On January 1, 2015, NITI Aayog (National Institution for Transforming India) was established. On August 13, 2014, the Government of Narendra Modi announced that it would abolish the 65-year-old planning committee and replace it with a new organization called NITI Aayog.

Like the Planning Committee, NITI Aayog was created by the Coalition Cabinet of the Government of India. Provides technical advice related to the center and state. NITI Aayog has been replaced by a planning committee to better meet the needs and aspirations of the Indian people.

Configuration -The configuration of NITI Aayog is as follows:

(A) Chair person- The Prime Minister of India is the Chair person of NITI Aayog.

(B) The Governing Council is the Prime Ministers of all states, the Prime Ministers of the Union Territory, and the Governor of Lt. and other Union Territories.

(C) Regional Council -These consist of the Prime Minister and the Deputy Governor of the Union Territory of the region. It is chaired by the chairperson (Prime Minister) of NITI Aayog or his deputy.

(D) Special Invitees- Special invitees are experts, professionals and practitioners with special knowledge and are appointed by the Prime Minister.

NITI Aayog’s Specialized Wings- NITI Aayog has many specialized wings.

2.Consultancy wing–It provides a market place of whetted panels of expertise and funding,for the central and state Governments to tap into matching their requirements with solution providers,public and private,national and international.

NITI Aayog makes recommendations to the central and state governments responsible for decision-making and implementation.

2.To ensure,on areas that are specifically referred to it,that the interests of national security are incorporated in economic strategy and policy.

9.To provide advice and encourage partnerships between key stakeholders and national and international like minded think tanks.

In between 1919-1922 the British were opposed throught two mass movementsi.e.,the khilafat movement and Non-Cooperation Movement.Since these two movements raise separate issues,but they adopted a common programme of action.i.e., Non-Cooperation,Nonviolent.

THE KHILAFAT ISSUE

In India,the Muslims were demanding from the British(i)that the khalifa`s control over Muslim sacred place should be retained to them,and(ii)khalifa should be left with sufficient territories after territorial arrangements.In 1919,a Khilafat commitee was formed under the leadership of Shaukat Ali and Muhammad Ali(Ali brothers),Ajmal Khan,Hasrat Mohani,Maulana Azad.The Khilafat movement paved the way for the consolidation of the emergence of a radical nationalist trend among the Younger generation of muslims.

At November 1919,All India Khilafat conference held in Delhi in which a call was made for the boycott of British goods.For some time,the Khilafat leaders limited their actions to meetings,petitions,and deputationes in favor of the Khilafat.But After some time a militant trend emerged,demanding an action agitation such as stopping all cooperation with the British.It was very clear that the support of the Congress was essential for the Khilafat movement to succeed.Although Gandhiji was in favor of launching satyagraha and Non-Cooperation against the government on the Khilafat issue,but the Congress was not united on this form of Political action.

The Non-Cooperation Khilafat Movement-

In August 1920 The Khilafat commitee started a campaign of NonCooperation,and the movement was formally lauched. On September 1920 At a special session in Calcutta,the Congress approved a NonCooperation programme till the Punjab and Khilafat wrong were removed and swaraj was established.This programme boycott the government schools and colleges,boycott the law courts and dispensation of justice through panchayat instead,boycott foreign cloths and use of khadi instead,boycott legislative councils,renunciation of government honours and titles. Spread of the MovementThousands of students left government schools and colleges and joined around 800 national schools and colleges.These educational institutions were organised under the chairmanship of Zakir Hussain,Lala Lajpat Rai,Subhash Chandra Bose,Acharya Narendra Dev.,Many lawyers too gave up their practice like Jawaharlal Nehru,Motilal Nehru,C.Rajagopalachari,Lots of foreign cloths were burnt publicly and their imports fell by half.

People’s response in this movement

The participation in this movement is in wide range,People from every field every class participat in this movement,but to a varying extent.

Middle Class-People from the middle class led the movement at the beginning,but later they showed a lot of reservations about Gandhi’s Programme.The response to the call for resignation from the government jobs, surrendering of titles was not taken seriously.

Business class-The economic section get benefited as the economic boycott received support from the Indian Business group because they had benefited from the Nationalists emphasis on the use of swadeshi,but some seemed to be afraid of labour unrest in their factories.

Peasants-Peasants participation was massive.In general,the Peasants turned against the landlords and the traders.

Students- With thousands of students enrolling away from public schools and colleges, students are becoming active volunteers in the movement.

Women-A large number of women participated in the movement and actively participated in picketing outside stores selling cloth and liquor. They gave up Purdah and provided the jewels to the Tilak Foundation.

Parliament is the legislative body of the federal government. Articles 79-122 of the Constitution deal with the composition, organization, duration, officers, procedures, authority, etc. of the parliament.

The parliament consists of three parts: the president, the state council, and the house of the People. Rajya Sabha is the House is the upper house(Second chamber or House of Elders) and Lok Sabha is the Lower house(First chamber or Popular house). The President of India is not a member of either parliament, and is not sitting in parliament to attend their sessions. The president is an integral part of parliament. This is because the bill passed by both houses cannot become a bill without the approval of the president. The president also invites both chambers of parliament. Compatible with both the houses

Composition of two houses-

Rajya Sabha Composition- Rajyasabha is the Senate of Parliament. Its maximum strength is set at 250, of which 238 are representatives of state and union territory and 12 are nominated by the president. Currently, Rajya Sabha has 245 members, of which 229 represent the state and 4 represent the state. Union territory and 12 shall be nominated by the President.

1. State Representatives -The state representatives of Rajyasabha are elected by elected members of the Legislative Assembly. Rajya Sabha is elected according to a proportional representation system using STV (single transferable vote).

2. Nominated Members- The President appoints 12 members to Rajyasabha from among individuals with special knowledge of the arts, literature, science and social services.

Lok Sabha Composition- Lok Sabha is the House of Representatives. Its maximum strength is 552. Of these, 530 are represented by the state, 20 are represented by Union Territory, and two are appointed by the President of the Anglo-Indian Community. As of , Lok Sabha has 545 members. Of these, 530 are representatives of the state, 13 are under Union territory, and two Anglo-Indian members have been nominated by the President.

1.State Representatives -Lok Sabha’s state representatives are directly elected by the members of the state’s territory. Elections are based on universal adult suffrage.

2.Nominated Members-The president can nominate two members from the Anglo-Indian community if the community is not adequately represented in the Lok Sabha.

It is a form of government within an authoritarian system dominated by political parties known for its oppressive nature. It’s actually a denial of democracy. There is no independent judiciary in the authoritarian regime. It is the elite of the ruling class who imposes its value on society and is considered good for the individual. In government, authoritarianism is in the hands of leaders or small elites who are not constitutionally responsible for the politics of the body and cannot be replaced by citizens who vote freely among various competitors in elections. It means a political system that concentrates power. The freedom to establish opposition parties or other alternative parties competing for part of the ruling group is either restricted or nonexistent in the authoritarian regime. However, authoritarian governments usually do not have a highly developed leadership idealism, allow certain pluralism in social organizations, lack the power to mobilize the entire population to pursue national goals, and have domestic power. Relatively exercise Predictable limits. According to some scholars, examples of authoritarian regimes include pro-Western military dictatorships that existed in Latin America and elsewhere in the late 20th century.

Characteristics of the authoritarian regime-

1. It is characterized by a highly concentrated and centralized governmental power that is maintained through political repression and elimination of potential challenges.

2. Use political parties and mass organizations to mobilize people for the goals of the government. 3. Power is controlled, changes governments and even leaders, and is not smooth and peaceful under authoritarian regimes.

4. Authoritarianism is characterized by an “indefinite period of political tenure” of a ruler or ruling party or other authority. The transition from an authoritarian regime to a more democratic form of government is called democratization.

5. The size of the legislature is small because all legislative and political decisions are entrusted to one or a small group of authoritarian regimes.

6.There is a strict restriction of political views and platforms that differ from those of the authoritarian government so not to undermine political control.

Articles 324-329 of the Constitution of India contain the following provisions regarding elections or the electoral system in India:

1. Article 324 stipulates the Independent Election Commission for conducting free and fair elections in India. At present time The Election commission consists of a chief commission and two Election. Commissioners.

2. The Constitution has abolished the system of separating electoral rolls and local electoral rolls, as each region needs to have only one electoral roll.

3. We will not be treated unequally based on caste, race, gender, gender or religion. Therefore, it cannot be claimed to be included in the special electoral list. The Constitution recognizes all citizens as equal.

4. Elections to Lok Sabha and the Legislature must be based on universal adult suffrage. This means that all citizens of India who are 18 years old are eligible to vote in the election and cannot be disqualified.

5. Parliament may make provisions related to all matters related to parliamentary elections.

ELECTION MACHINERY-

Election Commission of India (ECI)- The Election Commission of India is a three-member organization consisting of the Supreme Election Commission and two Election Commissions. The President of India appoints the Supreme Election Commission and the Election Commission. The Indian Election Commission is endowed with the power of supervision and control over the conduct of the Lok Sabha Directorate Elections.

Chief Executive Officer (CEO) -The CEO of the State / Union Territory has the authority to oversee election operations in the State / Union Territory and to direct and control the Election Commission. The Election Commission of India appoints state officials to the highest election officers.

District Returning Officer (DEO)- The DEO oversees election administration in all districts. The Indian Election Commission appoints state government officials as district return officers.

Returning Officer- A Returning Officer is responsible for conducting elections in Parliament or in the constituencies of Parliament. The Election Commission of India appoints government officials or local governments to the Election Commission.

Electoral Registration Officer (ERO) -The ERO is responsible for preparing and ordering the parliament or the electoral list of the parliament. The Indian Election Commission appoints government or local government officials as electoral registrants.

Presiding Officer- A Presiding Officer holds an election at a polling place. The District Election Officer appoints the Presiding Officer.

Observer -The Indian Election Commission appoints high-ranking government officials as observers of Parliament and its constituencies.

Prime Minister is the actual executive branch and head of government.

Appointment of the Prime Minister- Our Constitution does not mention specific procedures for the appointment of the Prime Minister. Article 75 of the Constitution states that the prime minister is appointed by the president. The president must appoint the leader of Lok Sabha’s majority party as prime minister, but if Lok Sabha does not have a clear majority party, the president usually appoints the leader of Lok Sabha’s largest party as prime minister.

Prime Minister’s Oath

The President takes an oath of office before the Prime Minister takes office. With his oath, the prime minister takes an oath

1. Support India’s sovereignty and integrity.

2. Have true faith and loyalty to the Constitution of India.

3. Do justice to all

4. Perform the duties of his / her office in a reliable and honest manner.

5. In a secret vow, the Prime Minister vows not to contact or disclose anyone directly or indirectly.

Prime Minister’s term of office

The term of office of the Prime Minister has not been fixed and will be held at the discretion of the President. However, this does not mean that the president can dismiss the prime minister at any time as long as the prime minister enjoys majority support at Lok sabha.

Prime Minister’s powers and obligations

The Prime Minister’s authority and functions are as follows:

In relation to the President- The Prime Minister enjoys the following authority in relation to the President: He advises the President on the appointment of key officials such as the Attorney General of India, the Director of Audit of India, the President, Elections, Commissioners and members of the UPSC.

About the Council of Ministers – The Prime Minister of has the following authority as chairman of the Council of Ministers. He allocates and reallocates various portfolios among the ministers, directs, manages, directs and coordinates the activities of all ministerial councils, recommends to the ministerial council who can be appointed by the president, and collapses the council. Can bring about the ministerial by resigning from a government agency.

In Parliament -In connection with Parliament he has the following powers: He announces government policy on the floor of the House of Representatives and advises the President on convening a parliamentary session.

Articles 52-78 of the Constitution of India deal with an executive branch consisting of the President, Vice President, Prime Minister, Ministerial Council, and the Justice Secretary of India. The President of India is the Head of State and he is the first citizen of India.

The president is indirectly elected by members of the electoral college –

1. Elected members of the Legislature

2. Elected members of both meeting rooms of Parliament i. H. Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha 3. Elected members of the Union Territory Legislative Assembly of Delhi and Pondicherry.

Eligibility for presidential election

The oath of office is governed by the Chief Justice of India.

Presidential term The president has a five-year term from the date of his appointment, but he can resign at any time by sending a resignation to the vice president. In addition, impeachment may result in dismissal before the term of office.

In federal authorities powers are divided among the country wide governments and the local governments via way of means of the Constitution and each of them function of their respective jurisdictions independently.In a federal shape of authorities,country wide authorities is called Federal authorities.The word ‘federation’ is derived from a Latin word ‘foedus’which means “settlement”or “treaty”., Therefore A federation is a brand new political device that’s shaped through a settlement or treaty among numerous units.US,Switerland, Australia,Canada,Russia,Brazil, Argentina have the federal version of authorities.The framers of our constitution has followed the federal device due to vital reasons-1.Country’s socio-cultural diversity2.The massive length of the country.

Framers of the constitution thought that federal system not only ensures the efficient governance of the country but also reconciles national unity with regional autonomy.

The Indian federal device is primarily based totally at the ‘Canadian version’ and now no longer at the ‘American version’.Since the time period federation has now no longer been used withinside the Constitution.But Article 1 of the Constitution describes India as a ‘Union of states’.According to Dr.BR Ambedkar who’s the chairman of the Drafting committee The time period ‘Union of states’has been desired to ‘Federation of states’ that suggests matters that are-

1.the states don’t have any authority to divergence from the federation.

2.the indian federation isn’t always the end result of treaty the various states just like the American federation.The Indian federation resembles the Canadian federation in following ways-1.By manner of disintegration2.in it is choice to the word ‘Union’3.vesting greater powers withinside the centre as evaluate to states.

FEATURES OF FEDERAL SYSTEM-

There are a few functions of the federal device of india-

1.Written constitution-The constitution of India is most effective written constitution withinside the global beside this it’s also Lengthiest constitution because it contains Preamble,395 articles and eight schedules.At present 470 articles and 12 schedules.It indicates the organization,structure,powers and features of each the valuable and kingdom governments.

2.Dual Polity-The constitution establishes a twin polity consisting the state on the outer edge and union on the centre.Each one in all them can excersied their powers which assigned to them separately.The union governments offers with the subjects of country wide significance like overseas affairs,currency,defence, communique etc.The state governments offers with the subjects of local and nearby significance like agriculture,health,nearby governments.public order etc.

3.Division of Powers-The constitution divided the powers among the kingdom and centre in phrases of 3 lists withinside the seventh schedule,the union listing,state listing,concurrent listing.The union listing includes ninety eight topics,the state listing includes fifty nine topics and the Concurrent listing includes fifty two topics.Both the centre and kingdom could make legal guidelines at the topics of concurrent listing,however in case of warfare centre regulation prevails.The residuary topics are given to the centre which aren’t cited in any of the 3 lists.

4.Independent Judiciary-The constitution establishes an unbiased judiciary headed via way of means of the very best courtroom docket for 2 purposes-First one is to shield the supremecy of the charter and 2nd one to settle the disputes among the centre and states.The charter has numerous measures to make the judiciary unbiased of the authorities like constant carrier conditions,safety of tenure to judges etc.

5.Bicameralism-The charter presents a bicameral legislature having an Upper house(Rajya Sabha) and a lower house(Lok Sabha)The Rajya Sabha represents the states of Indian federation alternatively the Lok Sabha represents the humans of India as a whole.

6.Supremacy of the Constitution-The charter is the very best authority of the land.The legal guidelines carried out via way of means of the centre and the states have to comply with it is provisions in any other case they may be declared invalid via way of means of the excessive courtroom docket or the very best courtroom docket thru their powers.

What is comparative politics and it is strategies?

Comparative politics is the take a look at and settlement of home Politics throughout Countries.It is particularly Inter Disclipinary.It is a subfield of Politics.It usually goal to Promote assessment in politics entities.It makes a speciality of Internal Structure.(like Parliament and executives),actor(voters,parties,hobby groups),processes(coverage making, communication,political culture).In totality,we are able to say that via way of means of Comparative politics we spotlight the inner Political Structure of every state;Their governing functions,what and the way choices are made and additionally how political areas are made,who have an effect on the political choices,how authorities engage with population.

According to John Blondel, Comparative politics is”the take a look at of styles of country wide governments withinside the cutting-edge world”.Comparative Governments goal is to sell universally legitimate concept.In different words,we are able to say that Comparative politics is the subfield of political technology that compares the pursuit of electricity throughout countries.

Need for Comparative politics-

1.We want Comparative politics to higher recognize how positive regimes paintings for functions of global members of the family and overseas coverage.

2.It permits us to examine from different countries.

3.One may have a deeper know-how of Merits and Demerits.

4.It permits us to emerge as greater knowledgeable citizens.

5.It sharpen our important thinking.

Methods of Comparative Politics

There are strategies of Comparative politics which are as follows-

There are many kinds of Traditional tactics-1.Philosophical Approach

Features of Modern Approaches-

Articles 12 and 35 of the Indian Constitution deal with Fundamental rights. The concept of Fundamental rights comes from the United States Constitution, but the Fundamental rights in our Constitution are more elaborate than in the United States. Fundamental rights are guaranteed by the Constitution to all citizens of the country without discrimination. The first request for Fundamental rights came in the form of the Swaraj Act in 1895. Fundamental rights were incorporated into the Constitution of India because they were considered necessary for the development of each individual’s personality and personality and the maintenance of human dignity. These Fundamental rights not only helps to protect human rights and dignity, but also prevent human rights abuses. In the case of infringement of Fundamental rights, the Supreme Court may issue writs such as Habeas Corpus, Mandamus, Prohibition,Certiorari, and Quo warranty. The purpose of Fundamental rights is to promote the ideals of political democracy. The Constitution of India stipulates the following seven Fundamental rights-

• 1.Right to equality
• 2. Right to freedom
• 3. Right against exploitation
• 4.Right to Freedom of Religion
• 5. Cultural and educational rights
• 6.Right to Property
• 7. Right to Constitutional Remedies
• However, Right to property were removed by the 44th Constitutional Amendment Act of 1978 and removed from the list of Fundamental rights. Currently, it is a statutory right under Section 300A. Therefore, there are currently six Fundamental rights.

1. Right of Equality -Articles 14-18 deal with the right of equality. Article 14 clarifies that the state must not deny equality before the law, and Article 15 does not discriminates citizens based on religion, caste, race, gender, or place of birth.Article 16 provides for equality of opportunity for all citizens. Article 17 abolishes “untouchable” and Article 18 abolishes the title.

2. Right of Freedom -Articles 19-22 deal with the right to freedom. Article 19 grants all citizens the right to freedom of expression, the right to establish an association and the right to practice any profession. Article 20 protects the accused from arbitrary and excessive punishment. Article 21 makes it clear that no one shall be deprived of his or her life or personal liberty except in accordance with the procedures stipulated by law. Article 21A states that the state should provide free compulsory education for all children aged 6 to 14, and Article 22 provides protection from arrest and detention.

3. Right against Exploitation- Articles 23 and 24 deal with the right against exploitation. Article 23 prohibits trafficking and forced labor, and Article 24 prohibits the employment of children under the age of 14 in factories, mines, construction works, etc.

4. Right to Freedom of Religion -Articles 25-28 deals with the right to freedom of religion. Article 25 recognizes freedom of conscience, free occupation and dissemination of religion, Article 26 recognizes freedom to manage religious issues, Article 27 recognizes freedom of taxation on the promotion of religion, and Article 28 grants freedom from attending Religious Instruction.

5. Cultural and educational rights- Articles 29-30 deal with cultural and educational rights. Article 29 protects the interests of minorities and Article 30 gives minorities the right to establish and operate educational institutions.

6.Right to Constitutional Remedies- Article 32 deals with this provision. Dr BR Ambedkar called this right the “heart and soul” of the Indian Constitution. It gives the right to protect the fundamental right and is itself a fundamental right. Under this article, the Supreme Court has the authority to issue Writs.