approach

In community policing, the community should be the primary objective for the police: its tacit support, its submission to law and order, its consensus, etc. It is therefore necessary to obtain the support of the community not only in the form of sympathy and approval but also in active participation in keeping the society safe. The police must build confidence in the community by conducting themselves professionally and showing the ability to hold volunteered information in the highest secrecy and protect those they have been entrusted to protect at all costs. In community policing, law enforcement agencies share power with residents of a community, and critical decisions need to be made at the neighbourhood level. Establishing and maintaining mutual trust between citizens of a community and the police is the main goal of the first component of community policing. In full partnership, law enforcement agencies and a community’s residents and business owners are supposed to identify core problems, propose solutions, and implement a solution. For this problem-solving process to operate effectively, the police need to devote time and attention to discovering the community’s concerns, and they need to recognise the validity of those concerns. If the police treat suspected terrorists/insurgents using methods and practices outside the law, such as collective punishment or arbitrary detention, this itself undermines the legitimacy of government and can create new grievances, inhibiting the effectiveness of counter-terror or counter-insurgency policies. However, in the real sense and in reality, the counter-terrorism in Nigeria is dominated by security operations (Audu & Zakimayu, 2021).

Conclusion and Recommendations

Young men almost exclusively lead and execute terrorist attacks globally. Nigeria, with its abundant unemployed labour force, exploitative politicians, radical clerics, a population prone to violence, and weakened national and community cohesion, provides a competitive advantage for militant and terrorist organisations, criminal networks, and corrupt political leaders. International experience in countering terrorism has shown that the key to preventing violence against the state and its citizens is policing that establishes government legitimacy and wins public support. In societies where endemic violence poses a threat, we should entrust the responsibility for security to police deployed among the population. Police are the public face of the government. By performing their duties in a professional manner, police build support for the government they represent. Acts committed by terrorists are crimes, which are the responsibility of the police and the criminal justice system. Killing or capturing terrorists when they are engaged in terrorist acts is not an effective solution to insecurity. The solution is to identify would-be terrorists before they commit acts of violence using information provided by citizens to the police. To make this approach work effectively, the police must recognise the importance of collaborating with citizens. The police must also adopt a citizen-oriented approach to policing. Police establish effective relations with the public by being available and easily accessible, by being responsive and acting promptly to requests for assistance from individuals, and by being fair and impartial, treating everyone professionally, respectfully, and empathetically. This approach is based on relationships, attitudes, and values. It requires neither advanced technical skills nor heavy weaponry.

                                                            Recommendations

1. The police should be provided with sophisticated equipment, discipline and training (the curricula in police training institutions must reflect present-day challenges, e.g., detailed courses on terrorism/military history, policing, forensics, etc.).

2. It is imperative that police officers undergo regular specialised training and retraining prior to deployment. This will equip them against the well-trained and equipped terrorists.

3. The funding and deployment of police officers for the counterterrorism operations should be depoliticised. The influence of the politicians on the processes of operation of the counterterrorism is affecting the smooth operation of the units if the funds set apart for their operation are misappropriated.

4. There should be a very strict and unbiased screening of the officers deployed into the counterterrorism units. This screening should be done by external bodies outside the government and its agencies. This will help rid the ranks and files of the moles that jeopardise their operations.

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Reflection of Postmodern Urban Sensibilities in Manjula Padmanabhan’s Harvest

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Do you believe in fate/destiny?
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Citation

Suryawanshi, V. W. (2026). Reflection of Postmodern Urban Sensibilities in Manjula Padmanabhan’s Harvest. https://doi.org/10.26643/rb.v118i12.12581

Dr. Varsha Wamanrao Suryawanshi

Assistant Professor

Department of English

Sharda Mahavidyalaya, Parbhani. (MS)

Suryawanshi.varsha4@gmail.com

Abstract:

The present research paper discusses the play Harvest (1997) by Manjula Padmanabhan. In spite of its futuristic cast, the play focuses on postmodern urban spaces and its control on everyday life. The play portrays the self-devastating anguish of people who are stressed to live on in the fast-paced surroundings of a modern city. It depicts the economic anxiety of the marginalized deprived by asking them to sell their organs for a profit to the rich people. The play takes advantage of the policy of ‘futurization’ to tell the story of contemporary reality in an indirect way, as it is a work of ‘science fiction’. The situation of the helpless people of a developing country is depicted in the story. In the futuristic city, we see the new lifestyle of urban India: an aimless search for ‘equipment’, a general dependency on TV, and an addiction to modern props. In addition to these topics, Padmanabhan in addition highlights the troubles shaped by overpopulation in urban areas as she mentions organ trade, prison-like living circumstances, parents’ favouritism toward employed children, and women’s plight. The play Harvest explores not merely the postcolonial circumstances but also the process of neo-colonization. It sheds light on overseas procurers’ influence over third-world organ donors. The writer thus expresses subaltern survival of city dweller who is subjected to scarcity and manipulation in order to survive. In this game, the city is a separate entity. It initially fascinates the individual, but it eventually deceives them in its malicious spirals.

Keywords: Utopia, Dystopia, Postmodern, Urban, Neo-colonial.

Introduction:

Cities serve up as a space contractor for shelter, luxury, desire for a home, nostalgia, vision, fantasies, myth, fear, crime, estrangement, attraction, disease, dishonesty, excitement, disorder and menace to the socio-political, spiritual, and financial systems. Poets, dramatists, fiction and non-fiction writers, explicit novelists, voyage writers, and other documentarians commencing India began to center on two different aspects as innermost to the recognition of urban literature, where the position and collision of cities had began to be vibrantly portrayed and predictable. However, it should be renowned that certain cities in India be present mainly as an effect of their spiritual congregations and those celebrated Indian epics such as The Mahabharata and The Ramayana can be seen to attribute socio-cultural and sacred bases that are occasionally chronological, but frequently mythological re-imagined.

The play Harvest by Manjula Padmanabhan is set in the future, but it shows the horrible enforcement depression of individuals need wealth to survive in today’s challenging urban surroundings. The drama depicts the compulsion with which underprivileged people trade their organs. It presents a bleak future for deprived, immobilized people in developing nations. The play takes place to Bombay in 2010 AD while the trade of human organs is a recurrent practice. The play emphasizes on the suburbanites’ mingled esteem and dread of their method of life, as well as their rising fascination with electronic gadget. The organ donors, who were chiefly single-room occupants in a overcrowded Indian metropolis, trade their body parts to rich persons through worldwide approved and permitted agents. They mistake wealth for happiness because they lack fundamental human necessities.

A sense of importance and imminent though Padmanabhan has utilized as a innovative liberty to portray the deprivation practiced by deprived city dwellers in the twenty-first century, it is distinguish that she came up by way of the thought for Harvest through a meeting with her sister in Madras in early on 1995, when she was acquainted with the atrocious actuality of the trade-in of human organs while taking a morning walk around the town. In her article “The Story of Harvest” (1998), Padmanabhan describes how she observed numerous men in dress gowns and sterilized maw masks on a holiday to her sister in Madras in early 1995, which inspired her to write this piece. When she enquired further, she was already informed that they were deprived Tamil Nadu villagers recovering from kidney transplant operations. Later news items on the thriving organ trade inspired her to write about a frantic pursuit for immortality through cannibalism the corpses of the young and needy. Dystopia in the City on the surface, the drama is all about Om Prakash, he mislaid his job and lives with his family in a one-bedroom residence. He chooses to trade indefinite organs to a prosperous American woman named Ginni through a corporation called Inter Planta Services in order to obtain cash and soothe for his relatives. Inter Planta and the earpiece are worried with Om’s health and, as a consequence, have complete control over Om, his mother, and his wife Jaya’s lives in their one-room residence. Ginni, the beneficiary, checks in on them through videophone on a regular basis and act with them with contempt. Om’s sick brother Jeetu is first transported to contribute organs in place of Om, and then Om volunteers to see Ginni, who is portrayed as a seductive white woman. Ginni ultimately reveals herself to be somebody than what she was thought to be. Ginni is revealed to be Virgil, an elderly man in poor health.

The play’s underlying premise is rich in significance and depth, and it serves as a parable for the current socio-economic situation in third-world nations, particularly India, where organ selling is a familiar owing to increasing require for donated organs, elevated financial productivity, and unimpeded trafficking. Every recorded example of illicit body part harvesting and sale is motivated by profit, with little or no protection for victims of those whose bodies have sold as solitary portion at a time. Padmanabhan eloquently depicts the apathetic character of city inhabitants. All convicts have deceived family unit members and or lovers, and perhaps more importantly, they have violated their kindness, in their empty desire for riches, the instant inmate began achieving the console and the fake promises of alteration. Even their own blood Jeetu was overlooked by the mother and son Om. Om and Jeetu have a striking resemblance, as depicted by the dramatist. Om signed a contract with InterPlanta to make his body a commodity on the international market, whereas Jeetu in the present play is a prostitute who is selling his body for sexual enjoyment. As an effect, both guys were busy in the similar action.

Manjula Padmanabhan addresses the association among sexuality and cultural dissimilarity at the end of this soul-stirring narrative, addressing the oriental representation of alien, sexually attractive; so far possibly hazardous ‘Other’ that is unmoving prevalent in western discourse. Yet in the desire for Utopia by people from the Third State, the play implies that supposed Utopian world, where everyone shares the similar place with identical human rights, is difficult to achieve. Harvest speculate on the bumpy prepositions public by western cultures and third-world countries, as societal differences such as race, class, and colors are flattering less relevant than physical resemblance and adaptation. When the body is reduced to its functional organs, it becomes a wonderful leveler. In the play, the body becomes a contestation space wherever the colonial theater unfolds.

When we consider the title of the play Harvest, we can observe that the sound has a romantic connotation, as it is connected with affluence, abundance, profusion, the age of enlargement, and springy in many cultures. Not only that, but it is always associated with a spiritual entity that represents mother nature’s blessing, whether it be Maa Annapurna from Hindu mythology, Demeter from Greek mythology, or Ceres from Roman mythology. However, the play has taken a significant step forward in language growth, demonstrating the usage of ancient terminology in new but harmful ways. Organs are being harvested here. This is also indicative of the overpopulation problem in third-world countries. In the uber-medical environment, where bodily organs exercise power and money, the drama reverberates the idea of cannibalism of the body. So, in order to conceal the wicked act of neo-cannibalism in a contemporary urban environment, the word cannibalism is replaced with the distant added optimistic expression Harvest. Harvest’s science fiction rudiments, while important to the play’s tightly organized description, are kept mainly inside the confines of late twentieth century reality, ensuring the outlook shown is plausible.

Cultures’ human being and substance capital is exemplified by Padmanabhan’s take on the matter. Harvest’s macabre trade resembles its imperial forerunners in this regard, the trans-Atlantic slave trade, which proverb millions of colored bodies bought, sold, and traded for the advantage of European mercantile expansionism. The current trade in organs is situated within a range of unequal cross-cultural linkages due to these resonances between previous and present forms of the human body and or body part trafficking. The historical analogies are strengthened by the fact that IP services also manage a worldwide sexual market, which includes trade in exotic infants. F. the Play’s Postmodern Approach Harvest might thus be understood as a warning story concerning the potential (mis)uses of modern medical and reproductive research, as well as an indication on the financial and communal legacies of western imperialism, particularly when they interconnect with latest technologies. Padmanabhan uses the constantly fraught metaphor of cannibalism to distil some of the moral dilemmas presented by organ commerce with deft sarcasm. Om’s insult that Jeetu has been transferred to a human game reserve where the wealthy hunt socially disadvantaged people effectively prefigure cannibalism’s connotative reach such that it now refers to traits of developed rather than savage nations. Sofar as it is aggravated by a fable of renaissance—the reinstatement of infancy and completeness—the western cannibalism of third-world bodies in harvest has a ritualistic element. When Jeetu’s organs were transplanted into Ginni/Virgil, it’s not just a medicinal operation; metaphorical ‘money’ as well flows from the youthful, insolvent, and gorgeous to the old, wealthy, and hideous.

At other stage, the play’s indictment of a dehumanized Indian culture, which is depicted in microcosm through the vicious conflicts within the Prakash family, is heightened by the cannibalism metaphor. Harvest’s story also uses disease as a metaphor for the moral evils of a civilization driven by greed and self-interest to the point that a lucrative trade in body parts has become the norm. The sickness metaphor, on the other hand, works in a complicated way. It’s possible that the dirty world outside the sanitized Prakash housing unit is preferable to the sterile environment in which Om, Ma, and Jaya will be compelled to reside once their Interplanta contract kicks in.Jeetu’s presence precipitates a breakdown in the fragile connection between Donors and Receivers when he enters the unit covered in muck and grime and weeping sores: because he epitomizes the possibility of infection, he disturbs the tightly regulated Receiver world’s power and authority. As she lovingly treats Jeetu’s wounds, Jaya’s revolt against her cruel family and the demands of the system in which they have gotten engaged creates one of the play’s few sympathetic moments. Padmanabhan addresses the relationship between sexuality and cultural difference at the end of this unsettling narrative, addressing the concept of the exotic, sexually attractive, but potentially dangerous other that still exists in western discourse.

Jaya refuses to be a social gathering to a contract that efficiently puts Virgil in manages of her sexuality, just alike she had formerly rejected to repress her sexual requirements by playing the sedate wife of Om. As an effect, Jaya’s order that Virgil meets her in person before she considers his proposal serves as a broader challenge to Western civilizations to set aside harmful stereotypes and compulsive uncertainties of contagion in order to interact with other cultures on a more equal and respectful basis. From a postcolonial viewpoint, the play raises a significant question about the characters’ battle with choice. In this situation, their identities as deprived third-world people drive them to do desperate decisions. In both public and political discourse, it is critical to study the formation of both manliness and femaleness in the expression of cultural and national identity. This raises the question of what happens to men, male bodies, and masculinity notions in the postcolonial public sphere’s discursive articulation of nationalism. It’s also worth noting how male bodies were depicted and refashioned in the wake of postcolonial nationalism’s formation of contestation. Both the male characters Om and Jeetu are in a circumstance where their masculinity is threatened by their poverty. A woman is little more than a ‘body’ for enjoyment in a patriarchal society. Similarly, the play transfers the binaries of male and female to the third and first worlds, with third-world people playing the role of females whose primary identity is limited to their bodies.

Om sells his body, while Jeetu works as a male prostitute; therefore both of them are portraying themselves as female substitutes. The dehumanization of the poor continues, as we discover, ironically, that Jaya’s identity is reduced to her womb. This marginalization of third-world individuals is accomplished through challenging their traditional constructs of family, relationship, culture, and habitual practices, resulting in a theatrical battle between the identities of “East Vs. West” or, more specifically, India versus the West. The play follows a symmetrical pattern, with India’s projection limited to the body and a poor viewpoint, while the west is projected indirectly through a virtual picture due to money, power, and technology, all of which obstruct reality. This virtual world is an intriguing place that caters to enticing stereotyped young white women who attract brown men. Ginni gains the diaphanous status as a result of this. Ginni, who are you? Because there is a lot of sexual uncertainty throughout the play because, despite the fact that Ginni is portrayed as a (young attractive) white woman, it is only in the final scene that the playwright reveals Ginni’s true identity as an old white male. As a result, the female body serves as a site of contestation for both the colonizer and the colonized. Ginni’s persona reveals a lot about first-world projection. Ginni appears in numerous positions under this shady alias. She is a coloniser as well as the virtual reality of a superior species manufactured by doctored images.

The play depicts the blurring of limitations and the control of the west above third-world nations, with Ginni installing a virtual platform to contact Om, but it was in fact firm observation for Om and his whole family, despite the fact that only he had signed the Faustian pact with IP services. In a shocking turn of events, the guards abduct Jeetu instead of Om, and when he returns, he is utterly blind. Under the thrall of a potential sexual enchantment with Ginni, Jeetu becomes oblivious to the idea that he will be robbed of his body organ by organ. Nobody cares about Jeetu’s situation, not even his mother Ma, who is fascinated by the dramatic turn of events in her life, and watching television becomes her main pastime. Ginni/Virgil, who is desperate to reclaim his youth, is dissatisfied with the transplants from Jeetu’s body and sets out to seduce Jaya, because the elderly man with youthful transplants desires youthful female flesh at the moment. Jaya, who couldn’t bear the thought of being a wife to Om, who will lose his essential organs, wants her guy to be genuine. Virgil, on the other hand, is unwilling to risk physically entering Jaya’s disease-ridden world.

Conclusion

Harvest is not just a societal critique, but it also delves into the relationships between people from different countries. It emphasizes the neo-colonial market while also focusing on the blurring of political and psychological borders. The play explores the breakdown of societal and family relationships as a result of increased consumer product consumption and unending human materialistic pursuits; on the other side, it also depicts the operation of progressed countries in increasing countries to endorse consumerism for mercenary purposes.

 Ginni’s physical flaws and wealth, as well as Om’s physical beauty and poverty, make them equal competitors. Om and his family are no longer on the oppressed end of the power equation because of their common needs. When Virgil, Ginni’s real self, begs Jaya to substitute his child, Jaya requests that he come in self to get her. Jaya is depicted as a powerful woman who prefers and chooses the real world over the virtual. Women’s bodies are frequently used to represent civilization, custom, society, and nation. Padmanabhan, through the character of Jaya, challenges the colonized world’s viewpoint by presenting the colonized world’s reverse gaze. So Padmanabhan has portrayed the dystopian image of the Future Indian through this play and has explored the terrible prospect of the third-world nations identical to harvest.

References:

1. Padmanabhan, Manjula. Harvest. New Delhi: Kali.1998

2. Frow, J. Bodies in Pieces” eds. L. Dale and S Ryan, The Bosy in the Library, Amsterdam: Rodopi. 1998

3. Gilbert, Helen.“Manjula Padmanabhan’s Harvest: Global Technoscapes and the International Trade in Human Body Organs.” Contemporary Theatre Review, 2006

4. Chatterjee, P.The Nation and Its Fragments: Colonial and Postcolonial Histories. Princeton: Princeton University Press. 1993

5. Beatrice, Colomina, ed. Sexuality and Space. New York: Princeton Architectural, Press, 1992. 

6. Brittan, Arthur. Masculinity and Power. UK: Basil Blackwell, 1989.  

7. Brook, Peter. The Empty Space. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1986.

8. Halberstam, Judith. Female Masculinity. New Delhi: Zubaan, an imprint of Kali for Women, 2012.             

9. McDowell, Linda. “Place and Space.” A Concise Companion to Feminist Theory. Ed. Mary Eagleton. USA: Blackwell Publishing, 2003.

10. Niranjana, Seemanthini. Gender and Space: Femininity, Sexualization and the Female     Body. New Delhi: Sage Publications, 2001.

A combination of Zingiber officinale and Allium sativum ethanol extracts prevented liver and kidney toxicities caused by doxorubicin in Wistar rats

Oraekei Daniel Ikechukwu1*, Okoye Odinachi Anthony2, Mba Ogbonnaya2, Abone Harrison Odera3, Obidiegwu Onyeka Chinwuba4

1Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Olivia University, Bujumbura, Burundi.
2Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, PMB 5025 Awka, Anambra State, Nigeria.
3Department of Pharmaceutical Microbiology and Biotechnology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka, Anambra State, Nigeria.
4Department of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka, Anambra State, Nigeria.
Daniel Ikechukwu Oraekei email: oraekeidanielikechukwu@gmail.com
Odinachi Anthony Okoye email: nachi.t.okoye@gmail.com
Ogbonnaya Mba email: mbabte@gmail.com
Harrison Odera Abone email: harrisonabone@gmail.com
Onyeka Chinwuba Obidiegwu email: oc.obidiegwu@unizik.edu.ng

*Corresponding author
Daniel Ikechukwu Oraekei,
1Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Olivia University, Bujumbura, Burundi.
Email: oraekeidanielikechukwu@gmail.com
Phone: +25771629919
ABSTRACT
Background: It is the function of the liver and kidneys to deal with processes concerning detoxification, metabolism, and the excretion of waste products. Aim: This study tested the liver and kidney protective effects of a combination of Z. officinale and A. sativum in Wister rats treated with doxorubicin. Methods: The qualitative phytochemical analysis and acute toxicity studies were carried out using standard methods. Bacterial lipopolysaccharide from Escherichia coli was used to induce systemic inflammatory and oxidative stress. The animals were pretreated for 14 days with the combined extracts of Z. officinale and A.sativum alone, the extracts with doxorubicin, and doxorubicin alone. LPS at 1 mg/kg intraperitoneally dissolved in normal saline was given daily to the animals along with the treatments for an additional 14 days. On the last day, the animals were anesthetized with ketamine and xylazine, and blood samples were withdrawn from the retro-orbital plexus of the animals into plain tubes. Serum alanine transaminase, Alkaline phosphatase, Serum creatinine, and blood urea nitrogen were estimated using standard methods. Results: among all tested phytochemicals, Z. officinale lacks tannins, steroids, Steroids and terpenoids, while A. sativum lacks saponins and glycosides. No mortality was observed after the acute toxicity study. Group 4 rats, which were treated with Z. officinae, A. sativun, and doxorubicin, showed lower serum levels of alanine aminotransferase, alkaline phosphatase, creatinine, and blood urea nitrogen than the control group. Conclusion: Z. officinale-A. sativum combination showed a favorable safety profile and also exhibited significant protective effects against chemotherapeutic liver and kidney toxicities.
Key words: Allium sativum, doxorubicin, kidney toxicity, liver toxicity, Zingiber officinale
INTRODUCTION
Background of the study
The liver and kidneys of the human body actively deal with processes concerning detoxification, metabolism, and the excretion of waste products. The protective role of natural products derived from plants against drug-induced damage to the organs has received significant attention. Zingiber officinale and Allium sativum are two widely used herbs in culinary and medicinal fields. They are well studied for their chemoprotective, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant properties. (Oraekei et al., 2024). Z. officinale contains gingerol and shogaol, and A. sativum contains allicin and ajoene, and these are some of the active constituents that have properties to avert oxidative damage and enhance the functions of organs (Mao et al., 2019). Doxorubicin’s molecular composition leads to the production of free radicals and triggers oxidative stress, which is associated with cellular damage (Tacar et al., 2013). Doxorubicin is a chemotherapeutic agent that is effective in treating various cancers; it is known to induce oxidative stress, leading to hepatotoxicity and nephrotoxicity (Kciuk et al., 2023). Doxorubicin, also known as Adriamycin, is a widely used anthracycline antibiotic that’s actually derived from the bacterium Streptomyces peucetius. (Arcamone et al., 1969). Doxorubicin has been noted to have harmful effects on the liver (Abdulrhaman et al., 2025). It also decreases other protective components like cytochrome P-450 and glutathione in the rat’s liver (Timm etal., 2022). Notably, high glutathione levels have been shown to protect liver cells from Doxorubicin’s toxic effects (Deng et al., 2015). Doxorubicin’s long-term use is limited by severe side effects, including a potentially fatal heart condition that worsens with higher doses. (Belger et al., 2023). The combined use of Z. officinale and A. sativum may offer synergistic effects, potentially mitigating the toxic impact of chemotherapeutic agents like doxorubicin. This study aims to test the liver and kidney protective functions of a combination of Z. officinale and A. sativum in rats treated with doxorubicin. Through biochemical assays, the research seeks to determine whether this herbal blend can mitigate doxorubicin-induced toxicity and support liver and kidney health.
Aim of Study
The aim of the study is to test the liver and kidney protective effects of a combination of Z. officinale and A. sativum in Wister rats treated with doxorubicin.
Scope of Study
This study was narrowed to evaluate the biochemical changes in liver and kidney functions due to doxorubicin toxicity, assess key biomarkers like alanine aminotransferase (ALT), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), creatinine and blood urea nitrogen (BUN).
Literature review
Studies have shown doxorubicin to be a highly chemotherapeutic agent used in treating various cancers. Its use is limited due to the toxic effect it causes on various organs, including the liver and kidneys (Alshabanah et al., 2010). Renal and Hepatic functions are assessed by testing biomarkers such as Alanine aminotransferase (ALT), Aspartate aminotransferase (AST), Alkaline phosphatase (ALP), Creatinine levels, and Blood urea nitrogen (BUN) (Lala et al., 2023). Treatment with Z. officinale showed significant improvement in AST, ALT, and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activities (Abdel-Azeem et al., 2013). Z. officinale administered alone at 530 mg/kg body weight had a greater hepato-protective effect than when given in combination with A. sativum (Oraekei et al., 2024); and this study showed that Z. officinale significantly reduced liver and kidney damage, and the combination containing a higher proportion of Z. officinale was most protective than the other tested combinationse. High levels of ALP or BUN may indicate liver disease or a certain bone disorder or kidneys not functioning well (Lowe et al., 2023).
Herbal medicine combination in pharmacotherapy
When herbs are combined, a lot of interactions can occur, but the desirable interactions are those that can result in enhanced therapeutic benefit. The effects of herbal medicine combinations are usually variable. A herb can be used to potentiate the effect of another herb. An example is the combination of ginseng root and aconite daughter root in an anti-shock remedy (Che et al, 2013). In this combination, the aconite daughter root potentiated the effects of ginseng. Herbal drug combinations can also be antagonistic in their actions. An example is the interaction between turnip root and ginseng root, where ginseng is used as a tonic drug, but when used in the presence of turnip root, its effect will be reduced (Che et al, 2013).
Herb-Drug combination
The use of herb-drug combinations can lead to various clinical presentations, such as potentiation, as seen in the potentiation of the effect of oral corticosteroids by liquorice (Kahraman et al., 2021). The impact of herb-drug combinations can also provide effects that may be additive or antagonistic. Herb-drug combinations can lead to alterations in the gastrointestinal functions, which can affect drug absorption (Brantley et al., 2014). It can also cause induction and inhibition of metabolic enzymes and transport proteins (Fasinu et al., 2012). It can also lead to alteration of renal excretion of drugs and their metabolites (Dresser et al., 2002). Long-term use of St. John’s wort can lead to reduced clinical effectiveness of cytochrome P450 subtype CPY3A4 substrate drugs by CPY3A4 induction, which can cause rapid metabolism and a decrease in the dosage of the drugs (Markowitz et al., 2003).
Possible Herb-Drug Interactions
Herb-drug interactions can occur when herbal supplements are taken with prescription drugs and affect how the medications work in the body. There are so many herb-drug interactions like garlic increasing bleeding when taken with an anticoagulant (Hu et al., 2005). Ginseng interacts with anticoagulants and calcium channel blockers reducing their effects (Jiang et al., 2004). St John’s Wort poses high risks with drugs like cyclosporine, oral contraceptives, and indinavir (Roby et al., 2000).
Brief description of Zingiber officinale
Z. officinale is a rhizome that is widely used as a spice and a medicinal herb. It can be used fresh, dried, or in powdered form in the making of teas and cooking. It contains bioactive compounds like gingerol, which have anti-inflammatory or antioxidant properties. It is used in the treatment of nausea and for relief of cold (Mao et al., 2019).

Figure 1: Image of Z. officinale

Brief description of Allium Sativum
A. sativum is a bulbous plant in the onion family. It is widely used as a culinary spice and in traditional medicine. It has a pungent flavor, which comes from sulfur compounds like allicin. It enhances the cardiovascular system, supports the immune system, and has antimicrobial properties. (Ansary et al., 2020).
Figure 2: Image of A. Sativum.
Materials
Animals
Female Wister rats (230 – 240 g) were used for this study. All the animals were obtained from the animal house of the Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Enugu State University of Science and Technology, Enugu State, Nigeria. The animals were housed in standard laboratory conditions of 12 hours’ light, room temperature, 40-60% relative humidity, and fed with rodent feed (Guinea Feeds Nigeria Ltd). They were allowed free access to food and water. All animal experiments were conducted in compliance with the NIH guide for care and use of laboratory animals (National Institute of Health (NIH), 2011) Pub No: 85-23), and animal protocol was approved by Animal care and ethics committee of Enugu State University of Science and Technology with approval number ESUT/2025/AEC/0962/AP 845.
Plant materials
Fresh Z. officinale rhizome and A. sativum bulb were purchased from Ogbete main market in Enugu state, Nigeria.
Drug
Doxorubicin was used for this research.
Equipment
Glass column, flasks, beakers, test tubes, surgical blade, measuring cylinder, forceps, scissors, white transparent paper, Analytical Weighing balance(Metler H30, Switzerland), Electric oven, Water bath (Gallenkamp, England) Water bath, disposable pipette tips (Labcompare USA), intubation tubes, stop watch (Avi Scientific India), BUN and creatinine test kits (Teco Diagnostics, USA), precision pipettes (25, 50, 100, and 300 μl, 1,000 µL) (Labcompare USA), AST test kit (Span Diagnostics Ltd., India), UV-VIS spectrophotometer (Model 752, China), distilled or deionized water (SnowPure Water Technologies USA), micropipette (Finnipipette® Labsystems, Finland), disposable hand gloves (Supermax Malaysia), National Blender (Japan), ALP test kit (Span Diagnostics Ltd., India), ALT test kit (Span Diagnostics Ltd., India), plethysmometer (Biodevices, New Delhi, India).
Methods
Phytochemical analysis
The qualitative phytochemical analysis of the extracts was carried out using standard methods described by Odoh et al. (2019).
Test for alkaloids: The plant extracts (0.2 g) were heated in 20 mL of 2% acid solution (HCL) individually in a water bath for about 2 minutes. The resulting solutions were allowed to cool and then filtered, and then 5 mL of the filtrate was used for Hager’s test. The samples (5 mL) were placed in labeled test tubes, and a few drops of Hager’s reagent (saturated picric acid solution) were added. Formation of a yellow precipitate indicated the presence of alkaloids.
Test for glycosides
The samples were extracted with 1% H2SO4 solution in a hot water bath for about 2 minutes. The resulting solution was filtered and made distinctly alkaline by adding 4 drops of 20% KOH (confirmed with litmus paper). One milliliter of Fehling’s solution (equal volume of A and B) was added to the filtrates and heated on a hot water bath for 2 minutes. Brick red precipitate indicated the presence of glycosides.
Test for saponins
The plant extracts (0.2 g) were dissolved in methanol individually, and the resulting solutions were used for Frothing test. The samples (5 mL) were placed in labeled test tubes, and 5 mL of distilled water was added and the mixtures were shaken vigorously. The test tubes were observed for the presence of persistent froth.
Test for tannins
The plant extracts (0.2 g) were dissolved in methanol individually, and the resulting solutions were used for the test. To 3 mL of each of the samples, a few drops of 1% Ferric chloride were added and observed for brownish green or a blue-black coloration.
Test for flavonoids
Using methanol, 0.2 g of the plant extracts and fractions were dissolved individually, and the resulting solutions were used for Ammonium hydroxide test. A quantity of 2 mL of 10% ammonia solution was added to a portion of each of the samples and allowed to stand for 2 minutes. Yellow coloration at the lower ammoniacal layer indicated the presence of a flavonoid.
Test for steroids and terpenoids
Salkowski test: The plant extracts were dissolved in methanol individually, and the resulting solutions were used for the test. A 5 mL of each of the samples was mixed with 2 mL of chloroform, and concentrated H2SO4 was carefully added to form a layer. A reddish-brown coloration at the interface indicated a positive test.
Acute toxicity studies
Acute oral toxicity of the combination of Z. officinale, A. sativum (6:4) and doxorubicin (318, 212, and 5 mg/kg respectively) was performed according to the Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD, 2021) guideline 425 for testing of chemicals (Up and down method). The single combination dose was administered to the animal based on their body weight. The animals were closely observed for the first 30 minutes, then for 4 hours. Food was provided after 2 hours of dosing. After the survival of the first treated animal, 4 more animals were treated with the same dose at an interval of 48 hours each. The control group of rats (n = 5) was administered with distilled water (vehicle used in preparing the herbal mixture) in the same volume as that of the treated group. All the groups were closely observed for 6 hours and then at regular intervals for 14 days. The animals were weighed and observed for mortality, salivation, diarrhea, asthenia, hypo-activity, hyperactivity, piloerection, hyperventilation, aggressiveness, yellowing or loss of hair fur, drowsiness, convulsion, tremor, dizziness, and other obvious signs of toxicity.
Experimental design
Bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS) from Escherichia coli, purchased from Sigma-Aldrich, was used to induce systemic inflammatory and oxidative stress states. The animals were pretreated for 14 days with the combined extracts of Z. officinale and A. sativum alone; the extracts with doxorubicin; and doxorubicin alone. LPS at 1 mg/kg intraperitoneal (I.P) dissolved in normal saline was given daily to the animals along with the treatments for an additional 14 days. Treatment was done 30 minutes before the LPS injection. On the last day, 2 hours after injection of LPS, the animals were anesthetized with ketamine and xylazine, and blood samples were withdrawn from the retro-orbital plexus of the animals into plain tubes.
Animal grouping (5 animals per group)
A total of 25 rats were allocated into five groups of five rats each. Group 1 were uninduced control (Naïve) and were treated with normal saline + 5 ml/kg distilled water via the oral route (p.o.). Group 2 were the negative control and was treated with LPS 1mg/kg i.p + 5 ml/kg distilled water p.o. Group 3 were treated with Z. officinale and A. sativum combination 6:4 (318:212 mg/kg p.o.) + LPS 1mg/kg i.p. Group 4 were treated with Z. officinale: A. sativum: doxorubicin combination (318:212: 5 mg/kg) + LPS 1 mg/kg i.p. While group 5 were treated with doxorubicin 5 mg/kg i. p.
Serum preparation
At the end of the study, blood samples were collected through retro-orbital plexus into a plain covered test tube. The blood samples were allowed to clot by leaving them undisturbed at room temperature for 30 minutes. The clots were removed by centrifuging at 2,000 x g for 10 minutes in a refrigerated centrifuge. The resulting supernatant (serum) was immediately transferred into a clean polypropylene tube using a Pasteur pipette. The samples were maintained at 2–8 °C while handling and apportioned into 0.5 ml aliquots.
Hepatic function tests.
Quantitative determination of alanine aminotransferase (ALT)
Serum alanine transaminase was estimated by the method described by Oraekei et al., (2024) using the ALT test kit (Span Diagnostics Ltd., India). A 0.25 ml of mixture of L-alanine (200 mmol/l), α-oxoglutarate (2.0 mmol/l), and phosphate buffer (100 mmol/l) was added to 0.5 ml of each sample and blank (containing distilled water). They were mixed and incubated at 37 °C for exactly 30 minutes in a water bath. A 0.25 ml of 2,4- dinitrophenylhydrazine was added to the sample and blank test tubes and incubated again at room temperature for 20 minutes. A 2.5 ml of sodium hydroxide (0.4 mol) was then added to all the test tubes, and the absorbance of the sample was read against the blank at 546 nm using a UV-VIS spectrophotometer (Model 752, China). The ALT concentration was extrapolated from a graph of concentration against wavelength absorbance of known ALT concentrations.
Quantitative determination of alkaline phosphatase (ALP)
Alkaline phosphatase was estimated by the method described by Colville (2002) using the ALP test kit (Span Diagnostics Ltd., India). A 0.5 ml of Alkaline Phosphatase substrate was placed in the sample and blank labeled test tubes and equilibrated to 37 °C for 3 minutes. At a timed interval, 0.05 ml each of standard, control (deionized water), and sample was added to its respective test tubes. The mixture was incubated for 10 minutes at 37 °C. A 2.5 ml of alkaline phosphatase color developer (0.1 M Sodium Hydroxide and 0.1 M sodium Carbonate) was added and properly mixed. The absorbance of the samples was read at 590 nm using a UV-VIS spectrophotometer (Model 752, China) and recorded. ALP concentration was calculated using the equation below;
Calculation of ALP concentration
ALP= (Abs of samples x value of standard (IU/L¬))/(Abs of standard)
Where Standard Value = 50 IU/L
Renal function tests
Serum creatinine and blood urea nitrogen (BUN) were estimated by the method described by Tietz (1976) and Heinegard and Tiderstrom (1973), respectively, using creatinine and BUN test kits (Teco Diagnostics, USA).
Quantitative determination of creatinine
Creatinine working reagent was prepared by combining equal volumes of 10 mM picric acid and Creatinine buffer reagent (10 mM sodium borate, 240 nM sodium hydroxide). Then 3.0 ml of this reagent was added to labelled tubes (test, blank, and standard) to which 100 µl of serum (test), 5 mg/dl of Creatinine (Standard), and distilled water (blank) were added and mixed in their designated test tubes. The tubes were incubated at 37 °C for 15 minutes, and the absorbance was measured spectrophotometrically at 520 nm against a test blank. The concentration of Creatinine (mg/dl) was calculated thus:
Creatinine= (Abs of Test)/(Abs of Std) ×Conc.of Std
Where Abs = Absorbance, Std = Standard
Quantitative determination of blood urea nitrogen
A 1.5 ml of BUN Enzyme reagent (containing 10,000 µ/l Urease, 6.0 mmol/l sodium salicylate, 3.2 mmol/l sodium nitroprusside) was added to 10 µl of Test (serum), Standard (20 mg/dl), and Blank (distilled water) followed by incubation for 5 minutes at 37 °C. At a timed interval, 1.5 ml of BUN color developer (6 mmol/L of sodium Hypochlorite and 130 mmol/l sodium hydroxide) was added to each of the labelled tubes and were incubated for another 5 minutes at 37 °C. The absorbance of the tests and standards was measured spectrophotometrically at 630 nm against a blank. Urea nitrogen concentration (mg/dl) was calculated thus:
BUN= (Abs of Test)/(Abs of Std) ×Conc.of Std
Where Abs = Absorbance, Std = Standard
Results
Table 1: Phytochemical analysis of Z. officinale and A.sativum
Phytocompounds Zingiber officinale Allium sativum
Alkaloids + +
Saponins + –
Tannins – +
Flavonoids + +
Steroids and terpenoids – +
Glycosides + –
Yield 44.8 g (11.2%) 62.4 g (15.6%)
Key: + = Present; – = Absent
Acute toxicity study
No mortality was observed throughout the observational period. Reduced physical activities were observed after drug administration, but normalcy was restored 30 minutes later. Other observations were similar to those of the control group that received the vehicle. Delayed signs of toxicity were not recorded within the 14-day observational periods.
Liver and kidney function tests
Figure 1: Serum level of alanine aminotransferase (ALT)
Figure 2: Serum level of alkaline phosphatase (ALP)

Figure 3: Serum level of creatinine
Figure 4: Serum level of blood urea nitrogen (BUN)
Discussion
In the present study, the phytochemical composition and protective effects of a combined extract of Z. officinale and A. sativum against doxorubicin-induced toxicity were investigated, with a particular focus on liver and kidney function biomarkers. The phytochemical analysis revealed that both Z. officinale and A. sativum contain bioactive compounds such as alkaloids and flavonoids, known for their antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and hepatoprotective properties. Z. officinale showed the presence of saponins and glycosides, which were absent in A. sativum, while A. Sativum uniquely contained tannins and a combination of steroids and terpenoids, which were absent in Z. officinale. These differences suggest that the combination of both plants could offer a wider spectrum of protective phytochemicals than each of the herbs alone. A study conducted by Mao et al., (2019) confirmed the presence of bioactive compounds like flavonoids and gingerols in Z. officinale, which exhibited antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties.
The acute toxicity assessment showed no mortality or significant adverse effects in the treated animals over a 14-day observation period. Although a temporary reduction in physical activity was observed shortly after extract administration, the animals recovered within 30 minutes. This rapid return to normal behavior, coupled with the absence of delayed toxicity signs, suggests that the herbal combination is safe at the administered dosage. Z. officicinale was shown to be safe when administered in rats at doses up to 2000 mg/kg. (Rong et al., 2009)
Biochemical analyses further supported the extract’s protective effects. Doxorubicin, known for its potent chemotherapeutic activity as well as its hepatotoxic and nephrotoxic side effects, significantly elevated serum markers of liver and kidney injury. Alanine aminotransferase (ALT), a key indicator of liver cell damage, increased significantly following doxorubicin administration. However, animals pre-treated with the Z. officinale-A. sativum combination exhibited a significant reduction of ALT levels compared to the doxorubicin-only group, indicating a strong hepatoprotective effect of the extracts. Similarly, levels of alkaline phosphatase (ALP), another marker of hepatic function, were elevated by doxorubicin treatment but attenuated in animals co-treated with the extracts. The extract alone maintained ALP and ALT levels close to those of the healthy control group, suggesting it has no intrinsic hepatotoxicity and may even support liver health under normal conditions.
Renal functions, assessed via serum creatinine and blood urea nitrogen (BUN), also deteriorated significantly in response to doxorubicin. However, treatment with the Z. officinale-A. sativum combination weakened these effects. Although creatinine and BUN levels remained higher than those of untreated controls, they were significantly lower than in the doxorubicin-only group, indicating nephroprotection. The extract alone maintained creatinine and BUN levels within normal ranges, again reinforcing its safety and potential therapeutic value.
Overall, the results demonstrated that the combined extract of Z. officinale and A. sativum can effectively reduce biochemical signs of liver and kidney toxicity induced by doxorubicin. This protective effect is likely due to the synergistic action of the various phytochemicals present in both plants. Alkaloids, flavonoids, saponins, glycosides, tannins, and terpenoids are all known to contribute to antioxidant defense mechanisms and membrane stabilization, which may account for the observed mitigation of organ damage.
Conclusion
From this study, the Z. officinale-A. sativum combination not only showed a favorable safety profile but also exhibited significant protective effects against chemotherapeutic toxicity. These findings suggest that such a combination could serve as a promising adjunct therapy to reduce organ damage in patients undergoing doxorubicin treatment.

Acknowledgement
I am thankful to God for his unwavering support throughout this study. My appreciation also goes to Dr. Ajaghaku Lotenna Daniel and the laboratory technologists of the Pharmacology and Toxicology department, Enugu State University of Science and Technology, for their expertise that enabled the smooth completion of this study.
Disclosure of conflict of interest
Daniel Ikechukwu Oraekei declared no conflict of interest
Odinachi Anthony Okoye declared no conflict of interest
Ogbonnaya Mba declared no conflict of interest
Harrison Odera Abone declared no conflict of interest
Onyeka Chinwuba Obidiegwu declared no conflict of interest
Statement of ethical approval
Maintenance and care of all animals were carried out in accordance with EU Directive 2010/63/EU for animal experiments. Guide for the care and use of Laboratory Animals, DHHS Publ. # (NIH 86-123) were strictly adhered to. Animal protocol was approved by the Animal Care and Ethics Committee of Enugu State University of Science and Technology with approval number ESUT/2025/AEC/0962/AP 845. There was additional approval by the Nnamdi Azikiwe University’s Ethical Committee for the use of Laboratory Animals for Research Purposes (Approval number is NAU/AREC/2025/0077).

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Daily writing prompt
What advice would you give to your teenage self?
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India’s Evolving Role in Environmental Protection: A Study in Post-Globalization Era

Daily writing prompt
What is your favorite drink?
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Citation

Papparaya, & Yatanoor, C. M. (2026). India’s Evolving Role in Environmental Protection: A Study in Post-Globalization Era. International Journal of Research, 13(1), 599–607. https://doi.org/10.26643/ijr/2026/v13i1-2

Papparaya

Research Scholar

Department of Political Science

Gulbarga University, Kalaburagi, 585 106

Karnataka

papparaya123@gmail.com

Prof. Chandrakant. M. Yatanoor

Senior Professor & Chairman

Department of Political Science

Gulbarga University, Kalaburagi, 585 106

Karnataka

cmyatanoor@rediffmail.com

Abstract:

         The advent of globalization, particularly following India’s economic liberalization in 1991, has presented a complex and often contradictory set of challenges and opportunities for the nation’s environmental governance. This paper examines India’s evolving role in environmental protection in this transformative period. It argues that globalization has acted as a dual-edged sword, concurrently accelerating environmental degradation through rapid industrialization and consumerism, while also providing access to green technologies, international finance, and a platform for global environmental diplomacy. The paper analyses the trajectory of India’s domestic environmental policy, highlighting the critical role of judicial activism and the strengthening of legal and institutional frameworks, such as the National Green Tribunal. It further explores India’s transition on the international stage from a cautious participant to a proactive leader, exemplified by its instrumental role in the Paris Agreement and the launch of initiatives like the International Solar Alliance (ISA). Despite these advancements, significant challenges persist, including a persistent gap between policy formulation and implementation, the contentious development-versus-environment debate, and acute vulnerability to climate change. The paper concludes that India’s future role is pivotal; its ability to successfully navigate the intricate nexus of economic growth and ecological sustainability will not only determine its own developmental trajectory but also have profound implications for global environmental security.

Keywords: Globalization, Environmental Protection, India, Sustainable Development, Climate Change, Environmental Policy, Judicial Activism, International Solar Alliance (ISA).

Introduction:

           The process of globalization, characterized by the accelerated integration of economies, cultures, and societies, has fundamentally reshaped the global environmental landscape. For developing nations, this integration has been a catalyst for unprecedented economic growth, but it has often come at a significant ecological cost1. India, since its economic liberalization in 1991, stands as a prime case study of this complex dynamic. As one of the world’s fastest-growing major economies and its most populous nation, India’s developmental pathway and its approach to environmental stewardship carry immense global weight. The post-globalization era has forced India to confront a dual reality: the pressures of resource-intensive growth and pollution on one hand, and the opportunities for international collaboration and technological advancement in sustainability on the other2.

           Before 1991, India’s environmentalism was largely shaped by domestic concerns, culminating in foundational legislation like the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974, the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981, and the comprehensive Environment (Protection) Act, 1986, which was enacted in the aftermath of the Bhopal gas tragedy3. However, the post-1991 economic reforms unshackled the industrial sector, attracted Foreign Direct Investment (FDI), and integrated India into global supply chains. This unleashed economic forces that placed immense strain on the country’s natural resource base and its nascent regulatory capacity.

          Now, it is essential to examine India’s evolving role in environmental protection since 1991. It reveals that India’s journey has been one of adaptation and transformation, characterized by a reactive strengthening of domestic policy in response to escalating environmental crises and a gradual, yet decisive, shift towards a leadership role in global environmental diplomacy. This paper analysed the dual impacts—negative and positive—of globalization on India’s environment. It will then trace the evolution of the nation’s domestic legal and institutional frameworks, with a special focus on the crucial role of judicial activism. Subsequently, India’s engagement in international environmental forums is discussed. The persistent challenges and future prospects for sustainable development in India are also analysed.

The Dual Impact of Globalization on India’s Environment

         Globalization’s effect on India’s environment is not monolithic; it has simultaneously been a source of degradation and a catalyst for positive change.

A. Negative Externalities and Accelerated Degradation

          The most visible consequence of economic liberalization was the rapid pace of industrialization and urbanization. The drive to attract investment and boost manufacturing output often led to the relaxation of environmental oversight, creating “pollution havens” in certain industrial clusters4. This resulted in:

  1. Increased Pollution: Air and water pollution levels surged. The proliferation of thermal power plants, vehicular emissions in rapidly growing cities, and untreated industrial effluents from sectors like textiles, tanneries, and chemicals have led to a severe public health crisis. A 2020 report noted that 22 of the world’s 30 most polluted cities were in India, with Particulate Matter (PM2.5) concentrations far exceeding World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines5.
  2. Resource Depletion: The demands of a globalized economy have intensified pressure on India’s natural resources. Deforestation for mining, infrastructure projects, and industrial agriculture has accelerated. Water tables have plummeted due to unsustainable extraction for both agriculture and industry, leading to acute water stress in many parts of the country6.
  3. Consumption Patterns and Waste Management: Globalization introduced global brands and fostered a culture of consumerism. This, coupled with rapid urbanization, has led to a monumental increase in municipal solid waste, plastic waste, and electronic waste (e-waste). The infrastructure for managing this waste has failed to keep pace, resulting in overflowing landfills, polluted water bodies, and informal, hazardous recycling practices7.

B. Positive Opportunities and Catalysts for Change

           Despite these severe negative impacts, globalization has also provided pathways for environmental improvement.

  1. Access to Green Technology and Finance: Integration with the global economy has facilitated the transfer of cleaner and more efficient technologies. India has become one of the world’s largest markets for renewable energy, driven by falling costs of solar panels and wind turbines, largely imported or produced with foreign technology. Furthermore, international financial mechanisms, such as the Green Climate Fund and FDI in sustainable projects, have provided crucial capital for India’s green transition8.
  2. Enhanced Global Awareness and Civil Society: Globalization has connected Indian environmental movements with international networks. This has amplified the voices of non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and civil society groups, enabling them to exert greater pressure on the government and corporations. Global norms and standards regarding environmental protection and corporate social responsibility have slowly begun to influence domestic policy and corporate behavior9.
  3. Pressure from International Markets: As Indian companies became more integrated into global supply chains, they faced increasing pressure from international buyers and consumers to adhere to higher environmental and labour standards. This has incentivized some export-oriented industries to adopt cleaner production processes and obtain international certifications like ISO 14001.

The Evolution of Domestic Environmental Governance

         In response to the escalating environmental crises of the post-globalization era, India’s domestic governance framework underwent a significant, albeit often reactive, evolution, driven primarily by judicial intervention and subsequent legislative action.

(i) The Era of Judicial Activism

           Perhaps the most significant development in Indian environmental jurisprudence has been the proactive role of the judiciary. Through Public Interest Litigations (PILs), the Supreme Court of India and various High Courts have expanded the interpretation of the Constitution to protect the environment. The court declared that the “Right to Life” under Article 21 of the Constitution includes the right to a clean and healthy environment10. This principle became the basis for numerous landmark judgments:

  • In the M.C. Mehta v. Union of India series of cases, the Supreme Court issued directives on controlling pollution in the Ganga River, relocating polluting industries from Delhi, and mandating the use of Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) for public transport in the capital11.
  • The judiciary established key environmental principles in Indian law, including the “precautionary principle,” the “polluter pays principle,” and the doctrine of “public trust,” which holds that the state is a trustee of natural resources for the public12.

           This judicial activism filled a critical void left by executive and legislative inertia, compelling the government to act on pressing environmental issues.

(ii) Strengthening of Institutional and Legal Frameworks

           Prompted by judicial orders and growing public pressure, the government strengthened its institutional architecture.

  1. The National Green Tribunal (NGT): A landmark development was the establishment of the National Green Tribunal in 2010. The NGT is a specialized judicial body equipped with expertise to handle environmental cases effectively and expeditiously. It has delivered several impactful judgments, including bans on old diesel vehicles, regulations on sand mining, and penalties for environmental violations, establishing itself as a powerful environmental watchdog13.
  2. New Policies and Regulations: The post-globalization era saw the introduction of a new suite of environmental regulations targeting specific problems. These include the E-Waste (Management) Rules, 2016; Plastic Waste Management Rules, 2016; and Solid Waste Management Rules, 2016. The National Environment Policy (2006) was formulated to mainstream environmental concerns into all development activities14.
  3. Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA): The EIA notification, first issued in 1994 and subsequently amended, made environmental clearance mandatory for a wide range of development projects. However, the EIA process has been a subject of intense debate, with critics arguing that recent amendments, such as the draft EIA Notification 2020, have sought to dilute environmental safeguards in favor of promoting “ease of doing business”15.

India on the Global Stage: International Environmental Diplomacy

            India’s role in international environmental negotiations has transformed significantly. Initially, its stance was defensive, strongly advocating for the principle of “Common But Differentiated Responsibilities and Respective Capabilities” (CBDR-RC) to emphasize the historical responsibility of developed nations for climate change and to protect its own “right to develop”16. While this principle remains a cornerstone of its foreign policy, India’s approach has become more proactive and solution-oriented.

A. Leadership in Climate Action: The Paris Agreement

         At the 2015 Paris Climate Conference (COP21), India played a crucial role as a bridge between developed and developing nations, helping to forge the final consensus. It submitted ambitious Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs), which included:

  • Reducing the emissions intensity of its GDP by 33-35% by 2030 from 2005 levels.
  • Achieving about 40% of cumulative electric power installed capacity from non-fossil fuel-based energy resources by 2030.
  • Creating an additional carbon sink of 2.5 to 3 billion tonnes of CO2 equivalent through additional forest and tree cover by 2030.

           At COP26 in Glasgow (2021), India further enhanced these commitments, pledging to achieve net-zero emissions by 2070 and setting a target of 500 GW of non-fossil fuel energy capacity by 203017.

B. Proactive Multilateral Initiatives

           Beyond its commitments, India has launched major international initiatives, positioning itself as a leader of the Global South in the green transition.

  1. International Solar Alliance (ISA): Co-founded by India and France in 2015, the ISA is a treaty-based intergovernmental organization that aims to mobilize technology and finance to promote the widespread deployment of solar energy. With over 120 signatory countries, the ISA is a testament to India’s vision of “one sun, one world, one grid” and its leadership in climate solutions18.
  2. Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI): Launched by India at the 2019 UN Climate Action Summit, the CDRI is a multi-stakeholder global partnership that aims to promote the resilience of new and existing infrastructure systems to climate and disaster risks. This initiative addresses a critical adaptation need for developing countries19.

These initiatives signal a strategic shift in India’s role from being a mere rule-    mntaker in global environmental governance to an active agenda-setter.

Challenges and Future Directions

           Despite significant progress in policy formulation and international diplomacy, India faces formidable challenges in translating its ambitions into on-the-ground reality.

  1. The Implementation Gap: A chasm persists between India’s well-formulated environmental laws and their enforcement. State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs) and other regulatory bodies are often underfunded, understaffed, and susceptible to political and corporate influence. This results in widespread non-compliance and continued environmental degradation20.
  2. Development vs. Environment Dichotomy: The tension between achieving rapid economic growth and ensuring environmental protection remains a central political challenge. The government has often been accused of prioritizing industrial and infrastructure projects by diluting environmental regulations, as seen in the controversies surrounding forest clearances and the EIA process.
  3. Climate Change Vulnerability: India is one of the country’s most vulnerable to the impacts of climate change, including extreme weather events, sea-level rise, and water scarcity. Adapting to these impacts will require massive investment and planning, diverting resources that are also needed for mitigation and poverty alleviation21.
  4. Resource Inefficiency and Circular Economy: India’s economy is still highly resource-intensive. Transitioning to a circular economy model, which emphasizes resource efficiency, recycling, and waste minimization, is crucial but remains in its nascent stages.

         In the future, India’s role will be defined by its ability to address these challenges. Key priorities must include strengthening regulatory institutions, investing in enforcement capacity, mainstreaming sustainability into economic planning, and fostering public participation in environmental decision-making.

Conclusion:

          The era of globalization has profoundly shaped India’s environmental trajectory, presenting it with a formidable set of problems and a unique array of opportunities. The pressures of a rapidly growing, market-integrated economy have undeniably exacerbated pollution, resource depletion, and ecological stress. However, this same period has seen the rise of a powerful and independent judiciary, the creation of a sophisticated legal framework, and the emergence of India as a credible and influential voice in global environmental diplomacy.

           India’s role is inherently paradoxical: it is a major contributor to global environmental challenges, yet it is also a source of innovative, large-scale solutions, particularly in the renewable energy sector. Its leadership through platforms like the ISA and CDRI demonstrates a clear intent to shape a more sustainable global future. The ultimate test, however, lies in its domestic performance. Bridging the gap between policy and practice, resolving the conflict between short-term economic gains and long-term ecological security, and building a truly sustainable development model are the defining challenges for India in the 21st century. The success or failure of this endeavour will not only determine the well-being of its 1.4 billion citizens but will also be a critical factor in humanity’s collective effort to secure a viable planetary future.

References:

  1. J. A. Frankel, “The Environment and Globalization,” in Globalization: What’s New, M. M. Weinstein, Ed. New York: Columbia University Press, 2005, pp. 129-169.
  2. E. S. Somanathan and R. S. Kumar, “Environmental Policy in India: A Review,” in A Companion to the Indian Economy, P. Basu, Ed. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011, pp. 491-508.
  3. S. Divan and A. Rosencranz, Environmental Law and Policy in India: Cases, Materials and Statutes, 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001.
  4. S. Murty, B. N. Kumar, and M. Paul, “Environmental Regulation, Productive Efficiency and Abatement Cost in Indian Cement Industry,” Ecological Economics, vol. 59, no. 1, pp. 123-134, Aug. 2006.
  5. IQAir, World Air Quality Report 2020: Region & City PM2.5 Ranking, 2021. [Online]. Available: https://www.iqair.com/world-air-quality-report
  6. NITI Aayog, Composite Water Management Index, Government of India, New Delhi, Jun. 2018.
  7. Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), Annual Report 2018-19 on Implementation of Solid Waste Management Rules, 2016, New Delhi: Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, 2019.
  8. International Energy Agency (IEA), India Energy Outlook 2021, Paris: IEA, Feb. 2021.
  9. A. Kothari, “Environment and Globalization: A View from India,” Development, vol. 48, no. 2, pp. 81-86, Jun. 2005.
  10. P. Leelakrishnan, Environmental Law in India, 4th ed. New Delhi: LexisNexis, 2016.
  11. M. C. Mehta v. Union of India, (1987) 1 SCC 395 (Oleum Gas Leak Case).
  12. L. Rajamani, “The Right to a Healthy Environment in India: The Judiciary’s Role,” Review of European, Comparative & International Environmental Law, vol. 11, no. 2, pp. 175-184, Jul. 2002.
  13. G. P. Wilson, “India’s National Green Tribunal: A Robust Environmental Court,” Journal of Environmental Law, vol. 27, no. 1, pp. 131-143, Mar. 2015.
  14. Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC), National Environment Policy, 2006, Government of India, New Delhi, 2006.
  15. K. C. S. Kartha and L. V. Kumar, “Dilution of Environmental Norms: An Analysis of the Draft EIA Notification 2020,” Economic and Political Weekly, vol. 55, no. 34, pp. 10-13, Aug. 2020.
  16. N. Dubash, “The Politics of Climate Change in India: Narratives of Equity and Co-benefits,” Wires Climate Change, vol. 4, no. 3, pp. 191-201, May/Jun. 2013.
  17. Government of India, India’s Updated First Nationally Determined Contribution Under Paris Agreement (2021-2030), submitted to UNFCCC, Aug. 2022. [Online]. Available: https://unfccc.int/NDCREG
  18. International Solar Alliance, About ISA, [Online]. Available: https://isolaralliance.org/about/
  19. Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure, About CDRI, [Online]. Available: https://www.cdri.world/about-cdri
  20. S. Narain, “The Challenge of Implementation in India’s Environmental Governance,” in The Oxford Handbook of the Indian Economy, C. Ghate, Ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012, pp. 603-625.
  21. Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), “Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability,” Contribution of Working Group II to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press, 2022.

Subaltern Voices and the Politics of Representation in Postcolonial Texts

Daily writing prompt
Where would you go on a shopping spree?
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Citation

Dwivedi, S. (2026). Subaltern Voices and the Politics of Representation in Postcolonial Texts. International Journal of Research, 13(2), 218–224. https://doi.org/10.26643/rb.v118i1.7619

Shambhavi Dwivedi

MA, NET (English)

Dwivedi Clinic

Bhagwan Bazar, Chapra

Abstract

Postcolonial literature has played a crucial role in foregrounding the voices of marginalized communities whose experiences were historically excluded from dominant colonial narratives. One of the most significant concepts within postcolonial studies is the notion of the subaltern, which refers to those social groups that remain outside the structures of power and representation within hegemonic discourse. Colonial regimes not only imposed political and economic domination but also controlled systems of knowledge and cultural representation, thereby silencing indigenous voices and rewriting histories from the perspective of imperial authority. In response to these distortions, postcolonial writers and theorists have sought to recover the experiences of the subaltern and challenge the politics of representation embedded within colonial discourse. This research article examines the emergence of subaltern voices in postcolonial texts and analyzes how literature becomes a space for contesting hegemonic power structures. It explores the theoretical framework of subaltern studies and the politics of representation articulated by major thinkers, while also investigating the narrative strategies employed by postcolonial writers to represent marginalized communities. The study further examines how issues of voice, agency, identity, gender, and cultural memory shape the representation of subaltern experiences in postcolonial narratives. By analyzing selected literary works from postcolonial contexts, the article demonstrates that literature functions not only as a medium of artistic expression but also as a site of political resistance and cultural recovery. Ultimately, the politics of representation in postcolonial texts reveals the complexities involved in giving voice to historically marginalized groups and underscores the importance of literature in challenging structures of domination and reconstructing alternative histories.

Keywords: Subaltern studies, postcolonial literature, politics of representation, marginalization, identity, resistance, cultural memory

Introduction

The emergence of postcolonial literature marked a significant shift in the way history, culture, and identity were represented in literary discourse. For centuries, colonial powers dominated not only the political and economic structures of colonized societies but also their cultural and intellectual narratives. Colonial literature and historiography frequently portrayed colonized peoples as passive subjects, incapable of self-representation and dependent upon the civilizing influence of European authority. These representations served to legitimize imperial power while simultaneously marginalizing indigenous voices and cultural traditions.

In response to this legacy, postcolonial writers began to challenge the dominant narratives of empire by foregrounding the experiences of marginalized communities. One of the central concerns of postcolonial studies is the recovery of subaltern voices—those individuals and groups who have historically been excluded from positions of power and whose perspectives have rarely been recorded in official historical accounts. The concept of the subaltern has become a crucial analytical tool in examining how colonial power structures operated and how marginalized groups resisted and negotiated these structures.

The term “subaltern” originally emerged within Marxist discourse to describe the lower classes who were excluded from political representation. However, within postcolonial studies, the term has acquired broader significance, referring to those populations whose voices are suppressed within dominant systems of knowledge and representation. Subaltern groups often include peasants, tribal communities, laborers, women, and other marginalized populations who remain outside elite political and cultural institutions.

Postcolonial literature has played an important role in bringing subaltern experiences into global visibility. Writers from formerly colonized societies have sought to challenge the hierarchical structures of representation that colonialism established. By narrating the experiences of marginalized communities, these authors question the authority of colonial historiography and create alternative narratives that highlight the struggles and resilience of oppressed groups.

The politics of representation is central to this process. Representation involves more than simply describing social realities; it also involves the power to shape how those realities are understood. In colonial discourse, representation was often controlled by imperial institutions that depicted colonized peoples in stereotypical and dehumanizing ways. Postcolonial writers confront these representations by offering new perspectives that emphasize the agency, dignity, and complexity of marginalized communities.

This research article explores the ways in which postcolonial texts engage with the politics of representation and recover subaltern voices. It examines the theoretical foundations of subaltern studies and analyzes the narrative strategies through which postcolonial writers represent marginalized experiences. Through this exploration, the article demonstrates that literature serves as a powerful tool for challenging dominant narratives and reconstructing cultural identity.

Theoretical Foundations of Subaltern Studies

The emergence of subaltern studies in the late twentieth century significantly transformed the field of postcolonial scholarship. The Subaltern Studies collective, a group of historians and scholars primarily working on South Asian history, sought to challenge traditional historiography that focused primarily on elite political leaders and colonial administrators. These scholars argued that conventional historical narratives failed to account for the experiences and contributions of ordinary people, particularly peasants and marginalized communities.

Subaltern studies emphasized the importance of examining history from the perspective of those who had been excluded from dominant narratives. By focusing on grassroots movements, local resistance, and everyday forms of agency, scholars sought to reconstruct a more inclusive understanding of historical processes. This approach challenged the assumption that historical change was driven solely by elite actors and highlighted the role of marginalized groups in shaping political and social transformations.

One of the most influential contributions to subaltern theory came from scholars who examined the relationship between power and representation. They argued that colonial knowledge systems played a crucial role in shaping how colonized societies were understood. Through institutions such as education, administration, and scholarship, colonial powers produced narratives that reinforced their authority and marginalized indigenous perspectives.

Subaltern studies also raised important questions about the possibility of representing marginalized voices. Some scholars argued that the subaltern cannot easily speak within dominant systems of representation because those systems are structured by power relations that exclude them. This perspective highlights the difficulties involved in recovering subaltern voices and underscores the need for new methodological approaches in both historical and literary analysis.

Postcolonial literature provides one such approach by creating imaginative spaces in which marginalized voices can be articulated. Through storytelling, writers are able to reconstruct the experiences of those who were excluded from official historical records. While literature cannot fully replicate the lived experiences of subaltern communities, it can offer powerful insights into the social and cultural dynamics that shape their lives.

Colonial Discourse and the Politics of Representation

Colonial discourse played a crucial role in shaping the representation of colonized societies. Through literature, anthropology, and administrative reports, colonial authorities constructed images of indigenous populations that emphasized their supposed inferiority and backwardness. These representations served to justify colonial rule by portraying imperial powers as benevolent agents of progress and civilization.

The politics of representation refers to the ways in which power influences how individuals and communities are depicted in cultural narratives. In colonial discourse, representation was closely linked to the maintenance of imperial authority. By controlling the production of knowledge about colonized societies, colonial institutions were able to shape global perceptions of these communities.

These representations often relied on stereotypes that reduced complex cultures to simplistic and negative images. Colonized peoples were frequently depicted as irrational, primitive, or incapable of self-governance. Such portrayals reinforced the ideological foundations of colonialism and contributed to the marginalization of indigenous voices.

Postcolonial writers challenge these representations by exposing their ideological assumptions and presenting alternative perspectives. Through literature, they reveal the contradictions and injustices embedded within colonial discourse. By highlighting the humanity and agency of marginalized communities, postcolonial narratives challenge the stereotypes that colonialism perpetuated.

The politics of representation also involves questions about who has the authority to speak for others. In many cases, the representation of marginalized communities has been controlled by elite institutions or individuals who do not share the experiences of those they depict. Postcolonial literature addresses this issue by emphasizing the importance of self-representation and by creating narrative spaces in which marginalized voices can be heard.

Subaltern Voices in Postcolonial Literature

One of the most significant contributions of postcolonial literature is its focus on the experiences of marginalized communities. Writers from diverse cultural backgrounds have used literature to explore the lives of those who were historically excluded from positions of power and representation. These narratives often highlight the struggles faced by subaltern groups while also emphasizing their resilience and capacity for resistance.

Subaltern voices in literature frequently emerge through characters who occupy marginalized social positions. These characters may belong to oppressed castes, tribal communities, rural populations, or other groups that have historically been excluded from dominant narratives. By centering these perspectives, postcolonial writers challenge traditional literary hierarchies and expand the scope of storytelling.

The representation of subaltern experiences also involves exploring the everyday realities of marginalization. Issues such as poverty, displacement, cultural erosion, and social discrimination often feature prominently in postcolonial narratives. Through these depictions, writers reveal the structural inequalities that shape the lives of marginalized communities.

At the same time, postcolonial literature does not simply portray subaltern groups as passive victims of oppression. Many texts emphasize the agency and resistance of marginalized individuals who challenge the systems of power that seek to control them. This emphasis on resistance highlights the dynamic nature of subaltern identity and underscores the importance of recognizing the contributions of marginalized communities to social and political change.

Gender, Subalternity, and Representation

Gender plays a crucial role in shaping the experiences of subaltern communities. Women in colonized societies often faced multiple layers of marginalization, including colonial domination, patriarchal oppression, and economic exploitation. As a result, the representation of subaltern women presents unique challenges within postcolonial literature.

Many postcolonial writers have sought to explore the intersections between gender and subalternity. These narratives often highlight the ways in which colonial and patriarchal structures interact to shape the lives of women. Issues such as domestic violence, social exclusion, and cultural restrictions frequently appear in these texts.

At the same time, postcolonial literature also portrays women as active participants in resistance movements and cultural transformation. Female characters often challenge traditional gender roles and assert their autonomy in various ways. Through these representations, postcolonial writers emphasize the importance of recognizing women’s contributions to social and political struggles.

The representation of subaltern women also raises important questions about voice and agency. Some critics argue that literary representations of marginalized women must be approached with caution to avoid reproducing stereotypes or speaking on behalf of those whose experiences may differ from those of the author. This challenge underscores the complexity of representing subaltern identities within literary discourse.

Narrative Strategies in Representing the Subaltern

Postcolonial writers employ a variety of narrative techniques to represent subaltern voices and challenge dominant discourses. One common strategy is the use of multiple narrative perspectives. By presenting events from different viewpoints, authors create a more nuanced understanding of social realities and highlight the diversity of experiences within marginalized communities.

Another important technique is the incorporation of oral traditions and folklore. Many postcolonial societies possess rich oral storytelling traditions that were marginalized by colonial institutions. By integrating these traditions into written literature, authors create alternative narrative forms that reflect indigenous cultural practices.

Language also plays a crucial role in representing subaltern voices. Postcolonial writers often experiment with linguistic forms by blending colonial languages with local dialects and expressions. This linguistic hybridity challenges the dominance of standard literary language and allows writers to capture the rhythms and nuances of everyday speech.

Fragmented narrative structures are also common in postcolonial texts. These structures reflect the disruptions caused by colonialism and highlight the complexities of historical memory. Rather than presenting a linear narrative, fragmented storytelling emphasizes the multiplicity of voices and perspectives that shape collective experience.

Through these narrative strategies, postcolonial literature creates spaces for marginalized voices to emerge. These techniques not only challenge traditional literary conventions but also contribute to the broader project of decolonizing knowledge and representation.

Cultural Memory and the Reconstruction of Identity

Cultural memory plays a significant role in the representation of subaltern voices within postcolonial literature. Colonial rule often disrupted traditional forms of memory by imposing new systems of education and cultural values. As a result, many communities experienced a loss of historical continuity and cultural identity.

Postcolonial writers seek to reconstruct these memories by revisiting historical events and cultural traditions that were marginalized under colonial rule. Through storytelling, they recover the experiences of past generations and reconnect contemporary readers with their cultural heritage.

The reconstruction of cultural memory also contributes to the formation of new identities in postcolonial societies. By reclaiming suppressed histories, individuals and communities are able to redefine their relationship with the past and assert their cultural autonomy.

This process often involves negotiating the complex interactions between indigenous traditions and colonial influences. Postcolonial identities are rarely defined by a single cultural heritage; instead, they emerge from the dynamic interplay of multiple historical and cultural forces. Literature provides a space for exploring these complexities and for imagining new possibilities for cultural belonging.

Conclusion

The recovery of subaltern voices represents one of the most significant achievements of postcolonial literature. By challenging the politics of representation embedded within colonial discourse, postcolonial writers have created new narrative spaces in which marginalized communities can be heard. These narratives expose the limitations of traditional historiography and emphasize the importance of recognizing diverse perspectives in the construction of historical knowledge.

The politics of representation remains a complex and contested issue within postcolonial studies. While literature offers powerful tools for recovering suppressed voices, it also raises important questions about authorship, authority, and the ethics of representation. Nevertheless, postcolonial texts demonstrate that storytelling can serve as a form of resistance against structures of domination.

Through their exploration of subaltern experiences, postcolonial writers contribute to the broader project of decolonizing knowledge and reconstructing cultural identity. Their works remind readers that history is not a neutral record of events but a dynamic process shaped by power, memory, and interpretation.

Ultimately, the representation of subaltern voices in postcolonial literature underscores the transformative potential of narrative. By giving voice to those who have been historically silenced, literature becomes a site of cultural recovery, political critique, and social empowerment.

References

Ashcroft, Bill, Gareth Griffiths, and Helen Tiffin. The Empire Writes Back: Theory and Practice in Postcolonial Literatures. Routledge.

Bhabha, Homi K. The Location of Culture. Routledge.

Gangode, Sitaram., Dugaje, Manohar. Exclusion and Otherness in Arundhati Roy’s The Ministry of the Utmost Happiness. International Journal of Research. Vol-12-Issue-6, June-2025. https://ijrjournal.com/index.php/ijr/article/view/2106

Fanon, Frantz. The Wretched of the Earth. Grove Press.

Guha, Ranajit. Subaltern Studies: Writings on South Asian History and Society. Oxford University Press.

Loomba, Ania. Colonialism/Postcolonialism. Routledge.

Morve, Roshan., Dugaje, Manohar. Exploring lesbian adolescence: an analysis of Abha Dawesar’s Babyji. Mental Health and Social Inclusion. Volume 28, Issue 6. Dec. 2024. https://doi.org/10.1108/MHSI-11-2023-0122

Said, Edward. Orientalism. Vintage Books.

Spivak, Gayatri Chakravorty. “Can the Subaltern Speak?” Marxism and the Interpretation of Culture.

Young, Robert J. C. Postcolonialism: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press.

Trauma and the Pursuit of Equality and Empowerment of Women: A Comparative Analysis of Texts by Margaret Atwood, Kiran Desai, and Arundhati Roy

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Citation

Qureshi, T., & Javed, I. (2026). Trauma and the Pursuit of Equality and Empowerment of Women: A Comparative Analysis of Texts by Margaret Atwood, Kiran Desai, and Arundhati Roy. International Journal of Research, 13(2), 135–145. https://doi.org/10.26643/ijr/2026/38

Tanzah Qureshi                                                                                        Dr. Indira Javed

Research Scholar, tanzahq02@gmail.com                                                  Professor                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   

BU, Bhopal                                                                                        SNGGPG College Bhopal                                                                                                                                           

Abstract-

This paper focuses on various cultural, social and political nuances that help to subjugate the women and the impact this has on the quest for equality. The women writers though shy away from being called the feminist still focus on the issues faced by women, their silent endurance to the discrimination and cultural subjugation which results in various problems faced by them. The female characters in the respective novels face their trails and are triumphant by resolving their psychological or sociological issues. The women writers by talking about these problems have brought them to the centre stage and have thus created a dialogue for gender equality. This analysis delves into Margaret Atwood, Kiran Desai, and Arundhati Roy’s intricate connection between trauma and the quest for empowerment of women by examining the specific manifestations of subjugation within their respective narratives.

Keywords– Trauma, Women empowerment, Gender equality, Alienation, Estrangeness Effect

Objectives

To understand the perspectives of gender from the view point of Margaret Atwood, Arundhati Roy and Kiran Desai,

To explain the effect of gender and patriarchy on women psyche,

Methadology

The research methodology of this research paper is qualitative in design. Researcher has used both primary and secondary material to prove the objectives. Textbooks, critical material such as Research Papers, Journals and viewpoints of experts have been utilized. This is descriptive, explanatory, analytical and comparative study.

Introduction              

Trauma acts as a major barrier to women’s equality, rooted in systemic patriarchal structures, gender-based violence, and transgenerational cycles of abuse. It induces fear, anxiety, and diminished self-confidence, hindering autonomy and economic empowerment. Overcoming this requires trauma-informed approaches, safe spaces, and active engagement of men to dismantle inequality. Addressing trauma is not just an individual, therapeutic need but a necessary step for societal progress in achieving gender equality and empowering women to fully participate in all aspects of life.

Review of Literature and Discussion

“Through her vivid portrayals of women’s struggles and triumphs, Roy critiques the patriarchal systems that perpetuate gender inequality, while also celebrating the resilience and agency of her female protagonists” (Raman and Kumar 2021). This quote suggests that Roy in extreme goes against the gender restrictions and patriarchal norms. She is a feminist and womanist who thinks for women and talks about their empowerment in society, family and state.

Trauma manifests in many things, including the oppressive weight of patriarchal norms, the suppression of individual voices, and the psychological impact of societal expectations. These authors critically examine the systemic pressures which inflict deep-seated wounds upon women, and are manifested as internal conflicts and external struggles for autonomy by women. In Margaret Atwood’s works, female protagonists frequently navigate environments marked by male violence and exploitation, employing psychological defenses to process their suffering before embarking on a transformative journey towards self-reclamation.  Specifically, in The Handmaid’s Tale, Atwood shows the extent of identity loss that the handmaids are stripped of their names. “My name isn’t Offred, I have another name, which nobody uses now because it’s forbidden” (Handmaid’s Tale 3).Atwood explores the intricate relationship between individual memory and societal control, demonstrating how the protagonist Offred utilizes personal recollections to maintain her sense of self amidst Gilead’s systematic attempts to erase her identity. This struggle for self-preservation through memory and resistance against oppressive systems is a recurring motif in Atwood’s works, often highlighting the specifically female nature of these struggles, such as issues surrounding reproductive rights and societal objectification (Banurekha and Abhinya). Atwood’s narratives consistently feature female protagonists who, despite their individual circumstances, actively resist victimhood by finding unique ways to assert their agency and challenge the patriarchal structures that seek to diminish them (Banurekha and Abhinya) ( Jaisy). We see Offred being subjected to gender-based oppression, violence, and objectification. Yet, she subtly defies these constraints through her passive rebellious acts like trying to maintain her autonomy by preserving the memories of her family. Furthermore,in Surfacing, Atwood intricately weaves the themes of environmental degradation and gendered oppression, portraying them as co-dependent systems of domination, where women’s bodies and the natural world become parallel sites of control and commodification ( Muthuswamy and Venkateshkumar). Atwood’s narratives delve into the fragmented psyche of her female characters , often caused by the female subjguation that they face, they have to reconnect with their past to make themselves whole again or to fight the demons of their past and overcome them. This fragmentation often stems from the deceptive patriarchal ideologies that diminish women’s autonomy and the sense of self. Offred, for instance, reclaims her fragmented self through storytelling and her monologues, critiquing the Gileadean propaganda and asserting her individuality. Her internal monologues serve as a critical tool for mental survival, allowing her to resist the imposed subjugation and maintain a semblance of her former identity

The profound psychological impact of such systemic subjugation necessitates a rigorous examination of the coping mechanisms and resistance strategies employed by these protagonists. The narrative often functions as a critical medium for these women to articulate their experiences and reclaim themselves within the oppressive structures.


Kiran Desai in her novel, ‘The Inheritance of Loss’ shows how trauma and displacement profoundly affect the identities and futures of its female characters, illustrating their arduous journeys toward self-discovery amidst postcolonial anxieties. Her protagonists grapple with both personal and collective traumas, revealing how gendered experiences intertwine with broader socio-political dislocations to shape their inner lives and external realities. “Could fulfillment ever be felt as deeply as loss?” (Inheritance of Loss 3)

This poignant question encapsulates the existential dilemmas faced by Desai’s characters, who are often caught between cultural expectations and personal aspirations. In her Novel, characters like Nimi, the judge’s wife went through abuse. “He beat her with a brass vase. She was never the same again”(Inheritance of Loss 186).

This line highlights the impact that abuse has on women and the subsequent changes that come with it. Nimi was beautiful and rich, Jemubhai, took advantage of the dowry money and yet he did not even treat his wife as a human being. Once he hurled her face in the toilet. whenever he met her, she had gone through phases of abuses and his ultimate decision to never see her brings her even more misery. She was neglected and abused. This systemic mistreatment, including marital violence and abandonment, leaves indelible psychological scars, illustrating how patriarchal structures inflict lasting damage on women’s sense of self-worth and agency. Such portrayals underscore the pervasive nature of gender inequality, where women are often confined to subordinate roles and subjected to various forms of exploitation, including psychological, economic, and sexual abuse. These profound and multifaceted traumas necessitate resilient coping mechanisms, which often manifest as internal resistance and a determined pursuit of self-redefinition against oppressive societal norms (Devraju) ( Sharma and Chouhan). The female characters in Desai’s works frequently navigate the complexities of cultural hybridity and identity crises, often reflecting the broader post-colonial struggles for self-definition in a globalized world (Tennyson) .

Desai through Sai shows the generational gendered changes. The changes are albiet subtle but Desai has shown these tranformations. Sai, though more educated and modern, still grapples with gendered expectations. Her romance with Gyan exposes the fragility of her autonomy in a society where women’s choices are often undermined. Her experiences highlight the subtle yet persistent ways in which patriarchal norms continue to influence even seemingly liberated women, forcing them to negotiate their desires within established societal frameworks (Desai). Her attempts to assert independence are frequently met with resistance, underscoring the enduring societal pressures that circumscribe female agency even in contemporary contexts.

Arundhati Roy also exposes the Indian society’s fragility when Ammu falls in love with Baba. This transgression of caste and social boundaries leads to tragic consequences, illustrating how societal rigidity and patriarchal control restrict women’s emotional and physical freedom, ultimately shaping their destiny. Roy’s novel The God of Small Things further underscores how societal prejudices and patriarchal systems contribute to the trauma experienced by women, often through the lens of forbidden love and its devastating repercussions on female protagonists. The tragic narratives of Ammu and other female characters reveal how the intersection of gender, class, and caste often subjects women to systemic oppression, leading to profound personal and intergenerational trauma. Her relationship with Velutha, an Untouchable, challenges the deeply entrenched caste system, highlighting the intersection of gender and caste as sites of resistance (Chacko 2000 and Nair 2002).

“She’s a woman. She’s not allowed to decide what she wants” (The God of Small Things 45). This statement profoundly encapsulates the pervasive subjugation experienced by women within rigidly hierarchical societal constructs, wherein patriarchal norms systematically curtail individual agency.

Rahel navigates a different path. She modern, independent well eduacted but still bears the scars of this societal conditioning, manifesting in her struggles with relationships and a pervasive sense of displacement. She does get married to a man but she struggles with emotional intimacy. She recognizes that Larry loves her, and she accepts the void that exists in her marriage.

“He couldn’t understand her. She couldn’t explain. They didn’t agree on things” (The God of Small Things 20). Their inability to bridge this communicative chasm underscores the profound alienation that can arise even within intimate partnerships when fundamental understandings of identity and desire diverge, a consequence often exacerbated by the entrenched societal pressures impacting female autonomy.

In The God of Small Things, the female characters, including Mammachi, Baby Kochamma, Ammu, and Rahel, despite their intellect and affluence, are unable to achieve their full potential due to a system of oppression rooted in gender. She understands the profound impact of her mother’s ostracization on her own capacity for connection, highlighting the intergenerational trauma inflicted by societal strictures. This intergenerational trauma, exacerbated by societal judgments and restrictive norms, manifests as a perpetual struggle against systemic oppression, impeding the women’s achieving their full potential and well-being (ALI).

Specifically, the analysis delves into how these authors utilize distinct narrative techniques to portray the psychological impact of trauma, often linking individual experiences of distress to broader socio-political injustices (Abubakar, 2017). Moreover, this section explores how the authors’ representational choices, particularly concerning gender and sexuality, contribute to a nuanced understanding of trauma within marginalized communities, thereby offering fresh insights into the intricate interplay of power and vulnerability (Ranga & Prasad, 2025). For instance, Atwood’s *Surfacing* explores the protagonist’s journey of individuation, directly linking her psychological recovery from past traumatic experiences to an introspective exploration of her unconscious mind (González Hernández, 2015) (Heidarizadeh, 2015). Desai, on the other hand, through characters like Bim, explores the enduring nature of trauma within familial structures, highlighting how intergenerational patterns of abuse and societal expectations shape feminine identity within traditional contexts (Kumar, 2024). Roy further complicates this by depicting characters, such as Rahel, who navigate complex socio-political landscapes where caste, gender, and historical legacies profoundly impact their identity and choices, underscoring the pervasive influence of societal and familial pressures (Kumar, 2024). This analytical framework further extends to examining how these authors, through their distinct literary styles, dismantle hegemonic narratives concerning gender and sexuality, advocating for more inclusive and equitable societal visions (Ranga & Prasad, 2025). Through their narratives, these authors collectively illuminate the intricate connections between personal suffering and systemic inequalities, advocating for a deeper understanding of how trauma permeates individual and collective consciousness (Heidarizadeh, 2015).

Discussion

The discussion section will elaborate on the implications of these findings, drawing connections between the narrative techniques and thematic concerns identified in the results section to broader theoretical frameworks concerning trauma studies, postcolonial literature, and feminist theory. Specifically, it will explore how Atwood, Desai, and Roy contribute to an understanding of trauma not merely as an individual psychological phenomenon, but as a deeply embedded socio-political construct shaped by historical oppressions and power imbalances.

And how these traumatic experiences, specifically of women, pave the way for a more nuanced approach where women realize that their sufferings wouldn’t end until and unless they change themselves. They take charge, and they resolve their traumas. This profound understanding is clearly shown in the generational changes that women see. Rahel and Ammu’s situation is different but the inherent trauma remains the same This cyclical nature of trauma across generations underscores the need for profound societal transformation rather than individual adaptation, suggesting that collective action is essential for true liberation from oppressive structures. Moreover, the enduring effects of Partition, as depicted in various literary works, highlight how historical events continue to shape the traumatic experiences of women, emphasizing the need for a comprehensive understanding of their lived realities.This literary analysis delves into the psychological underpinnings of female protagonists, revealing how characters like Mariam and Rahel internalize their mothers’ trauma, perpetuating cycles of self-perception influenced by gendered oppression and cultural exclusion (Işık, 2025). This intergenerational transference of trauma not only molds their individual identities but also reflects broader societal narratives where women’s worth is often defined by their roles within patriarchal structures (Kumar, 2024).

Furthermore, the psychological exploration of these characters often reveals a fractured self, necessitating an internal journey toward self-knowledge and integration, much like Jungian individuation, where protagonists reconcile conscious and unconscious elements to achieve wholeness (González Hernández, 2015) (Banurekaa & Abinaya, n.d.).

Result and Findings

This section presents the findings from the textual analysis, highlighting recurrent thematic patterns and narrative strategies employed by Atwood, Desai, and Roy in depicting trauma and the struggle for equality. A critical examination of these literary works reveals how deeply ingrained societal structures exacerbate personal suffering, simultaneously illuminating the resilience and agency of characters striving for liberation.

Anita Desai has focused on the psychological nuances of her characters, delving into their inner lives and frustrations within a changing societal landscape. Her protagonists often grapple with neurotic conditions arising from an inability to adapt to harsh realities, leading to psychological disturbances whether they react aggressively or compromise with their situations

Atwood’s female charcters often grapple with deeply personal traumas such as abuse, imprisonment, and objectification, which underscore the broader societal pressures faced by women.

Conversely, Kiran Desai’s protagonists frequently navigate the trauma of displacement and cultural alienation, revealing the profound psychosocial impact of globalization and postcolonial identities on individuals. In contrast,

Arundhati Roy’s literary contributions explore the pervasive trauma inflicted by systemic injustices, including caste discrimination and environmental degradation, demonstrating how deeply rooted societal structures perpetuate cycles of suffering and inequality.

Conclusion

These narratives, through their poignant portrayal of female suffering and resilience, highlight the critical need for gender equality as a means to alleviate the deep-seated trauma inflicted by patriarchal structure. Roy intricately weaves the stories of three generations of women—Baby Kochamma, Mammachi, Ammu, and Rahel—to highlight the difficult situation of women in post-colonial nations, demonstrating how their social positions were profoundly affected by the legacies of imperialism and the British colonizers’ oppressive humanitarian missions. This intergenerational trauma, exacerbated by societal judgments and restrictive norms, manifests as a perpetual struggle against systemic oppression, impeding the women’s achieving their full potential and well-being.

The women writers by highlighting the generational changes in the autonomy of women show the changes that have occurred over time and the need for continued advocacy to achieve full gender equity.

Atwood, Desai, and Roy, bring trauma and gender equality to the forefront of their narratives, using literature as a powerful space to explore the collective loved experience of women under the oppressive systems of patriarchy. Their works emphasise that trauma is not just a personal or psychological issue but also a reflection of broader social, cultural and political forces that  affect women. By portraying trauma as a product of patriarchy and postcolonial structures, these authors challenge the traditional approaches and call for a more inclusive understanding of healing. Their narratives emphasize that true empowerment requires both personal recovery as well as dismantling the systems that perpetuate harm. These authors use fiction to amplify women’s voices, confront systems that perpetuate harm and envision a future where healing is tied to equality and liberation. They bring trauma to a center stage as a feminist and political issue making a strong case of empowerment of women through narrative and structural change.

References

Abubakar, Sadiya. “Art as Narrative: Recounting Trauma through Literature.” IRA-International Journal of Management & Social Sciences (ISSN 2455-2267), vol. 8, no. 1, Aug. 2017, p. 118.

ALI, Yaseen. The Politics of Feminism in the Eyes of Postcolonial Studies. DergiPark (Istanbul University), July 2021.

 Atwood, Margaret. The Handmaid’s Tale. Toronto, Ontario: McClelland Steward Ltd, 1985.

­­­­­­­­­_____ and J. Brooks Bouson. Critical Insights. 2013.

Banurekaa, S., and S. Abinaya. Emerging Women in Margaret Atwood’s Select Novels.

Barman, R. P. Exploring Feminine Identity Challenges in Anita Desai’s Fiction. SSRN Electronic Journal, Jan. 2024.

Chacko, M. Caste and Gender in Arundhati Roy’s The God of Small Things. Economic and Political Weekly, Issue 35 volume 42, 2000. PP, 3745-3750.

Desai, Kiran. The Inheritance of Loss. Penguin, India. 2006.

Devaraju, Vanitha. The Theme of Loss and Grief in Shashi Deshpande’s Small Remedies. Smart Moves Journal Ijellh, Vol. 6, no. 10, Oct. 2018.

González Hernández, Ma Lourdes. The Mapping of the Self. 2015.

Heidarizadeh, Negin. “The Significant Role of Trauma in Literature and Psychoanalysis.” Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences, vol. 192, June 2015, p. 788.

Jaisy, D. L. An Eco-Feminism: A Study OF Margaret Atwood’s The Handmaid’s Tale. 2018.

Kumar, B. Magesh. “Exploring Feminine Identity: A Comparative Analysis of Female Protagonists in Anita Desais- Clear Light of Day and Arundhati Roys- The God of Small Things.” International Journal for Research in Applied Science and Engineering Technology, vol. 12, no. 6, June 2024, p. 1670.

Mutuswamy, Priyadarsini, and Venkateshkumar. “Roots of Ruin: Ecofeminist Echoes of Environmental and Gendered Subjugation in Margaret Atwood’s Dystopias.” International Journal For Multidisciplinary Research, vol. 7, no. 3, June2025.

Raman, P. and Kumar. The Language of Rebellion: A Study of Arundhati Roy’s Narrative Techniques. International Journal of Literature, Volume 22, Issue 3, 2021. PP, 395-410.

Ranga, R., and Pushkala Prasad. “The Politics of Representing Gender and Sexuality in Arundhati Roy’s Selected Books.” World Journal of English Language, vol. 16, no. 1, Sept. 2025, p. 305.

Sharma, Divyani, and Swati Chauhan. “Portrayal of Patriarchal Subjugation of Women in the Selected Works of Anita Nair.” Rupkatha Journal on Interdisciplinary Studies in Humanities, vol. 15, no. 5, Dec. 2023.

Tennyson, M. E. “Cultural Hybridity and Identity Crisis in The Inheritance of Loss.” Studies in Social Science & Humanities, vol. 3, no. 7, July 2024, p. 37.

Wangmo, Thinley, and Margaret Atwood. The Fall of Women under the Masculine World and the Rise of Women through the Awakening of Feminist Instinct in Surfacing by Margaret Atwood. Apr. 2018.

Women and Resistance in Arundhati Roy’s *The God of Small Things*. *Journal of Feminist Literary Criticism*, 4(1), 45-59. [19] Raman, P. (2021).

Nair, A. Love and Loss in Arundhati Roy’s The God of Small Things. Indian Literature Quarterly, Issue 6, Volume 2) 2002. PP, 105-119. 

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Interdisciplinary Study of Margaret Atwood’s Novel Surfacing

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VarshaPatil

Department of English,

JET’sZ.B.Patil College, Dhule-424002 (MS)

E-mail: varshapatil.vp.100@gmail.com

Abstract:

Margaret Atwood’s novel Surfacing is a landmark novel in Canadian literature. It presents a richly layered narrative that lends itself to interdisciplinary interpretation. The paper examines the novel through the critical frameworks of eco-criticism, gender studies, psychoanalytic theory, postcolonial discourse and mythological studies.The young and unnamed protagonist comes back to Northern Quebec, the wilderness in search of her father who disappears. Her journey into the Quebec wilderness in search of her father transforms into a search for her identity. The novel throws light on gender oppression, cultural imperialism, environmental problems and psychological issue. Surfacing is immensely relevant in the present scenario of environmental crisis, gender oppression and cultural crisis. Atwood proposes that authentic survival necessitates confronting truth, reclaiming fractured identity and restoring an ethical relationship with Nature.

Keywords:Interdisciplinary studies,eco-criticism, psychoanalysis, mythological studies

Research Objectives:

  1. To examine Surfacing through an interdisciplinary framework.
  2. To analyze the representation of ecological consciousness.
  3. To investigate the critique of patriarchal structures within the narrative.
  4. To explore the psychological dimensions of repression, trauma, and self-recovery as reflected in the narrator’s journey.
  5. To evaluate the novel’s engagement, its critique of American cultural imperialism.
  6. To examine the mythic and archetypal patterns that structure the narrator’s symbolic descent and rebirth.
  7. To show how survival operates as a multidimensional concept, encompassing ecological responsibility, gender autonomy, psychological integration, and cultural sovereignty.

Introduction:

Margaret Atwood is the most distinguished contemporary Canadian novelist, poet,environmentalist and human activist. Her novel Surfacing was published in 1972. It was a period during which second wave feminism was at the height of its momentum and influence.The novelSurfacing throws light on the social- political issue of the late 20thcentury, such as the environmental degradation, second wave feminism, Canadiannationalism.The young and unnamed protagonist comes back from Toronto to Northern Quebec, the wilderness to search for her father, who disappears. Her friend, DavidAnna and Joe have accompanied her. She is a commercial artist. She has come back to Northern Quebec Bush after 9 years. Her coming to the wilderness becomes the arena, for her psychological crisis and regenerative self-realization. It function as the locus of her psychological fragmentation and eventual integration.

An interdisciplinary reading of thenovel Surfacing foregrounds its structural and thematic complexity.Surfacing emerges as a dynamic narrative that operates andconceptualizesmeaning on multiple levelssuch as ecological consciousness, gender theories, postcolonial unease and mythic symbolic coverage.The novel’s central motif is survival which goes beyond physical endurance.It encompasses ecological accountability, psychological reconciliation and cultural sovereignty. It critiques environmental exploitation, gender oppression,cultural imperialism, and psychological suppression.

Annis Pratt a feminist archetypal criticconsiders the novel in terms of “a quest for rebirth and transformation”.Prof.CoomiV.Vevaina from University of Mumbai, India discusses the novel from”Jung’s psychoanalysis”.To SushilaSingh, the novel is “a significant nationalist and feminist work of art”. Russell Brown finds in Surfacing “implications of the artist in the myth-makingprocess”.Surfacing has been interpreted by applying various disciplines.

Interdisciplinary study of Surfacing enables to analyse the text by applying multiple theoretical lenses such as humanities, social sciences, environmental studies, psychology, gender studies. The synthesis of these theoretical frameworks enable more comprehensive understanding of Atwood’s strategy.

Eco-criticism studies the representation of Nature. It also studies the relationship between Nature and human beings. The northern Quebec wilderness brings about the protagonist’s transformation and self- realization. The dead heron symbolises cruelty done towards Nature. The crucificationimagery reminds us of religious sacrifice. The dead heron symbolizes ecological violence .By doing harmfulact the human world is alienated from the natural world. The gulf between these two worlds becomes increasingly pronounced over time. She criticises the Americans who fish and litter in the lake. To her this act symbolizes capitalistic exploitation.

The novel Surfacing advances, a sustained critic of American imperialism, representing it as a force that commodities and victimizes the natural world. The protagonist identifies herself with the Nature. She says:

I am not an animal or tree, I amthe thingin which the trees and animals move and grow. I am a place. (236)

The mystical assertion signalsrepudiation of anthropocentric supremacy as she reconceives herself as an organic participant within a broader ecological continuum.

To become one with the Nature, she renounces everything. She rejects clothing and canned food. She comes back to the Nature, which enables her to regain her wholeness andrealize her strength. Her stay on the Northern Quebec Island enables her to regain her consciousness of victimization of natural elements. The lake symbolizes the ecological depth. The narrator’s dive into the lake is the symbolic immersion into primordial origins. The landscape is polluted and destroyed by the colonisers, the Americans. She feels that the act of eating of the herons is an exercise of power.

Her search is the search for herself, identity.She rejects to be victimized. Psychoanalysis interprets the novel as narrative of separation. The protagonist looks ather relationship with art teacher as a blow from patriarchy. She sacrifices everything for him. The art teacher seduces her and makes her pregnant. The forced abortion keeps her always restless. She considers herself as a murderer and suffers from a guilt consciousness. She says:

But I bring with me from the distant pass five nights ago, the time traveller, the premaevalone who will have to learnshape of a goldfish now in my belly, undergoing its watery changes.Word furrowspotential already in its proto-brain untravelled paths (249).

She is no more than a dead onedue to the act of an enforced abortion. She feels that her ‘self’ has been divided into two halves. After this betrayal and forced abortion, she decides to live on the Northern Quebec Island to forget the past and its memories.

Postcolonial criticism examines power relations between the colonizers and colonized.The American tourists in Surfacingsymbolizecultural imperialism. She observes them who reduce the sacred landscape to a resource for consumption. They pollute the lake. The wilderness is Canadian identity, which is threatened by technology, moral corruption and capitalist expansion.

The quest of the protagonist is a mythic quest. The lake functions as a womb. Her dive into the lake symbolizes immersion into the womb. Her coming out of waterleads towards the process of transformation. Water purifies her in totality and leads to her survival in the real sense. She is a transformed soul.

The protagonist’s imagination to shed human skinand the repression shows archetypalreturn to origin of life. Her emergence from the wilderness symbolizes the resurrection.

Surfacing is a very wonderful text for interdisciplinary study by applying various disciplines. The novel is a comment on survival, identity and moral responsibility.Through interdisciplinary synthesis Surfacing, conceptualizes survival as a multidimentional construct. Atwood shows that individual,ecological, national healing requires facing truth and cultivating a harmonious relationship with Nature.In the present context of environmental precarity, gender inequalities and accelerating cultural homogenization, Surfacing retains urgent contemporary resonance.

References:

  1. Atwoodb Margaret. Surfacing. London: Virago Press, 2009. Print.
  2. Pratt Annis.“Surfacing and the Rebirth Journey”.The Art of Margaret Atwood:Essays in Criticism. Ed. Cathy N. Davidson and Arnold E.Davidson. Toronto Anansi Press,1981.Print.
  3. VevinaCoomi S. Re/MemberingSelves Alienation and Survival in the Novels of Margaret Atwood and Margaret Laurence. New Delhi: Creative Book, 1996.Print.
  4. Singh Sushila. Joyce Carol Oates and Margaret Atwood: Two Forces of the Two World Feminism. Punjab University Bulletin 18.1(1987) Print.
  5. McCombsJudith.Critical Essays on Margaret Atwood.Boston: G.K.Hall,1988.Print.
  6. RigneyHill. Madness and Sexual Politics in the Feminist Novel: Studies in Bronte,Woolf,Lessing and Atwood. Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin, 1978.Print.
  7. MalashriLal. “Canadian Gynocritics: Context of Meaning in Margaret Atwood’s Surfacing”. Perspectives on Women: Canada and India. Ed.AparnaBasu.New Delhi: Allied Publishers,1995.Print.

The Glimpses of Human Rights and Society in the Novels “Untouchable” and “The God of Small Things”

Daily writing prompt
Have you ever unintentionally broken the law?
View all responses

Dr. Ravindra Ramdas Borse

B.P.Arts, S.M.A. Sci. and K.K.C. Com. College, Chalisgaon

Email: ravindraborse1@gmail.com

ABSTRACT

The present study aims to observe the role of human rights in the societies before and after the independence India. It is studied through the novels of Indian writing in English. Here, it is an attempt to study, discuss and find out the reflection and violation of human rights in Indian society during pre-independence and post-independence period through the Indian fiction in English with reference to the selected novels of Mulk Raj Anand and Arunthati Roy. For this study two novels have been selected, first is “Untouchable” and another one is “The God of Small Things”. Selection of these writers and novels is based on the particular principles and thoughts. The basic criterion of selecting these writers and novels is the issue of “Human Rights”. Both the novels belong to two deferent periods of Indian history still they have a common theme that is humiliation of mankind and violation of human rights in the society. As we know that Mulk Raj Anand is the pioneer of Indian writing in English. He is an eminent writer in the history of Indian English Fiction. He is the first Indian writer who dared to write and raised the voice of deprived people in pre- independent India. On the other hand, Arundhati Roy is an author who belongs to post- independent period of India. In her novel, she tries to show the real picture and approach of Indian literate society and its people towards the poor and backward people through the depiction of Indian cultures and societies. In her novel “The God of Small Things”, she depicted the real picture of Indian people and their approach towards the illiterate and backward class people.

            Above mentioned novels have been selected on the basis of following principles:

1. Both the novels focus on different cultures with common agenda.

2. The selected novels depict the plight and pathetic condition of downtrodden people in Indian society before and after the independence.

3. The writers of these novels have concern for underprivileged people.

4. Violation of human rights has been keenly depicted by these authors in above mentioned novels.

5. There is an ample scope for the study of human rights and its violation in India as shown in said novels.

KEYWORDS:

            Deprived, underprivileged, downtrodden, human rights, backward, literate, illiterate, pre-independence, post-independence, plight, caste, creed, culture, multi-cultural, multi-lingual.

INTRODUCTION:

            “Human Rights” are rights which have been offered to all human beings by birth with the purpose and aim of no discrimination. Without ‘Human Rights’ it’s impossible to the people to leave their life merrily. Each and every member in society needs of it. It helps all the human beings to live with freedom and peace. “Human Rights” can be considered as a basic rights or fundamental rights which have been offered to every individual. These rights are crucial in our life just like the ‘Food’,’ Cloths’ and ‘Shelter’ as the three basic needs of every human beings. Human rights have special significance in India and it also plays a vital role in the country like India. Role of ‘Human Rights” in a country like India is quiet complicated because it’s a large country in the world where people from different caste, culture and religion.

            Role of ‘Human Rights” throughout a country like India is quiet complicated because it’s huge country within the world where people from different caste, culture and religion live together. 

There are some other issues like population, poverty and lack of education which affect the proper implementation of human rights in India. The true beginning of “Human Rights” can be noticed on 10th December 1948 at Paris. It is a year when United Nation’s General Assembly accepted and implemented the proposal of ‘Human Rights’ for world. But in India, it has been taken into consideration and implemented on 2nd October 1993. An aim of ‘Human Rights Commission of India’ is to stop manipulation of Indians by the bureaucracy and safeguard the rights of common people.

As we know, India is multicultural and multilingual country in which people belongs to different caste, culture, community and creed still they live together. Above discussion makes it cleared that India is multi-lingual and multi-culture country. Due to these multi-culture and multi-lingual societies in India there is a chance and possibility to discriminate among the people of high caste and low caste. It has been noticed and observed from the past references that Indian society (in the context of Hinduism) had been divided into class / caste system (Vernas). The people were categorized into four classes / castes (vernas) such as:  1. Brahmin, 2. Kshatriyas, 3. Vaishyas, 4. Shudras. This class or verna system has at less or maximum level been continued in pre and post- independence India which we can notice in society and even in Indian writing as well. The incidents of ‘Human Rights violation in society’ are truly presented in the literary works of Mulk Raj Anand and Arunthati Roy. Number of words and sentences in “Untouchable” and “The God of Small Things” shows it in a cleared manner. For example, the words “Bhangis (Anand, p. 123), Chamars (Anand, p. 132), Harijans (Anand, p. 131) were used in contemporary period for deprived people of society to humiliate them by calling them with the use of their castes. To prove this point we can go through the novel “Untouchable” in which one can find number of examples of such discrimination among the people by the so called upper class society in Indian history from beginning to the present era by reading Indian literature. Indian literature is a mirror of society which reflects and represents Indian society, specially marginalized communities. In this context, the novel “Untouchable” and “The God of Small Things” are appropriate examples of deprived people. These writers shade lights on human rights’ violation in society through their respective novels. The characters sketch of the “Bakha” in ‘Untouchable’ and “Velutha” in ‘The God of Small Things’ are real depiction of underprivileged class in India. The themes of these novels move around these characters only. As we go through the reading of these novels it’s noticed that there is no life, freedom, peace and choice to lower class people in society as every incident in the novels present exploitation and humiliation of characters. Both ‘Bakha and Velutha’ are victims of caste system. Mulk Raj Anand and Arundhati Roy aim to reflect caste system and violation of human rights of these people in India in contemporary periods through the character sketches ‘Bakha and Velutha’. Mahatma Gandhi insisted and asked Mulk Raj Anand to give exposures to the plight of lower class communities in pre-independent India during 1930s. Casteism was a kind of disease in India. Even today, it has been continued in more or less amount directly or indirectly. Lower class people were suppressed by upper class not only by mental torture but also physically and socially. In this regard C.J. George says, “Casteism is a social practice and no Hindu religious leader of any merit and significance would admit it as part of his religion. Giving a place to casteism in Hindu religion is done by certain wolves in sheep’s skin for certain privileges and advantages” (p.40).

Human Rights and Literature (The novels under consideration):

            Human rights and literature both are concerned to the human being and play crucial role in society. Progress and development of mankind is the common agenda of human rights and literature. Literature and human rights are age old concepts. The purpose of both of them is to shade light on human life and bring illiterate downtrodden people in to the flow. Thus, we can state that literature and human rights are two different things with same motto. Both try to develop and correlate to mankind. These two are the sources of the study and solutions to human challenges and issues of lower class such as exploitation and manipulation. Human rights and literature are the terms which harmonizing to one other. Therefore, it is necessary to discuss these terms simultaneously. Indian English literature has a tradition of raising issues of contemporary eras. Hereby, an attempt to study human rights perspective through the novels ‘Untouchable’ and ‘The God of Small Things’.

            The novel “Untouchable is written by Mulk Raj Anand in 1935. It has been set in pre-independent India. The setting of the novel is of one day episode from morning to evening in which number of events can be observed in the life of low caste communities in colonial period of India. Mulk Raj Anand is one of the pioneers of Indian English Literature who often raised the point of subaltern people through all of his literary work. He is considered a champion of human rights as he depicted the true picture of human psyche in his literary pieces. The very first work of Mulk Raj Anand’s is ‘Untouchable’ where he pointed out the pathetic condition of marginalized people in society who have badly been treated in the Indian community by upper class. The story revolves around the prominent character ‘Bakha’. He is the man who has been fascinated by the upper class people in society. He just tries to imagine and imitate the upper class military officers life for oneself which highly impossible during the colonial India. We can notice the situation of it from the opening lines of the novel which gives us a vivid picture marginalized community and violation of their basic rights in the contemporary period. It can be cleared from the beginning lines of the novel “Untouchable”. The colony of these out caste people was settled in two rows near the cantonment in the town but out of the reach of upper class colony. The upper class people separated their colonies from the marginalised. There lived the scavengers, the grass-cutters and other outcastes from Hindu society” (Anand, p.1). Here, one can get an idea from the quote, how the place of living and the people who have been privileged were differentiated and poorly treated. During the pre-independence period lower class people were not allowed to join or sit with upper class people and it could be the reason of illiteracy and cause of lacking behind in lower class. Because they have never been allow to get an education or join the stream of knowledge which was the only right for upper class society. Education and performing prayers’ to God are the birth rights of upper class only. It was the tendency of upper class people towards lower class. Once Bakha was attracted by the worship “Sri Ram Chandarki Jai” (Long live the Great God Ram) (Anand, p.52). He was fascinated and moved at temple but was caught by the priest who shouted “Polluted, polluted, polluted”(Anand, p. 52).  Lower caste people were not allowed to enter in the colonies of upper class. If he had to do so then must announce his arrivals.

“You be sure to shout now, you illegally begotten!” said a shopkeeper from a side, ‘if you have learnt your lesson!’ Bakha hurried away. He felt that everyone was looking at him. He bore the shopkeeper’s abuse silently and went on. A little later he slowed down, and quite automatically he began to shout: ‘Posh keep away, posh, sweeper coming, posh, posh, sweeper coming, posh, posh, sweeper coming!’ (Anand, p.42)

These lines appropriately express the plight and humiliation of Bakha in the novel Untouchable. Mulk Raj Anand in his novel clearly focuses on the treatment of upper class towards untouchables. Each and every page contains number of events that point out violation of human rights. In the novel ‘Untouchable’, it is noticed that even simple touch of untouchable impure the upper class man.  “You’ve touched me, he had heard the Lalla say to Bakha, ‘I will have to bathe now and purify myself anyhow. Well, take this for your damned irresponsibility, you son of a swine!” (Anand, p.41). These lines show the mentality of so called upper class during colonized India. Untouchables were supposed to do all the menial work for upper class that is the only thing. In this way, Anand not only tries to sheds light on the upper class people’s attitude towards the lower class but also it is the violation of human rights of untouchables. On the other hand, though Arunthati Roy is a writer of post-independence era but reflection of downtrodden still observed in her novel “The God of Small Things”. The novel has been written in 1997 after the four years of establishment of ‘Human Rights Commission in India”. As we understand the background and professional life of Arundhati Roy it seems quite different to the way she has deal with the theme of “The God of Small Things”. The novel first published in the month of April of 1997 and received “Booker Prize” in the month of October of the same year. Within a short period of six months’ time she got an award for her novel. This is a rarest case in Indian history. It shows the prominence of the theme and her writing. By profession she is architecture and worked as a production designer. The theme and issues of Arundhati Roy’s novel are quite different from the other Indian writers in English. She began her writing carrier after getting separated from her husband after the four years married life. The novel “The God of Small things has its own place in Indian English literature. In the novel, she shades light on the current social issues of marginalized people. Through this novel, she provides exposure to these people and gives a platform to such people. She often tries to bring them in main stream of society as it has been noticed in the novel “The God of Small Things”. The plot of the novel begins with oppressive system of the society. There are two prominent issues we can notice here: one is caste exploitation in the contemporary period after the post-independent India and the second is the love story of a woman of upper caste who fallen in love with untouchable man. The setting of the novel is of Ayemenem, a small city in Kerala. The aim of the writer is to fight for equality and dignity of lower castes and classes in the society. Number of issues of human rights been discussed by her in the novel such as: children’s right, rights of women, rights of Dalit, right to select life partner for marriage and domestic violence.

Conclusion:

            To sum up, the present paper is an attempt to sheds light on ‘Human rights and Literature’. Both the elements play crucial role in the life of people and society as well. “Human Rights and Literature” are interconnected and effective elements to understand psychology and traditionally biased mind set human being. At the one side, ‘Human rights’ is the study and guideline for people of society to live their life happily. On the other hand, ‘Literature’ can be strongly considered the manifesto of people in society. Apart from this, one can study, read and observe these novels for the better understanding of human rights and its violation. One can consider these novels as documents of human rights study and also the mirror which shows the real picture of upper class society and their tendency towards lower class. Reading of both the novels helps us to know ‘human rights and violation of it’ through literature as an outcome of society. Thus, it is noticed that the aim of Mulk Raj Anand and Arundhati Roy’s writing is to bring awareness among people of the society about the violation of human rights in real life situations.

REFERENCES:

  1. Agnihotriet al. Trends in Indian English: A Sociolinguistic Perspective. New Delhi: Bahari Publications Pvt. Ltd., 1988.
  2. Anand, Mulk Raj. Untouchable. New Delhi: Penguin Books, 2001.
  3. Basu, Tapan, Translating Caste. New Delhi: Katha 2002.
  4. Baxi, Upendra. The Future of Human Rights.Third Edition. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2008.
  5. Baxi, U.Voices of suffering and the future of human rights.Transnat’l L. & Contemp. Probs., 125, 1998.
  6. Benedek, W..Understanding Human Rights: Manual on Human Rights Education.BWV, Berliner Wiss.-Verlag, 2013.
  7. Boggards, P. Dictionaries for Learners of English.International Journal of Lexicography, Vol.9, No.4. 1996.
  8. .Chakrabarty, Koyel and Beniwal, Anup.“Human Rights and Literature: A Complementary Study in Indian Fiction in English.”International Journal of the Arts in Society.Vol.3. No.5. Common Ground Publishing Ltd. Melbourne: 2009:23-33.
  9. Chakrabarty, Koyel. The Problematics of Human Rights in Indian Fiction in English.Unpublished Ph. D. Thesis. New Delhi: Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University, 2011.
  10. Choondawat, P. S. “Untouchability and Untouchable Youth: A Study in Urban     Context” in Singh R. (ed.) The Expressed Classes of India: Problems and prospects. New Delhi: B.R., 1986.
  11. George, C. J. Mulk Raj Anand: His Art and Concerns. New Delhi: Atlantic, 2000.
  12. Hudson, R.  Socio-linguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007.
  13. Iyengar, K. R. S. Indian Writing in English. Bombay: Asia Publishing House, 1962.
  14. Roy, Arundhati.The God of Small Things. New Delhi: Penguin Books, 2002.

Semantic Analysis of the Determinologization of Coroneologisms in the Uzbek Language

Daily writing prompt
Have you ever unintentionally broken the law?
View all responses

Citation

Shuhratovna, O. I., & Fernando, R. S. (2026). Semantic Analysis of the Determinologization of Coroneologisms in the Uzbek Language. International Journal of Research, 13(2), 118–124. https://doi.org/10.26643/ijr/2026/37

Ortiqova Iroda Shuhratovna

Uzbekistan State World Languages University

Rosell Sulla Fernando

University of exact and social sciences

ABSTRACT

The 2020–2023 COVID-19 pandemic functioned as a global natural experiment in lexical innovation, rapidly generating emergency-driven terms—coroneologisms—such as lockdown (lokdaun), immunity (immunitet), and remote education (masofaviy ta’lim). Bypassing traditional lexicographic channels, these initially specialized terms quickly spread into everyday discourse, humor, and social media, exemplifying determinologization—the loss of technical specificity as terms enter common usage. Drawing on determinologization theory, Ullmann’s (1962) semantic-change taxonomy, and cognitive semantics within a corpus-assisted framework, this study analyzes the semantic evolution of coroneologisms in Uzbek. It identifies four key mechanisms—broadening, narrowing, metaphorization, and evaluative coloring—and outlines a five-step trajectory from media emergence to institutional codification. The findings show that the pandemic compressed decades of lexical change into just three years, transforming emergency terminology into stable, stylistically versatile elements of the Uzbek lexicon.

Key words: determinologization, coroneologisms, COVID-19, semantic change, Uzbek language, corpus linguistics, broadening, narrowing, metaphorization, evaluative coloring, lexical innovation, crisis communication, lockdown, immunity, remote education, pandemic discourse

The COVID-19 pandemic, which unfolded between 2020 and 2023, is widely recognized not only as a global public health crisis but also as a significant natural experiment in the development of language. In various societies around the world, the overwhelming urgency to name and describe new phenomena – such as lockdowns, PCR testing, remote education, and social-distancing measures – triggered a remarkable wave of ad-hoc lexical formations. These formations often circumvented the conventional processes of approval associated with traditional lexicography. In the context of the Uzbek language, this surge resulted in a cluster of emergency-driven coinages that scholars and journalists have referred to as “coroneologisms” [4], a term that represents a hybrid of “coronavirus” and “neologism.” Many of these newly minted terms began their lives as highly specialized medical or administrative jargon – terms like “ventilator,” “antigen test,” “lockdown,” and “immunity.” However, within a remarkably short span of time, they began to diffuse widely across social media platforms, appearing in hashtags, memes, humorous posts, and even informal conversations among the general public. This rapid transition of specialized terminology into popular discourse serves as a clear example of determinologization—the gradual erosion of a technical term’s limited meaning once it becomes integrated into the fabric of national language [2],[5]. This article seeks to explore the semantic pathways of determinologized coroneologisms in the Uzbek language. It specifically investigates (a) the primary modes of meaning shift – namely broadening, narrowing, metaphorization, and evaluative coloring – that accompanied these terms, and (b) the communicative and social processes that catalyzed or accelerated these transitions. Our analysis is grounded in corpus-assisted evidence derived from media and online discourse, allowing us to describe how a three-year emergency compressed decades of lexical development into a condensed historical timeframe.

Determinologization—a concept originally defined in the field of terminology [2] and further elucidated by L’Homme [3] – describes the process by which a technical or scientific term migrates out of its specialized context and into ordinary language. This movement is rarely neutral; as a term transitions “outside of its domain,” it often loses its precise denotation, acquires additional affective or ideological weight, and undergoes stylistic shifts across both formal and informal registers. To effectively characterize these semantic pathways, this paper employs Ullmann’s [6] framework for classifying semantic change, which is augmented by contemporary research insights regarding cognitive semantic evolution. Four mechanisms of semantic change emerged as particularly salient in this context:

Broadening (Widening): This mechanism refers to the expansion of a technical term’s referential scope, extending far beyond its original definition. For example, the medical term immunitet (biological resistance to disease) developed metaphorical uses signifying any kind of protection or resilience, as in iqtisodiy immunitet “economic immunity” or “institutional immunity to corruption”.

Narrowing (Specialization): This mechanism occurs when a term’s meaning contracts to a more limited subset of its earlier referents. For instance, the English loan lokdaun (< lockdown) originally denoted a range of industrial or security-related shutdowns, but in Uzbek pandemic usage it came to mean only “legally imposed stay-at-home order.” The term ventilator, widely used in headlines as ventilyatsiya qilmoq “to ventilate”, narrowed to refer exclusively to “connecting a patient to artificial lung ventilation.”

Metaphorical Transfer and Re-conceptualization: This mechanism involves projecting concrete imagery from one domain onto other, often more abstract, targets. A notable example is the everyday noun to‘lqin (“wave of water”) was repurposed to describe successive “waves of infection”, producing widely used expressions such as 1-to‘lqin, 2-to‘lqin.

Evaluative Coloring: In this mechanism, terms acquire positive or negative attitudinal elements, often imbued with humor or irony. Combinations such as “Kovidiot” (a blend of “covid” and “idiot”) and the compound antiniqobchi (anti + niqob + -chi) designated “anti-mask activists”, marking not only behaviour but also an ideological position.

These mechanisms collectively illustrate that the transition from specialized phrases to common vocabulary is not a linear process; rather, meanings may expand or contract, take on metaphorical nuances, or become evaluative in response to communicative needs and societal contexts.

The methodology employed in this research is rooted in a corpus-driven descriptive model [1], which emphasizes the analysis of real speech as the primary source of evidence for semantic change. To this end, we constructed a custom corpus comprising a diverse range of Uzbek language news sources, official announcements, online forums, and prominent social media platforms spanning from March 2020 to December 2023. This methodological approach facilitated the investigation of the following dimensions:

– The chronological diffusion of newly coined words across the three-year span of the pandemic;

– The distinguishing differences in register among official media, informal posts, and colloquial speech patterns;

– The profiles of collocations that unveiled new senses and figurative applications of emerging terms;

– Pragmatic signals that indicated humor, stance, or judgment, further elucidating instances of semantic change.

By liberating the analysis from an overreliance on prescriptive dictionary definitions – which have proven inadequate in capturing the dynamism of language evolution – the study aims to articulate what vocabulary has come to signify in public communication, contrasting this with the more static definitions prescribed by traditional dictionaries.

An in-depth analysis of the Uzbek linguistic data reveals that a significant number of high-frequency coroneologisms underwent a five-stage lexical evolution, a process that was notably expedited during the pandemic due to the prevailing sociolinguistic conditions:

Stage 1 – Media Seeding: In the initial shock phase of the pandemic (March–May 2020), the urgent need for communication led to the borrowing of English terms such as “lockdown,” “PCR test,” “ventilator,” and “mask regime.” These terms were rapidly integrated into Uzbek headlines, hashtags, and memes, where the immediacy of communication took precedence over adherence to orthographic or morphological consistency.

Stage 2 – Morpho-Phonemic Adaptation: As the usage of these borrowed terms began to stabilize, a process of nativization ensued. This involved alterations to stress patterns to conform to Uzbek linguistic standards, the simplification of consonant clusters, and the adoption of Latin script conventions in spelling. For instance, “RT-PCR” became simplified to “PZR,” and “lockdown” was adapted to “lokdaun.”

Stage 3 – Semantic Dilution and Metaphorization: During this stage, common words began to expand or mutate either metaphorically or in terms of their general application to biomedical contexts. The term “to’lqin,” for example, began appearing in headlines describing “a wave of layoffs,” while “karantin” evolved into shorthand for any form of restrictive regulation.

Stage 4 – Lexicographic Recognition: From 2021 to 2022, several key terms, including “lockdown,” “distance learning,” “PCR test,” and “immunity,” were officially recognized and included in the COVID-19 Explanatory Dictionary.

Stage 5 – Pedagogical / Institutional Stabilization: Ultimately, these terms found their way into educational materials such as school textbooks, teachers’ guides, and civil-service style manuals, as well as journalistic glossaries. This integration reflected a full incorporation of these expressions into the Uzbek lexical system. A key finding of this research is that the shift from impromptu borrowing to institutionally codified lexis was accomplished within a mere three-year timeframe. This indicates that the exigencies of crisis-driven speech have the potential to accelerate lexical development that would typically unfold over decades. The pathway also highlights that determinologization is not only structural but also emergent, influenced by local communicative urgency, institutional acceptance, and societal prominence.

Beyond merely structuring the semantic transformations discussed, the Uzbek coroneologisms exhibited four reiterative communicative and pragmatic roles that account for their swift proliferation within the language:

Economy of Expression: The newly introduced forms, which were predominantly borrowed, provided concise and readily comprehensible labels for concepts that may have been unfamiliar to the general public. Terms that required longer descriptive phrases, such as “online schooling” and “PCR diagnostic test,” were efficiently replaced with these shorter alternatives, thereby facilitating effective public communication within both media narratives and healthcare discussions.

Stance-Marking and Evaluation: Several terms adopted pejorative or ironic connotations during the politically charged periods of the crisis. For example, “covidiot” (a fusion of “covid” and “idiot”) became associated with individuals who disregarded safety protocols. Additionally, the slang term “remotka” (meaning “remote work”) emerged with a mildly humorous or dismissive tone, while “anti-niqobchi” explicitly indexed ideological opposition to mask mandates.

Group Identity and Solidarity: Some terms evolved into in-group codes that reflected the collective experiences of lockdown, distance learning, and online communication. The productive phrase “meeting up on Zoom” transformed into a rallying cry among social groups, encapsulated in expressions like “zumlashmoq” This development fostered conversation and unity among individuals navigating the challenges of isolation.

Humor and Coping: Lexical blends such as “quarantini” (a combination of “quarantine” and “martini”) and the incorporation of slang terms like “doomscrolling” provided a playful linguistic outlet for navigating anxiety and boredom. These terms thus served as coping mechanisms, contributing to stress-relief strategies in an otherwise challenging context.

These pragmatic functions underscore that the determinologized pandemic vocabulary was not merely a referential identity but also a valuable resource for stance-taking, community-building, and coping mechanisms amidst the crisis.

Table 1

№TermExpansion on the meaning
 Pandemiya     Shifted from strictly medical to any globally spreading phenomenon (“infodemic”, “pandemic of fear”).
 KoronavirusBecame a generic label for any contagious trouble; often used metaphorically (“a coronavirus of bad habits”).
 COVID-19Extended to denote cause, blame, or time-marker (“because of covid”, “covid generation”).
 VaksinaMetaphorised into “silver-bullet solution” for non-medical crises (“education vaccine”, “economic vaccine”).
 ImunitetBroadened to any system’s defensive capacity (“tax immunity”, “bank immunity”).
 KarantinRe-semanticised to mean any restrictive measure or even punitive isolation.
 IzolyatsiyaMoved from clinical isolation to everyday social distancing and on-line modes (“isolation lessons”).
 LockdaunImported as-is; now also describes total shutdowns in business or mental states (“mental lockdown”).
 AntitelaUsed figuratively for ideological or emotional resistance (“antibodies to negativity”).
 EpidemiyaGeneralised to any rapidly spreading trend (“epidemic of errors”, “epidemic of selfies”).
 Masofani saqlashPhysical distance became a metaphor for emotional coolness in relationships.
   GigiyenaHygiene concept expanded to information & mental spheres (“info-hygiene”, “sleep hygiene”).
 DezinfektsiyaDisinfection now covers cleansing of fake news or toxic content.
 SimptomClinical sign → any visible indicator of systemic problems (“symptoms of economic crisis”).
 TestNarrow lab procedure turned into generic verb “to test” and synonym for any quick check.
 Immunitet pasayishiImmunological drop re-interpreted as weakening resilience in economics or organisations.
 PCRAcronym became a household verb meaning “to swab-test” regardless of method.
 AntigenTechnical term now stands metonymically for rapid-test devices themselves.
 VentilyatorLife-support machine → metaphor for any critical external support (“financial ventilator”).
 Post-pandemiyaTemporal phase converted into a cultural label for “new normal” behaviours and policies.
 To‘lqinOriginally “wave” of water; pandemic discourse turned it into numbered surges (“third wave”) and now any periodic spike (“price wave”, “jobless wave”).
 ZumlashmoqPure Uzbek verb “to accelerate”; during the crisis it shifted from physical speeding-up to rapid scaling of remote work, vaccination drives, or digital services (“business zumlandi”).

The findings derived from the Uzbek data demonstrate that the process of lexical borrowing, catalyzed by a crisis, can significantly accelerate the phenomenon of semantic and pragmatic diversification. This process enables the transformation of technical medical terminology into broadly stylistic and affectively expressive components of everyday vocabulary. The outlined five-step trajectory, which encompasses the initial seeding of terms in media and their subsequent institutional codification, illustrates the complex nature of this social mediation process. It becomes evident that determinologization is not merely a function of lexical evolution but is socially mediated through communicative urgency, varying attitudes, and policy decisions. By combining determinologization theory, Ullmann’s semantic-change taxonomy, and a corpus-assisted methodology, this study presents a condensed lifecycle of lexical evolution that would typically require decades to develop. The results underscore the necessity for dynamic lexicographic practices and language-planning methods that are capable of responding swiftly to future public health or technological emergencies. An organized record of rapid lexical evolution, such as the analysis presented here, contributes to our understanding of how and why national languages maintain their flexibility and functional resilience in the face of global crises.

References

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