Leadership Styles and Employees’ Performance of Private Tertiary Institutions in Ibadan, Oyo State

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Emmanuella, O., & Oluwasola, I. J. (2026). Leadership Styles and Employees’ Performance of Private Tertiary Institutions in Ibadan, Oyo State. International Journal of Research, 12(4), 559–588. https://doi.org/10.26643/ijr/2026/21

Corresponding Author

Achievers University Owo, Ondo State, Nigeria

osarenmen@gmail.com

Ibosiola Joseph Oluwasola

Achievers University Owo, Ondo State, Nigeria

Akeredolu Adebisi Gabriel

Rufus Giwa Polytechnic Owo, Ondo State, Nigeria

ABSTRACT

The study investigates the relationship between leadership style and employees’ performance of tertiary institutions in Ibadan, Oyo state. Four (4) variables of leadership style were examined, autocratic leadership style, democratic leadership style, transformational leadership style and transactional leadership style in relationship with the dependent variable employees’ performance. Cross sectional survey research design was used for this study with population of 585 using stratified random probability sampling technique and a sampling size of 238 while 205 respondent’s questionnaire were retrieved for analysis. From the result of the analysis carried out using Robust Ordinary Least Square Regression (ROLS), it was discovered that Democratic Leadership Style (DELS) and Transformational Leadership Style (TFLS) were positively and significantly related to Employees’ Performance (EP) while, Autocratic Leadership Style (AULS) shows a positive but insignificant relationship with Employees’ performance (EP) and Transactional Leadership Style (TSLS) shows a negative and insignificant relationship with Employees’ Performance (EP) of private tertiary institutions in Ibadan, Oyo state. The study concludes transformational leadership style should be practiced because of its creativity as well as performance and supportive nature also, knowledge can easily be shared amongst employees when organizations are using a transformational leadership style and thus promoting organizational culture and improving overall performance.

Keywords: Autocratic Leadership Style, Democratic Leadership Style, Transformational Leadership Style and Transactional Leadership Style.

Introduction

Adekunle (2020) posited that leadership is an important factor in every human activity and the realization of human aims and objectives but, Zamin and Hussin (2021) argue that the adopted leadership style and work climate impact commitment levels of the employees and influence job performance. Anyaegbunam and Anekwe (2021) posited that the success or failure of any organization depends on the leadership and the styles. Different leadership styles contribute to improving organizational performance and the capacity to overcome leadership challenges encountered in organizations. These styles include autocratic, bureaucratic, charismatic, laissez-faire, participative, transformational and transactional leadership styles which allow a leader to connect employees’ or organizational performance (Onwuegbuna, 2022). Leadership style is the most important factor for the development of any private or governmental organization or any educational institution. Thereby creating influence, and motivation to lead employees to achieve pre-determined goals and objectives (Wase & Jeyaprabha, 2022).

1.1 Statement of the Problem

In today’s business world, the flow of life depends mostly on the effectiveness of leadership styles such as survival of the organization, development as well as effective performance. Though, the present global economy is driven by profitability, innovation and performance (NawoseIng’ollan & Roussel, 2017). The Nigerian university system has been overwhelmed with numerous challenges which have seen the nation’s universities being ranked below 100^th worldwide. Also, despite all these challenges, administrative and leadership direction have continually gathered these challenges (Yusuf-Habeeb & Yusuf, 2017). Currently, most organizations stress creating the workflow and team to improve efficiency in their organizational performance (Al-Malki & Wang, 2018).

According to Agarwal (2020) Leadership style is an important area as it enables employees to work effectively and efficiently in an organization and leadership styles adopted by managers in an organization promote organizational objectives and goals. Although, there are progress and understanding of leadership styles in Nigeria and especially the impacts of democratic leadership style on employees’ performance at tertiary institutions in Nigeria and how some tertiary institutions are yet to realize goals due to challenges related to leadership style (Idowu, 2019; Manza, et al., 2020; Onwuegbuna, 2022). Though the issue leading to this study may be listed as rising from unsuitable applications of leadership styles responsible for a poor working relationship that ties employees and management of tertiary institutions. And most studies have been carried out as regards leadership style and employees’ performance in developed countries but in Africa especially Nigeria studies carried out are mostly in the area of banking, and companies but research carried out in Nigeria on tertiary institutions is not much.

Though, most researchers have worked on leadership style and employees performance in Nigeria such as Ajibade, et al., (2017); Orji, et al. (2017); Kalu and Okpokwasili (2018); Ekpenyong (2020); Amussah, et al. (2020); Nwagbala, et al. (2021); Adegboyega and Awolusi (2021); Akpoyibo (2022) and Onwuegbuna (2022). But few researchers have been able to work on tertiary institutions in Nigeria recently such few scholars are Yusuf-Habeeb and Yusuf (2017); Odunlami, et al. (2017); Kalu and Okpokwasili (2018); Idowu (2019); Manza, et al. (2020); Onwuegbuna (2022). It was observed that these researchers mainly used transformational, transactional, charismatic, participatory, and laissez-faire as components of leadership style while autocratic, and democratic amongst others were not used in measuring leadership style and employees’ performance of tertiary institutions in Nigeria. Another aspect is the methodology where the questionnaire was not measured based on a multi-factor leadership questionnaire. Therefore, this study made use of this scaling factor by Bass (1995) and Yousef (2000) scale of measuring employee performance. Also, the study emphasized an understanding of leadership style the underlying factors, issues and influence on employees’ performance at private tertiary institutions in Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria.

1.2 Research Questions

The study investigates the following

What is the impact of autocratic leadership style on employees’ performance at private tertiary institutions in Ibadan, Oyo State?
Does democratic leadership style influence employees’ performance at private tertiary institutions in Ibadan, Oyo State?
What is the relationship between transformational leadership style and employees’ performance at private tertiary institutions in Ibadan, Oyo State?
How does transactional leadership style impact employees’ performance at private tertiary institutions in Ibadan, Oyo State?

1.3 Research Hypotheses

To provide answers to the research questions derived from this study, the following hypotheses were formulated:

H₀₁: There is no significant impact of autocratic leadership style on employees’ performance at private tertiary institutions in Ibadan, Oyo State.

H₀₂: There is no significant influence of democratic leadership style on employees’ performance at private tertiary institutions in Ibadan, Oyo State.

H₀₃: Transformational leadership style has no relationship with employees’ performance at private tertiary institutions in Ibadan, Oyo State.

H₀₄: There is no significant impact of transactional leadership style on employees’ performance at private tertiary institutions in Ibadan, Oyo State.

1.4 Scope of the Study

The study investigated the relationship between leadership styles and employees’ performance at private tertiary institutions in Ibadan, Oyo State. The choice of Lead City University, Ibadan was conceived because of the closeness of the area to the researcher and the fact that it is one of the largest private universities in Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria. The population was based on the academic and non-academic staff of the school. The study used four (4) leadership style components (autocratic, democratic, transformational and transactional leadership styles) which serve as the independent variables and described their impact on employees’ performance which is the dependent variable. The study used a stratified random probability sampling technique in selecting the sampling size of the population while Robust Ordinary Least Square regression analysis was carried out in determining the significance level of each variable and the timeframe for the study was September 2023 to January, 2024.

2.0 Literature Review

2.1 Employees’ Performance

Employee performance is important for an organization as a measure of success in running any business, because the higher the performance, the higher the chance to achieve organizational goals (Pradana, et al., 2020). Though the company expects employees to have good performance given the importance of employee performance, it can be said that performance improvement is one of the important aspects of human resource management for the company which can be carried out if employees have good quality work so that employees can work competently and can complete work on time according to predetermined standards (Fakhri, et al., 2020). Organizations as well need to pay massive attention to their employees and their welfare, because happy and motivated employees are the sole channel through which organizations can become successful organization (Insan & Masmarulan, 2021). Furthermore, employee performance is focused on examining how well an individual employee performs at their job over a given period. Employee performance is also a critical review of the jobs that have been done and completed by an employee over some time by analyzing how the job is done either promptly or otherwise (Alheet, et al., 2021; Amegayibor, 2021).

2.1.2 Leadership Style

Belete (2020) argued that leadership styles refer to the pattern of leaders’ behaviour that characterize a given leader or various patterns of behaviour favoured by the leader during the process of directing and influencing employees (Efendi & Graduate, 2020; Amussah, 2020). It is a style that invites and directs followers or employees to achieve common goals by creating a work environment that is more authoritative, controlled, effective and directed (Abadiyah, et al., 2020). Bastari, et al. (2020) stated that a leader’s influence is known to make improvements to employees in achieving company goals. while, leadership style is associated with the actions of a leader when leading and providing guidance (Rohman et al., 2020). Through leadership style, an effort can be formed to influence or direct employees or followers by mobilizing available human and material resources effectively and efficiently throughout the management process to achieve the desired objectives or goals (Purnomo et al., 2020). Leadership style in an organization is one of the factors that play a significant role in enhancing the interest and commitment of employees in the organization (Zamin & Hussin, 2021; Clinton & Ogbor, 2021). Leadership styles determine the level of employee participation in decision-making and the way an organization is run administratively (Akpa, et al., 2021; Wase & Jeyaprabha, 2022). For this study, autocratic, democratic, transformational and transactional leadership styles are used in measuring leadership style.

2.1.3 Autocratic Leadership Style

This type of leadership is often best used in situations where crisis arises when decisions must be made quickly and without dissent. It is valuable when organizations face a crisis or when an urgent problem arises that requires immediate attention (Al-Khajeh, 2018). This kind of style sometimes irreparably hinders organizational growth because there is a tendency to force their direct reports to perform tasks in a constricted manner (Belete, 2020). Also, in this leadership style, there is no collective vision and slight motivation among leaders and employees. Also, commitment, innovation and creativity are eliminated (Amussah, 2020; Wase & Jeyaprabha, 2022). Thus, the autocratic leadership style is a classical leadership approach, and the corporate equivalent of dictatorship or tyranny and which is marked by the leader having complete authority and the subordinates obeying the instructions of the leader without questioning and without receiving an explanation or rationale for such instructions (Khudhair, et al., 2022).

2.1.4 Democratic Leadership Style

According to Priarso, et al. (2018) in a democratic leadership style, leaders dynamically encourage and stimulate group decisions and group discussions. Some characteristics of the democratic leadership style are the fact that group members are encouraged to share ideas and opinions, even if the leader retains the final say over decisions, members of the group feel more engaged in the process and innovative ideas are welcome and encouraged as well as rewarded. And because it yields a lot of benefits, employees are encouraged to share their thoughts which can lead to better ideas and more innovative solutions to issues (Sadia & Aman, 2018). This type of leadership style is the opposite of the autocratic leadership style and in this leadership style, the leaders are generally more people-oriented and the feelings of their subordinates or employees (Derese, 2020). Democratic leadership style is a very open and collegial style of running a team and researchers have found that this learning style is usually one of the most effective and leads to higher performance (Belete, 2020; Saputra, & Mahaputra, 2022).

2.1.5 Transformational Leadership Style

Transformational leadership style according to Idowu (2019) is the process of influencing major changes in attitudes and assumptions of organizational members and building commitment to the organization’s mission or objectives (Eliyana, et al., 2019). Transformational leaders or managers do encourage their subordinates or employees to view the problem from a new point of view, provide support and encouragement communicate vision, and stimulate emotions and identification (Bastari, et al., 2020; Derese, 2020).

Amussah (2020) stated that transformational leaders motivate their followers in such a way that it goes beyond the usual rewards and monetary exchanges (Alheet, 2021; Patzelt, et al., 2021; Udin, 2021; Baig, et al., 2021). Osano (2022) opined that the importance of this leadership style, leaders in an organizational workplace cannot be over-emphasized as this set of leaders have the capacity and needed skills to solve problems, transform the organization and take the organization to greater heights to achieve better results for the organization (Dey et al., 2022). Thus, the transformational leadership style creates valuable and positive change in the followers with the end goal of developing followers into leaders (Wase & Jeyaprabha, 2022; Weber, et al., 2022).

2.1.6 Transactional Leadership Style

The transactional leadership styleentails the interchange process that results in the compliance of employees or subordinates. Though the leader made the request, it is unlikely to inspire excitement for or devotion to the mission’s goal and concentrates on having internal players complete the necessary duties to enter the organization’s desired outcomes (Idowu, 2019). Transactional leaders exhibit behaviours related to both corrective and constructive aspects where the constructive behaviour style is labelled contingent reward and the corrective style is labelled management by exception (Chang, 2019). Managers in this leadership style fulfil their obligations solely by creating good working conditions, without paying attention to meeting objectives or goals (Daniels et. al., 2019). Transactional leader work according to the principle of good performance and the employee will receive a sufficient reward (Aun, et al., 2019). The transactional leadership style involves an exchange relationship between managers and employees in the direction of establishing goals thereby clarifying the role and task required (Udovita, 2020). Transactional leaders focus mainly on maintaining the status quo and they are oriented to enhance the present way of doing things (Wahyuni, et al., 2020). Therefore, the transactional leadership style is the process whereby leaders can entice subordinates to perform and thereby achieve desired outcomes by promising rewards and benefits for the accomplishments of tasks and administering punishments when the task is not well accomplished (Kabiru & Bula, 2020; Holbert, et al., 2021).

AUTOCRATIC LEADERSHIP STYLE

DEMOCRATIC LEADERSHIP STYLE

TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP STYLE

TRANSACTIONAL LEADERSHIP STYLE

EMPLOYEES’ PERFORMANCE

LEADERSHIP STYLE

2.4 Conceptual Framework

Figure 2.1: Conceptual Framework of the Study

(Researchers Computation, 2024)

Based on the review of available literature, a conceptual framework is shown in Figure 2.1. The focus of the framework is to investigate the relationship between leadership style and employees’ performance. Where leadership style is the independent variable which is measured with autocratic leadership style, democratic leadership style, transformational leadership style and transactional leadership style while the dependent variable is employees’ performance.

2.5 Theoretical Review

2.5.1 Transformational Leadership Theory

This theory (also known as relationship theory) focuses on the connections formed between leaders and followers (Bass & Avolio, 2000). This theory is premised on a leadership style that inspires followers to improve performance by focusing on the wants and needs of the organization as well as the personal concerns of its members (Munir & Aboidullah, 2018). Leadership effectiveness under this theory is dependent on individualized consideration, intellectual stimulation, inspirational motivation and idealized influence (Ewell, 2018; Getachew & Erhua, 2018). Idealized influence refers to when transformational leaders act as role models to their subordinates such that the followers identify themselves with a high level of morale and enthusiasm to fulfil the demands of leader whom they respect, admire and trust (Bass & Avolio, 2000). Leaders using this approach can motivate others, to want to change, improve and be led (Hall, 2002; Ewell, 2018) and possess high ethical and moral standards (Getachew & Erhua, 2018),

2.5.2 Path-Goal Theory

The path-goal theory was developed by Martin Evans in his 1970 paper, “The Effects of Supervisory Behaviour on the Path-Goal Relationship” and was refined by Robert House in his 1971 paper, “A Path-Goal Theory of Leader Effectiveness”. The theory is based on specifying a leader’s style or behaviour that best fits the employee and work environment to achieve a goal (Malik, 2013). Also, this theory can be explained as a leadership style whereby a leader exhibits certain contextual behaviours that align the follower’s goals with the organization’s goals and direct the followers to choose the best paths to achieve these goals (Malik, 2013). The goal of this leadership style is the improvement of employee productivity by focusing on employee satisfaction and motivation (House, 2015). The Path-Goal leadership theory is based on the Vroom expectancy theory in which an individual will act in a certain way based on the expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual (Ghiasi & Limoni, 2015). The Path-Goal theory posits that leaders may not only use varying behaviours with different subordinates but might use different behaviours with the same subordinates in different situations (Rego et al., 2012; Malik, 2013).

In relating this theory with leadership style, leaders that lead utilizing a Path-Goal leadership style reward and encourage their followers for goal achievement and also provide their followers with the necessary direction, clarity and assistance with the elimination of obstacles for them to attain their goals (Malik, 2013). House (2015) identified four leadership styles namely directive, supportive, participative and achievement-orientated leadership (Ewell, 2018). The directive leader is a type of leader that schedules the tasks of the followers and directive leaders also provide guidance to the followers and let them know exactly what is expected from them (Rohman et al., 2018). Achievement-oriented leaders expect their followers to perform at their highest level by setting goals for them to reach (House, 2015). Supportive leaders aim to show concern for the needs of the followers by employing friendly interaction and participative leaders use collective decision-making by consulting the followers and using their suggestions before making any decisions (Priyashantha, 2016). The theory posits that leaders may use different behaviours with subordinates in a similar situation and or employ varying behaviours with the same subordinate in different situations and this theory suggests that depending upon subordinates, and situations, different leadership behaviours will increase acceptance of leader by subordinates, level of satisfaction and motivation to improved performance (Ghiasi & Limoni, 2015).

2.6 Empirical Review

Clinton and Ogbor (2021) examined the impact of a strategic leadership approach on organizational performance. The findings reveal that democratic and laissez-faire leadership styles have a significant relationship with the performances of staff while the autocratic leadership style has no significant relationship with the performances of staff of GTB in Asaba. Anyaegbunam and Anekwe (2021) examined the effects of leadership styles on employee performance with particular reference to Life Breweries Plc, Onitsha. The study revealed among others that there is a positive and significant relationship between the leadership style in the organization and employees’ performance. Nwagbala, et al. (2021) examined the relationship that exists between transformational leadership style and participatory leadership style on employee performance in Stanel World, Awka, Anambra State. The findings were that there is a significant relationship between leadership style and employee performance by showing a positive relationship between participative leadership style and employee while showing a positive relationship between transformational leadership style and job satisfaction. Adegboye and Awolusi (2021) examined the effect of leadership style on employee productivity in the Nigerian oil and gas industry using Chevron Nigeria Limited as a case study. Results of the descriptive and regression analysis indicate that the autocratic leadership style is the most predominant in the Nigerian Oil and Gas followed by laissez-faire, bureaucratic, transactional, democratic and charismatic leadership styles. Udin (2021) provides new insights into uncovering the black box related to the relationship between transformational leadership and employee performance. Using a literature review from various previous studies in the last five years (2017-2021), the result of this study justifies that transformational leadership, in various organizational settings and sizes, has a significant effect on employee performance. Iman, et al. (2021) explained the influence of leadership and work motivation on employee performance at private universities within the province of Southeast Sulawesi which is mediated by knowledge-sharing behaviour. A survey approach and explanatory research method were used. The results obtained showed that leadership has a positive and significant effect on employee performance and knowledge-sharing behaviour. Negash, (2021) examined the effect of leadership styles such as transformational, transactional, laissez-faire, democratic and autocratic on employees’ performance at Debre Berhan wood processing PLC. Descriptive and explanatory research designs were applied to cross-sectional data collected from 202 sample respondents. Results revealed that transformational leadership exerted the highest positive influence on employee performance followed by democratic, transactional, and laissez-faire leadership styles respectively, while autocratic leadership style had a negative significant effect on employee performance. Amegayibor (2021) explored the association between leadership styles and employee performance in a family-owned manufacturing business. A quantitative approach and a correlational design were adopted with a census technique of sampling 400 employees, an interview schedule, multiple linear regression, and SPSS 16.0 version were carried out for analysis. The results revealed that autocratic, charismatic, and paternalistic leadership styles influence employees’ performance. Also, autocratic, charismatic and visionary leadership styles influence error reduction. Furthermore, paternalistic and visionary leadership styles influence employees’ quality of work. Osano (2022) investigated the influence of leadership style on employee performance in Kenya. A descriptive design and survey design were adopted for the study. The result indicated that the transformational leadership style influences employee performance, the transactional leadership style showed that it has a positive and significant influence on employee performance, the participatory leadership style influences employee performance and the autocratic leadership style influences employee performance. Wase and Jeyaprabha (2022) assessed the practices of leadership styles that influence employees’ job performance. The results of the research were mixed which revealed positive results and negative results. The result of the analysis carried out showed that transformational and servant leadership behaviours positively and significantly influence employees’ performance at the workplace. While autocratic and transactional leadership behaviours are not significant in influencing employees’ performance. Khudhair, et al. (2022) identified the impact of leadership style on employee performance using a sample size of 100 from one private organization in Selangor, Malaysia conducted with a convenience sampling technique. From the result, regression coefficient analysis shows that there is a significant and positive impact of democratic and laissez-faire leadership styles on employee performance. While autocratic leadership style shows a negative significant impact on employee performance. Imam and Sopiah (2022) explored a systematic literature review on the influence of leadership style on employee performance. The results of the study revealed that the leadership style of a leader is to solve the problem by approaching each employee to build an emotional approach so that the relationship between leaders and employees can run well.

Onwuegbuna (2022) examined the impact of the democratic leadership style on employees’

performance in selected private universities in Ota, Ogun State, Nigeria. The findings show that the democratic leadership style has an impact on employees’ performance in Nigerian private universities. Akpoyibo (2022) investigated leadership style and employees’ performance in the Nigerian banking industry with particular reference to GTB Plc. Survey design was carried out using both primary and secondary sources. It was resulted that the staff of GTB are familiar with different leadership styles of which several are practiced by management towards employees and that the leadership styles practiced at GTB include the participatory style, democratic as well as the charismatic leadership style that the team leaders GTB create a conducive work environment which that helps employees do their jobs also, that the management of GTB provides sufficient assistance to employees who go through hard times and that the type of leadership style adopted by top management at GTB motivates employees in performing their jobs.

2.7 Research Gap

Most studies have been carried out as regards leadership style and employees’ performance in developed countries but in Africa especially Nigeria studies carried out are mostly in the area of banking, and manufacturing companies but research carried out in Nigeria on tertiary institutions is not much. Though, most researchers have worked on leadership style and employees performance in Nigeria such as Ajibade, et al. (2017); Orji, et al. (2017); Kalu and Okpokwasili (2018); Ekpenyong (2020); Amusa, et al. (2020); Nwagbala, et al. (2021); Adegboyega and Awolusi (2021); Akpoyibo (2022) and Onwuegbuna (2022). But few researchers have been able to work on tertiary institutions in Nigeria recently such few scholars are Yusuf-Habeeb and Yusuf (2017); Odunlami, et al. (2017); Kalu and Okpokwasili (2018); Idowu (2019); Manza, et al. (2020); Onwuegbuna (2022). It was observed that these researchers mainly used transformational, transactional, charismatic, participatory, and laissez-faire as components of leadership style while autocratic, and democratic amongst others were not used in measuring leadership style and employees’ performance of tertiary institutions in Nigeria. Another aspect is the methodology where the questionnaire was not measured based on a multi-factor leadership questionnaire. Therefore, this study made use of this scaling factor by Bass (1995) and Yousef (2000) scale of measuring employee performance. Also, the study emphasized an understanding of leadership style the underlying factors, issues and influence on employees’ performance at tertiary institutions in Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria.

3.0 METHODOLOGY

This study makes use of a cross-sectional survey research design to investigate the relationship between leadership style and employees’ performance at private tertiary institutions in Ibadan, Oyo state. The main reason for this survey was to gather the proper information to provide insight into leadership style and employees’ performance of private tertiary institutions in Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria. This study focused on Lead City University because it is one of the largest, most populated and most well-known private universities in Ibadan amongst other private universities. The population of this study consists of a staff of Lead City University in Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria. The total population for this study is 585 (five hundred and eighty-five). Table 3.1 illustrates the selected outcome alongside the number of staff of both academic and non-academic staff of the school.

3.1: Distribution of staff of selected branches

S/N	ITEM	NUMBER OF STAFF
1	Academic Staff	347
2	Non-Academic Staff	238
	TOTAL	585

Source: Field Survey, 2023

The sample size for this study was approximately 238 using the Slovin’s formula which is illustrated below.

3.1 Reliability of Instrument

Table 1: Alpha Test for Reliability, Consistency and Validation

average

item-test item-rest interitem

Item | Obs Sign correlation correlation covariance alpha

————-+—————————————————————–

ep | 205 + 0.8515 0.6643 .0378527 0.3572

auls | 205 + 0.3328 0.0888 .128992 0.6684

dels | 205 + 0.7280 0.4746 .0649452 0.4972

tfls | 205 + 0.7827 0.5752 .0543015 0.4356

tsls | 205 – 0.2574 0.0327 .1368966 0.6802

————-+—————————————————————–

Test scale | .0845976 0.6139

——————————————————————————-

Source: Author Compilation from STATA 14

The table above shows Cronbach Alpha test for reliability, consistency and validity of the study instrument which is the questionnaire. The minimum acceptable value for Cronbach’s alpha is 0.50; Below this value the internal consistency of the common range is low. Meanwhile, the maximum expected value is 0.90; Above this value is perceived as redundancy or duplication. Alpha values between 0.55 and 0.90 is usually preferred. In this study, the Cronbach Alpha test results as seen from the table above shows a value of 0.61 which makes the instrument for this study reliable and valid.

3.2 Method of Data Analysis

The method of data analysis was of two parts. The first part consists of the frequencies, means and percentages which were used to describe the characteristics of the sample. The second part was the regression analysis used to infer meaning about the entire population from the sample findings. Also, analysis of variances, model summaries and regression coefficients were used to describe the characteristics of the population of study while STATA version 14 and Microsoft Excel were used as the principal data analysis tools.

3.3 Model of Specification

This comprises the elements used in measuring the independent variable (Leadership Style) which are Autocratic Leadership Style (AULS), Democratic Leadership Style (DELS), Transformational Leadership Style (TFLS) and Transactional Leadership Style (TSLS) on the dependent variable which is employees’ performance.

The model for the study is functionally stated below:

EP’= ƒ(AULS, DELS, TFLS, TSLS)’ ……………………………………… 3.1

The model is econometrically stated as:

EP_ⅈ = β₀ + β₁AULS_ⅈ + β₂DELS_ⅈ + β₃TFLS_ⅈ + β₄TSLS_ⅈ + Ɛ_ⅈ ………………… 3.2

Where:

EP = Employees’ Performance

AULS = Autocratic Leadership Style

DELS = Democratic Leadership Style

TFLS = Transformational Leadership Style

TSLS = Transactional Leadership Style

β₀= Intercept

β₁ – β₃> 0 = Coefficient of AULS, DELS, TFLS and TSLS

Ɛ_ⅈ = Error term

ⅈ = Samples of Lead City University Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria.

The a priori expectation for this study is stated:

β₁, β₂, β_3,β₄> 0, the reason is that the variables used here are a process dimension

4.0 Data Presentation and Analysis

Particularly, a total of 240 questionnaire were sent out to the respondents for data generation as shown in the table below:

Table 1: Analysis of Questionnaire

Questionnaires	Copies	Percentage
Retrieved	205	85%
Un-retrieved	35	15%
Sent copies	240	100%

Source: Author Compilation from field work, 2024

The result from the analysis of the retrieved questionnaire shows that out of the 240 questionnaire that were sent, 205 of them were retrieved. This represented 85% of the total questionnaire sent and this was the number that was used for analysis in the subsequent sections that will follow. 35 of the questionnaires could not be retrieved, representing 15% which is not significant.

4.1 Data Analysis

Correlation Analysis

In examining the association among the variables, we employed the Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficient (correlation matrix), and the results are presented in the table below.

Table 4.7: Correlation analysis

| ep auls dels tfls tsls

————-+———————————————

ep | 1.0000

auls | 0.1418 1.0000

dels | 0.5966 0.0306 1.0000

tfls | 0.6561 0.2370 0.4046 1.0000

tsls | -0.0431 -0.0089 -0.0701 0.0144 1.0000

Author’s computation (2024)

In the case of the correlation between leadership styles and employee performance, the above results show that there exists a positive and weak association between autocratic leadership style and employee performance (0.1418). There exists a positive and moderate association between democratic leadership style and employee performance (0.5966). There exists a positive and high association between transformative leadership style and employee performance (0.6561). There exists a negative and weak association between transactional leadership style and employee performance (-0.0431). However, to test our hypotheses a regression results will be needed since correlation test does not capture cause-effect relationship.

Regression Analysis

Particularly, to examine the cause-effect relationships between the dependent variables and independent variables as well as to test the formulated hypotheses, we used a robust regression analysis since our results reveal the presence of heteroskedasticity. The robust regression and the OLS results obtained is presented and discussed below.

Table 2: Regression Result

	EP Model (OLS)	EP Model (Robust Regression)
CON	0.42 {0.549}	0.86 {0.239}
AULS	0.10 {0.452}	0.18 {0.216}
DELS	0.44 {0.000} ***	0.40 {0.000} ***
TFLS	0.50 {0.000} ***	0.44 {0.000} ***
TSLS	-0.01 {0.945}	-0.09 {0.536}
F-statistics Wald Statistics	20.32 (0.00) ***	14.95 (0.00) ***
R- Squared	0.53	0.53
VIF Test	1.14
Heteroscedasticity Test	5.62 (0.0177) **

Note: (1) bracket {} are p-values

(2) **, ***, implies statistical significance at 5% and 1% levels respectively

In the table above, we observed from the OLS pooled regression that the R-squared value of 0.53 shows that about 53% of the systematic variations in employee performance for the period of interest was jointly explained by the independent variables in the model. This implies that employee performance cannot be 100 percent explained by the leadership style variables. The unexplained part of employee performance can be attributed to the exclusion of other independent variables that can impact on employee performance but were excluded because they are outside the scope of this study. However, there are captured in the error term. The F-statistic value of 20.32 and its associated P-value of 0.00 shows that the OLS regression model on the overall is statistically significant at 1% level, this means that the regression model is valid and can be used for statistical inference.

Test of Hypotheses

Following the above, the discussion of the robust regression results became imperative in testing our hypotheses. The below is a specific analysis for each of the independent variables using the robust regression for the models.

Hypotheses 1: There is no significant impact of autocratic leadership style on employees’ performance at private tertiary institutions in Ibadan, Oyo State.

The results obtained from the robust regression reveals that the variable of autocratic leadership {0.18 (0.216)} as an independent variable to employee performance appears to have a positive insignificant impact on employee performance. This therefore means we should accept the null hypothesis and reject the alternate hypothesis. Hence, there is no significant impact of autocratic leadership style on employees’ performance at private tertiary institutions in Ibadan, Oyo State. This implies that autocratic leadership style insignificantly improves employees’ performance at private tertiary institutions in Ibadan, Oyo State during the period under study.

Hypotheses 2: There is no significant influence of democratic leadership style on employees’ performance at private tertiary institutions in Ibadan, Oyo State.

The results obtained from the robust regression reveals that the variable of democratic leadership style {0.40 (0.000)} as an independent variable to employee performance appears to have a positive significant influence on employee performance. This therefore means we should reject the null hypothesis and accept the alternate hypothesis. Hence, there is no significant influence of democratic leadership style on employees’ performance at private tertiary institutions in Ibadan, Oyo state. This implies that democratic leadership style significantly improves employees’ performance at private tertiary institutions in Ibadan, Oyo state during the period under study.

Hypotheses 3: Transformational leadership style has no relationship with employees’ performance at private tertiary institutions in Ibadan, Oyo State.

The results obtained from the robust regression reveals that the variable of transformational leadership style {0.44 (0.000)} as an independent variable to employee performance appears to have a positive significant impact on employee performance. This therefore means we should reject the null hypothesis and accept the alternate hypothesis. Hence, transformational leadership style has no relationship with employees’ performance at private tertiary institutions in Ibadan, Oyo State. This implies that transformational leadership style significantly improves employees’ performance at private tertiary institutions in Ibadan, Oyo State during the period under study.

Hypotheses 4: There is no significant impact of transactional leadership style on employees’ performance at private tertiary institutions in Ibadan, Oyo State.

The results obtained from the robust regression reveals that the variable of transactional leadership style {-0.09 (0.536)} as an independent variable to employee performance appears to have a negative insignificant effect on employee performance. This therefore means we should accept the null hypothesis and reject the alternate hypothesis. Hence, there is no significant relationship of transactional leadership style on employees’ performance at private tertiary institutions in Ibadan, Oyo State. This implies that transactional leadership style insignificantly decreases employees’ performance at private tertiary institutions in Ibadan, Oyo State during the period under study.

5.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The managing style of a leader is essential to the success of teamwork which leads to organizational growth. In many cases, leaders are not aware of the essential wants and needs of their employees or subordinates, or they fail to understand the difference between the individuals involved in the team. A successful organization is a reflection of excellent leadership. Hence, we investigate the relationship between leadership styles on employees’ performance in private tertiary institutions in Ibadan, Oyo State. Based on the findings of the study, we conclude that autocratic leadership style insignificantly improves employees’ performance at private tertiary institutions in Ibadan, Oyo State during the period under study. However, we also conclude that democratic leadership and transformation leadership style significantly improves employees’ performance at private tertiary institutions in Ibadan, Oyo State during the period under study. Finally, we conclude that transactional leadership style insignificantly decreases employees’ performance at private tertiary institutions in Ibadan, Oyo State during the period under study.

5.3 Recommendations

This study has sufficiently established different positions on the impact of leadership styles on employees’ performance in private tertiary institutions in Ibadan, Oyo state. Based on the findings of this study, we carefully recommend that:

Transformational leadership style is recommended because of its creativity as well as performance and supportive nature also, knowledge can easily be shared amongst employees when organizations are using a transformational leadership style and thus promoting organizational culture and improving overall performance.

Transformational leaders as well as democratic set of leaders have the capacity and needed skills to solve problems, transform the organization and take the organization to greater heights to achieve better results for the organization.

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The Benefits of Therapy for Anxiety

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If you could permanently ban a word from general usage, which one would it be? Why?

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Anxiety disorders are among the most common mental health issues, affecting millions worldwide. They can cause significant distress, impacting a person’s ability to function in daily life. Therapy has proven to be an effective treatment for managing and reducing the symptoms of anxiety. It can provide the tools needed to cope with anxiety triggers and improve overall mental health. Below, we explore the benefits of therapy for those grappling with anxiety.

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Exploring Different Types of Therapy for Anxiety Relief

While CBT is widely used for anxiety, other therapeutic approaches can be just as effective. Exposure Therapy helps individuals gradually confront their fears, while psychodynamic therapy focuses on uncovering past experiences that contribute to anxiety. Mindfulness-based therapies, like MBSR and MBCT, encourage present-moment awareness to reduce anxious thoughts about the future.

Finding the right therapy depends on individual needs, as different methods work for different people. Consulting with a DC anxiety therapist can provide guidance on the best approach, ensuring a personalized treatment plan that supports long-term anxiety management.

Understanding Anxiety: Definition and Impact on Daily Life

Anxiety is a persistent and overwhelming clinical condition characterized by excessive nervousness, fear, and apprehension. It can lead to physical symptoms such as rapid heartbeat or breathing difficulties, resembling a fight-or-flight response. These feelings can interfere with daily activities, leading to avoidance behaviors and a debilitating pattern. Understanding the pervasive nature of anxiety is crucial for seeking help.

Unchecked, anxiety can lead to chronic health issues, strained relationships, and reduced quality of life. Various forms of anxiety disorders, such as generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder, social anxiety disorder, and specific phobias, affect individuals differently, necessitating personalized treatment plans. The first step is often consulting a mental health professional to gain a clear diagnosis, followed by treatment tailored to each person’s unique experiences and challenges.

How Therapy Can Alleviate Symptoms of Anxiety

Therapy is a crucial method for managing anxiety. Therapists create a safe, confidential environment for clients to discuss their feelings and thoughts without judgment, allowing them to identify the underlying causes of their worries and fears. Through therapeutic techniques, clients learn to recognize and change negative thought patterns contributing to their anxiety.

Therapists teach coping strategies that can be used outside of sessions, making daily activities and challenges more manageable. Therapy often involves building practical skills, such as relaxation techniques and stress management tools, which can reduce physical symptoms of anxiety, improve sleep, concentration, and overall wellbeing. Although the alleviation of symptoms doesn’t happen overnight, with consistent guidance and consistent treatment, individuals can experience significant reductions in anxiety symptoms.

The Role of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy in Managing Anxiety

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) is a short-term, goal-oriented therapy used to treat anxiety disorders. It focuses on the interconnectedness of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors, and helps individuals change negative thought patterns. CBT helps clients identify and challenge irrational beliefs and distorted thinking that cause anxiety.

Therapists facilitate this process by offering guidance, support, and feedback. They help clients establish realistic goals and teach self-help strategies, equipping them with tools to handle future stressors independently. CBT is particularly effective for treating anxiety, with clients often seeing improvements in a short period. However, success depends on clients’ willingness to engage fully in the process and put in the necessary work both in and out of therapy sessions.

Long-term Benefits and Success Rates of Therapy for Anxiety Disorders

Therapy for anxiety offers long-term benefits, including stronger coping mechanisms, increased self-awareness, and improved emotional resilience. Regular sessions can lead to better relationships, increased productivity, and a more fulfilling life. Therapy’s success rates are promising, with many individuals reporting meaningful improvements. The tools and strategies learned can lead to sustained decreases in anxiety levels and prevent future episodes.

Therapy can break the cycle of medication dependency, providing an alternative means of managing symptoms that remain with individuals for life. It also empowers individuals to take active control of their mental health, encouraging growth and adaptability, contributing to the enduring effectiveness of therapy for managing anxiety disorders.

Altogether, therapy offers a multifaceted approach to anxiety that can lead to lasting change and improved mental health. Whether through cognitive behavioral therapy, exposure therapy, or mindfulness practices, the tools learned in therapy equip individuals to navigate life with confidence and resilience. Those willing to invest in this personal growth can experience profound benefits, both immediately and in the long term.

What Information Can You Get From Your Genetic Heritage Findings?

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Write about your approach to budgeting.

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Understanding your genetic heritage can be a thrilling exploration of your personal history, connecting you with ancestors and regions around the globe. Through advanced scientific techniques, it’s now possible to peek into your genetic code and uncover details about your lineage, health predispositions, and even certain traits and behaviors. Such insights can influence how you perceive yourself and guide decisions related to lifestyle and health. In this article, delve deep into the profound information obtainable from genetic heritage findings and discover how it may impact your life. Keep reading to unveil the secrets locked within your DNA.

Connecting With Relatives and Building Your Family Tree With DNA

One of the exciting byproducts of genetic heritage analysis is the ability to connect with living relatives you may never have known existed. Many DNA testing services include databases that can match your genetic information with others, presenting the possibility of extending your family tree. Some individuals have discovered siblings, cousins, and even more distant relations through these matches.

Sometimes, users can collaborate to fill in gaps in family trees or share fascinating anecdotes and photos from different branches. This collective effort often fosters a greater sense of belonging and understanding of familial history, providing a more comprehensive picture of one’s lineage. It is a real-time application of genetic data that personalizes history, making it more relevant and meaningful.

This digital era has made these connections more accessible than ever, with DNA sites offering platforms to explore these newly found ties. For many, it is more than just an exploration of lineage; it is an opportunity to build relationships and broaden family horizons.

Assessing Inherited Health Risks From Genetic Data

Your genetic code holds key information about potential health risks inherited from your parents. Genetic testing can identify variations in your DNA that may increase your susceptibility to certain diseases or health conditions. This knowledge can be a powerful tool in taking preventive measures or seeking early treatment.

Professional healthcare providers often use this genetic information to develop personalized medical plans for their patients. Such tailored approaches can include diet, exercise, and lifestyle changes to mitigate identified health risks. In some cases, genetic testing may directly influence the choice of medications or therapies, leading to more effective treatment and management of health conditions.

While genetic heritage findings can be enlightening, they also raise questions about data privacy and the psychological impact of knowing one’s health risks. Recognizing the implications of such knowledge, genetic counseling is recommended to offer support and guidance on interpreting the results and making informed choices.

Identifying Genetic Markers for Traits and Attributes

Beyond ancestral origins and health risks, genetic testing can unveil a wide range of traits and attributes. These findings can provide explanations for everything from physical characteristics to predispositions for certain behaviors. Scientists are continually discovering new genetic markers that influence our uniqueness.

The data may reveal why you have a particular hair color, your propensity for certain tastes and smells, or why you might be more adept at endurance sports over sprinting. Such information, while sometimes just fun facts, can also contribute to a deeper understanding of oneself and make for great conversations.

It’s important to note that traits are often the result of complex interactions between multiple genes and the environment. Therefore, genetic markers for certain attributes act as indicators of potential rather than fixed determinants. This distinction helps in acknowledging the role of nurture alongside nature in shaping who we are.

Ethnicity Estimates and Historical Migration Patterns

Genetic heritage testing services often provide ethnicity estimates, highlighting the percentages of your DNA that correspond with various global populations. These percentages offer insight into the migration patterns of your ancestors and the melting pot of genetics that contribute to your makeup. Such ethnicity estimates are continually refined as more comprehensive reference data from around the world is collected.

Moreover, these insights can spark an interest in learning more about the cultures and histories of various ethnic groups, fostering a sense of connection to a global community. For some, it can also lead to an exploration of historical migration patterns, helping to understand how and why populations moved and mixed over the centuries.

Altogether, the quest to unlock the secrets of your genetic heritage is both enlightening and impactful. It bridges the gap between past and present, providing a clearer picture of your ancestral story, health leanings, and the mosaic of traits that define you. Overall, it equips you with a form of self-knowledge that can shape your future and deepen your understanding of your place in the world’s diverse heritage.

Why Prioritizing Your Health is Crucial in Motherhood

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What was the last thing you did for play or fun?

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Motherhood is a transformative journey. It’s full of happiness and satisfaction. But, it brings up unique obstacles and needs. You need self-care from birth to adulthood. Good health makes a good mother.

This article explores why mothers must focus on self-care. Their children’s well-being also depends on it.

Ensuring a Healthy Pregnancy

Maintaining your health during pregnancy is important. It’s key for the baby’s development as your body changes. Nourish your body to sustain your unborn child’s growth and development. Avoid stress and stay healthy during those nine months. Schedule routine check-ups with your doctor. They will help you have a healthy pregnancy.

The CDC says that women who get prenatal care early and often are less likely to have pregnancy problems. Taking care of yourself helps your baby. It gives them the best environment to thrive and grow.

Proper self-attention creates healthy maturity conditions for your infant. Good health during pregnancy lowers the risk of premature birth.

Postpartum Recovery

Childbirth exhausts both body and mind. The postpartum phase is crucial for recovery. Prioritizing health means giving your body time to recover. Ibuprofen, acetaminophen, and cyclobenzaprine are options for first-time moms who want to deal with pain by taking drugs. These drugs are commonly used for pregnancy muscle pain relief. However, there are side effects involved. In New Orleans, primary care doctors can guide you in choosing the best pain relief options, helping you manage side effects and ensure your well-being during recovery.

Ibuprofen and acetaminophen can cause stomach upset or liver issues if taken in excessive amounts, while cyclobenzaprine side effects may include nausea, blurred vision, and constipation. Always consult your healthcare provider before starting any medication. Report any bad effects promptly.

Additionally, some new mothers may struggle with more than just physical recovery, facing emotional challenges like anxiety or mood swings. Seeking professional support is crucial, and finding primary care doctors in new orleans can be a helpful step in connecting with the right healthcare providers. Being surrounded by compassionate people who prioritize your well-being can make a significant difference during your postpartum recovery.

Postpartum Period	Physical Health	Mental Health
Immediate (0-6 weeks)	Rest and recover from childbirth, Establish breastfeeding routines, Attend postpartum checkups	Monitor for signs of postpartum depression/anxiety, Seek support from loved ones, Practice self-care
Early (6 weeks – 6 months)	Gradually resume gentle exercise, Follow a nutrient-rich diet, Get adequate sleep	Join new mom support groups, Prioritize self-care activities, Seek professional help if needed
Later (6 months+)	Continue healthy lifestyle habits, Attend well-baby visits, Manage chronic conditions	Maintain open communication with partner, Practice stress management techniques, Set realistic expectations

Feeding Your Baby with Breast Milk

Why Breastfeeding is Good for Your Baby

Breastfeeding helps you bond with your baby.
It gives your baby important nutrients to grow strong and healthy.
Breastfeeding can reduce the risk of certain health issues for both mom and baby.

Successful breastfeeding requires:

A commitment to your well-being.
Proper nutrition
Adequate hydration
Self-care practices

Creating a Nurturing Environment

Breastfeeding is the act of feeding infants with their mother’s milk. Being healthy as a mother means developing a caring atmosphere for her family. This environment fosters emotional and physical development in children. Caring for your baby becomes overwhelming during physical and mental exhaustion. It helps to be observant and wait on them. It is where love starts and builds security.

Modeling Healthy Habits for Your Child

Children learn through watching and copying their parent’s behaviors and preferences. Parents do a great thing for society by giving their health the top priority. Kids learn self-care when they exercise and eat right. Adults show them a healthy life is key to managing stress.

Primary care services offer a holistic approach to family health. By partnering with your primary care provider, you can establish healthy routines and habits that benefit everyone in the family. A trusted primary care doctor ensures that every family member, from mom to child, is physically and mentally supported through regular check-ups, health screenings, and preventative care. It’s essential to create an environment that values open communication and prioritizes well-being for the entire family. This initial process builds a family system valuing self-preservation.

Preventing and Managing Chronic Health Conditions

How we live affects heart disease and diabetes, among other illnesses. Diet determines whether we get sick or not. It helps control weight and reduces risks, like hypertension. Put your health first if you are a mother to minimize your chances of contracting these diseases. This way you will not only increase your lifespan but also get to see your child grow.

Mothers who have constant health conditions should focus more on their wellness. They are better off getting help from medical experts to manage these conditions. So, sticking to treatment plans and self-care lessens the effects. It lessens the effects on childcare for such mothers. It helps them care for their children better.

Maintaining Emotional Well-being

Motherhood offers joy as well as tension and is demanding too. Avoid exhaustion by learning to manage stress levels and set limits instead. Practice mindfulness exercises to reduce stress.

Explore personal interests to take your mind off stress. Reach out to friends and family for help when needed. These benefits bring emotional comfort. Also, finding ways to increase your ability to resist hardships could heal many of them. So, this would enable you to maintain lifelong patience during motherhood challenges.

A positive outlook influences general health and well-being. Concentrating on your emotional state and psyche helps you see things positively. This mindset treats difficulties as growth opportunities that can be confidently overcome.

It benefits you in various ways to be in a good mood. It also helps your child grow up in a safe and loving environment. Besides, this helps them become emotionally intelligent and resilient.

Seeking Professional Support When Needed

Do not wait for anything you may need due to pain or hurt. A doctor is necessary to solve many illnesses in the mind and body.
One can ask their doctor for advice. They can also ask their nurse, midwife, or lactation consultant for advice on breastfeeding. This help is available during pregnancy and in motherhood.
A diet coach is important during these two stages. They help you make a plan to eat well for yourself and your baby.
Don’t overlook mental health issues like postpartum depression, seek a therapist. They can also use support groups and online resources.
Remember, seeking pro help is a sign of strength, not weakness. It can provide valuable resources for prioritizing your health.

Conclusion

Motherhood helps people go through different life stages. These include enthusiasm, tough times, and many duties. Investing in your health is also investing in you. It’s also investing in your future. It also sets a good example for them.

They are in a time of growth in body, mind, and skills. Healthy families start with healthy mothers. You should take care of yourself when needed. Self-improvement should top the agenda for individuals and their children.

Frequent Queries

What can I do to improve my health while pregnant? What are some specific actions I can take?

Eat well, exercise some, and manage stress. Recovery is faster if one goes to antenatal care regularly. This makes parenthood smoother.

Why will looking after myself help in my baby’s development?

Calmness lets you serve well, which creates intimacy and benefits well-being.

What can I do so my child can emulate good behavior?

Lead by example with continuous exercise, good food, and stress management. This teaches self-care and a healthy lifestyle through practical examples.

Key Takeaways

A healthy pregnancy creates the base for a healthy child. It lowers risks and ensures great development.
Prioritize your postpartum recovery and mental health. This supports your transition into motherhood and caring for your newborn.
Taking care of yourself makes it easier to breastfeed and creates a nurturing environment.
Model healthy habits. This will create a family culture. It values self-care and personal growth.
Prioritizing your health can prevent chronic conditions. It also helps you manage them. This ensures you’re healthy and present for your child’s milestones.

Tips for Relaxing and Unwinding After a Long Day at Work

Daily writing prompt

Do you trust your instincts?

View all responses

Unwinding after a bustling day at the office is not just a luxury—it’s necessary for maintaining our well-being and productivity. While the hustle culture may glorify relentless work, it’s paramount we listen to the needs of our minds and bodies for balance and restoration. Creating routines that facilitate relaxation can lead to better sleep, improved mood, and increased clarity of thought. Discovering your personal decompression strategy is essential, and the following tips will help you find your haven of calm. Keep reading to explore ways to cultivate peace in your daily life.

Creating a Serene Environment in Your Home Space

Our surroundings deeply impact our mental state, so keeping a tidy, cozy home can help reduce stress. Simple touches like soft lighting, plush pillows, and warm blankets create a welcoming space to unwind. Adding soothing scents like lavender or chamomile in a diffuser and playing gentle background music can amplify this calming atmosphere.

To make your space even more personal, include items that bring joy, like photos or favorite books. Set aside a specific spot as a relaxation zone, free from electronics. Use it for calming activities like journaling, reading, or even to play Gates of Olympus slots online, letting yourself escape into a mythical world and recharge.

Incorporating Mindfulness and Meditation Techniques

Mindfulness and meditation are effective tools for mental and emotional relaxation. Meditation involves sitting in silence for a few minutes each day, focusing on your breath, and bringing your attention to the present moment. Engaging with everyday experiences, such as enjoying coffee or listening to a loved one, enhances appreciation and awareness of life’s simple pleasures.

Guided meditations, available in apps, online videos, or audio recordings, can provide direction and focus for those struggling with sitting still during traditional meditation. Yoga, a combination of mindfulness and gentle physical activity, can release physical tension and increase well-being through mindful movement and controlled breathing. Even a short routine before bed can prepare the mind and body for restful sleep.

Engaging in Physical Activity to Decompress

Exercise is crucial for both physical health and mental relaxation. It releases endorphins, which are the body’s mood elevators. Even a short walk outdoors can provide a refreshing break from a stressful day. Gentle forms of exercise, like tai chi or swimming, can be particularly soothing and create a meditative experience.

For those with limited time, short bursts of exercise can help maintain energy levels and combat the negative effects of a sedentary lifestyle. Social sports or exercise classes offer the added benefit of community and shared experiences, providing uplifting social interaction and a routine to look forward to after work.

Establishing a Digital Detox Routine for Evening Unwinding

In today’s hyper-connected world, disconnecting from digital devices can significantly improve your quality of life. Turn off devices an hour before bedtime to prevent brain overstimulation. Excessive screen time can disrupt sleep patterns due to blue light exposure, inhibiting melatonin production.

Instead, read physical books or magazines to help your eyes rest and promote a more reflective state of mind. Explore alternative activities like board games, relaxing baths, or at-home spa experiences to encourage personal interaction and self-care. Utilizing evening hours for planning the next day can also help free your mind from the thoughts of tomorrow’s tasks, allowing your brain to rest easily.

Harnessing the Power of Hobby and Creative Expression

Hobbies and creative activities can be a great way to unwind and connect with personal interests and passions. These activities, such as painting, writing, cooking, or gardening, allow for expression and can result in a meditative state. Engaging in creative tasks can reduce stress and anxiety, provide a sense of achievement, and provide personal fulfillment.

Even if you don’t consider yourself artistically inclined, exploring new hobbies or rekindling old ones can be exciting and rejuvenating. Learning a musical instrument, trying a new recipe, or puzzling can stimulate your mind in new directions. Remember that hobbies don’t have to be expensive or time-consuming, and finding joy in the activity itself is crucial.

Overall, unwinding after a rigorous day doesn’t have to be complicated or time-consuming. By cultivating peaceful environments, practicing mindfulness, incorporating exercises to discharge tension, disconnecting from the digital world, and expressing oneself creatively, you can develop a personalized relaxation routine that soothes the soul. Establish habits that resonate with you and watch as your evenings transform into a space of tranquility and rejuvenation.

Social Media: Society, Politics and Healthcare

By Konsam Jenny

Abstract

With the introduction of social media, majority of the population of the world is under the influence of it which is both positive and negative. It has changed the world scenario: education, politics, administration, health, society and so on. Youths are glued to social media and adults and senior citizens are no exception. This paper tries to highlight some of the issues faced in the field of politics, society and healthcare. The author took up this areas believing that society is deeply impacted by our health and the way the administration is run.

Key words: social media; politics; society; healthcare

Introduction

Social media has become an integral part of our life. It no longer confine in staying connected with family and friends but it serve a bigger role such as forming public opinion, a platform for discussion for almost every field (society, administration, economy, politics, health and so on, both in the national and international arena). The use of social media is prevalent across all ages and professions and is pervasive around the world. Social media, nowadays, plays a significant role in shaping/changing our world.^[1] As of January 2023, Facebook users have reached 3 billion (monthly active users)^[2] Youtube – 2.49 billion; WhatsApp – 2 billion; Istagram – 2 billion.^[3] A detailed analysis by the team at Kepios shows that there are 5.04 billion social media users around the world in January 2024, equating to 62.3 percent of the total global population.^[4] Social Media such as Face book, Twitter and YouTube are not just mere innovations in the internet world, but are fast emerging as influencers and opinion creators.^[5]

Definition of social media

Kaplan and Haenlein (2010) define social media as “a group of Internet-based applications that build on the ideological and technological foundations of Web2.0, and that allow the creation and exchange of user-generated content”.^[6]According to Dewing (2010) social media is defined as “various types of internet services commonly associated with social media (sometimes referred to as web 2.0 includes the blogs, wikis, social networking sites, status-update services, media sharing sites)”.^[7] Another definition provided by Mayfield (2008) describes these media as “online platforms that promote participation, openness conversation and connectedness”.^[8]

Types of social media

Social Media can be classified as: Social Networking Sites (mainly used for connecting with friends and family focusing more on person-to-person conversations); Image-based sites(apps like Pinterest, Instagram, and Snapchat which are designed to amplify the sharing of images); Video sharing/streaming platforms/Discussion forums (which allow users to ask questions and get answers from different people) and Blogs and community platforms (Blogs are a great way for businesses and marketers to reach and provide credible information to their target audience).^[9]

Social media and society

Social media deeply influences every aspect of our lives be it personal or our professional lives. Following are some of the positive as well as negative impact of social media in our society:

Positive impact

One simple example of positive impact of social media is very much prevalent during the time of Pandemic (Covid-19). Education was hard hit during the Covid-19 pandemic. It was with the help of social media that education was made available online to millions of student. In today’s time academic education is provided through various tools such as blogs, podcasts, e-learning, m-learning etc. Connectivity with family and friends living faraway places has become easier. It also helps in giving awareness regarding various topics, including current affairs, politics, environment, etc.^[10]

Negative impact

It has become primary source for spreading fake news and information
Powerful people, companies and institutions misuse it to spread propaganda to meet their interests
Politicians /political parties use as a propaganda tool, setting a fake narrative to manipulate the ideology especially common people.
Use as a tool by Terrorists and Extremists extensively to spread hateful and violent ideologies
Trolling and bullying can become a serious issue affecting one’s health (mentally as well as physically).^[11]

Role of Social Media in Politics

Social media which was considered as a tool for entertainment has change considerably. Facebook, WhatsApp, YouTube and others have played a big role when it comes to administration. It has dismantled traditional barriers between politicians and their constituents.^[12] It is seen that before 2009 general elections, Shashi Tharoor, a Congress MP who had previously served as UN Under-Secretary-General, was the only Indian politician with a Twitter account but today most of the politician has social media account.^[13] For example, the most influential political leader on Twitter is Barack Obama (former US President). In 2008 Obama first started using Twitter and other social media sites during his presidential campaign. India’s Prime Minister Narendra Modi in 2014 election made Twitter his most important tool for communication, Joe Biden, Amit Shah, Arvind Kejriwal, Dalai Lama, Pope Francis are some of the prominent leaders who have used social media. It is worth mentioning that BJP reportedly operates around 200,000 to 300,000 WhatsApp groups and controls 18,000 fake Twitter handles.^[14]

Social media influencer and politics

Social media influencer also plays important role in creating public opinion when it comes to politics. They are important in political marketing shaping narratives and engaging with diverse voters. Political parties collaborate with influencers of different types based on their campaign goals and budgets. Influencers can be categorised as Nano (0-10000 followers) and micro-influencers (10000 – 100000) connect with local communities, while macro (1-10 lakh) and mega-influencers (10 lakh and above) spread messages to a vast audience.^[15]

In 2023, Ankit Baiyanpuria (a social media fitness influencer from Haryana) joined Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s Shramdaan programme of the “Swachhata Hi Seva”^[16] Union Ministers S Jaishankar (watched 6.6 million times), Nitin Gadkari (watched 2.2 million times), Piyush Goyal, Smriti Irani, Rajeev Chandrasekhar have given interviews to two prominent Youtubers Ranveer Allahabadia and Raj Shamani. Delhi chief minister Arvind kejriwal gave interview to comedian Kunal Karma in 2019; Chattisgarh Chief Minister Bhupesh Baghel was interviewed by YouTube content creator Samdish Bhatia in 2022; Madhya Pradesh Chief Minister Shivraj Singh Chouhan interviewed by Shamani;^[17]Congress leader Rahul Gandhi gave interviewed to Bhatia, Curly Tales and Mashable India during his Bharat Jado Yatra.^[18] The Bharatiya Janata Party’s Manoj Tiwari and Shiv Sena (Uddhav Balasaheb Thackeray)’s Aaditya Thackeray have given similar interviews since 2022.^[19] Biden recently rolled out the red carpet at the white house for hundreds of influencers including actor Kalen Allen (2 million) and artist Devon Rodriguez (9 million followers) hoping to persuade them to join his cadre of digital assets.^[20] Trump has been cosy with conservation influencers. The list is endless.

Social media and political events

Incidents like the huge protests of 2012 regarding anti-corruption movement by Anna Hazare leading to the serious consideration of Lokpal Bill in the Parliament; the outrage following Nirbhaya gang rape case (2012) channelized through the social media led to bring changes in Rape Law; the development on the long awaited administrative issue of Telangana; the 2014 India’s Parliament Election called as “First social media election” made history as much of it took place online; presidential campaigns of Barack Obama way back in 2008 made history; the Arab Revolution or the Arab Uprising where social media played a significant role in bringing changes to the long dictatorial rule in Tunisia and Egypt in 2011. In Philippine, with the help of only text messages President Joseph Estrada was ousted in 2001. In 2012, in Romania it had helped in converting street movements into large cities.

Social media and Health

Human beings being a social creature need companionship. It is this connections that help humankind to ease stress, anxiety, and depression, boost self-worth, provide comfort and joy, prevent loneliness, and even add years to your life.^[21]On the other, lacking of such connection can lead to serious health issue. Although, it is seen that social media have their own benefits but it can never replace the real world. Ironically for a technology that’s designed to bring people closer together, spending too much time on it actually make you feel more lonely and isolated.^[22]

Benefits of social media in Healthcare Professionals (HCP)

Social media was widely used in health contexts by many especially during the time of Covid-19 pandemic.^[23] It is used for various health purposes such as health interventions, health campaigns, medical education and disease outbreak surveillance.^[24] Mention may be made that 80 per cent of cancer patients used it to connect with peers In US alone, 80 per cent of health organisations used social media accounts.^[25] Social media provide HCPs with tools to share information, to debate health care policy and practice issues, to promote health behaviours, to engage with the public, and to educate and interact with patients, caregivers, students, and colleague.^[26]

According to the Pros and Cons of Social Media in Healthcare (2022 Guide)^[27] following are some of the benefits and drawbacks of social media in healthcare:

The positive side:

Patients use social media sites

About 80 per cent of patients used internet to make healthcare-related search, therefore, it’s important to connect practice and services to the internet

Easily Build Relationships with Patients

Patients want to feel that they have a close relationship with their physicians. According to a survey conducted on behalf of American Osteopathic Association roughly 42 per cent adults want to follow their healthcare professionals on social media

Showcase accomplishments and activities through social media platforms

Patients want to know that their doctors and nurses are involved in the community.

Attract Healthcare Professionals to the Workplace

Research shows that about 90 per cent of physicians use social media for professional reasons. It becomes easy to find more doctors and nurses to join your company.

Drawbacks of social media in healthcare

Security Risks: The biggest is that their private information might get stolen.
False information
Lack of Control from the Healthcare Professional: there is no way to prevent negative comments.
Time-Consuming: it is not easy to produce new content all the time.
The Danger of Self-Diagnosis

Conclusion:

Social media have become so important in every sphere of our life. From the above discussion we can conclude that there is an ever increasing rate of internet users all around the world. The facilities provided by social media cannot be comparing with any other in every field (politics, society or health, as discussed above). It is up to us to utilities it in the most appropriate manner.

References:

American Society of Health-System Pharmacists (2012) Statement on use of social media by pharmacy professionals, 69(23): 2095-2097 at: www.ashp.org/DocLibrary/BestPractices/AutoITStSocialMedia.aspx at Accessed 16/03/2024DOI: 10.2146/sp120011

Bernhardt M, Jay and Alber, J and Gold RS (2014) A social media primer for professionals: digital do’s and don’ts, Health Promot Pract,15(2):168–172 at https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24396119/#:~:text=When%20used%20wisely%20and%20prudently,recognition%20and%20improve%20one’s%20reputationaccessed date 16/03/2024 DOI: 10.1177/1524839913517235

Braun LA, Zomorodbakhsch B, Keinki C, Huebner J. (2019) Information needs, communication and usage of social media by cancer patients and their relatives. J Cancer Res Clin Oncol 145(7):1865-1875

Chen, Junhan and Wang, Yuan (2021) Social media use for health purposes: systematic Review, Journal of Medical Internet Research, 23(5) doi:10.2196/17917

Deuskar, Nachiket (2023), Why are so many Indian politicians giving interviews to social media influencers? at https://scroll.in/article/1052678/why-are-so-many-indian-politicians-giving-interviews-to-social-media-influencers accessed date 17/03/2024

Dewing, Michael (2010) Social media an introduction, Social affairs division, parliamentary information and research services, Library of Parliament.

Dewing, Michael (2012) Social media an introduction, Social affairs division, parliamentary information and research services, Library of Parliament (Revised)

Fogelson NS, Rubin ZA, Ault KA (2013) Beyond likes and tweets: an in-depth look at the physician social media landscape, Clin Obstet Gynecol. 56(3):495–508.

George DR, Rovniak LS, Kraschnewski JL (2013) Dangers and opportunities for social media in medicine. Clin Obstet Gynecol. 56 (3): 453–462. doi: 10.1097/GRF.0b013e318297dc38

Global social media statistics at https://datareportal.com/social-media-users accessed date 16/03/2024

https://www.statista.com/topics/751/facebook/#topicOverview accessed date 18/03/2024

https://backlinko.com/youtube-users accessed date 18/03/2024

https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2022/12/06/social-media-seen-as-mostly-good-for-democracy-across-many-nations-but-u-s-is-a-major-outlier/accessed date 16/03/2024

Jha A, Lin L, Savoia E. (2016) The use of social media by state health departments in the US: analyzing health communication through Facebook. J Community Health 41(1):174-179.

Jose, Jelvin (2021) The Politicization of Social Media in India, South Asian Voices at https://southasianvoices.org/the-politicization-of-social-media-in-india/ accessed date 07/03/2024

Kaplan, A.M. and Haenlein, M. (2010) Users of the World, Unite! The Challenges and Opportunities of Social Media. Business Horizons, 53, 59-68. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bushor.2009.09.003.

Kaur, Surjit and Kaur, Manpreet (2013) Impact of social media on politics, Gian Jyoti e-journal, 3(4): 23-29.

Kudumula, Durga (2022) What Are the Types of Social Media? at

https://blog.digimind.com/en/insight-driven-marketing/what-are-the-types-of-social-media accessed date 17/03/2024

Kumar, Krishna (2023) The Role of Social Media in Shaping Indian Politics athttps://medium.com/@krishnakumar10000/the-role-of-social-media-in-shaping-indian-politics-960a38ebfb37 accessed date 07/03/2024

Mayfield.Is blogging innovation journal? at http//www.innovationjounral.org//archive/INJO Baltaziz,pdf. Accessed date 16/03/2024

Moorhead SA, Hazlet DE, Harrison L, et al. (2013) A new dimension of health care: systemic review of the uses, benefits, and limitations of social media for health care professionals. J Med Internet Res. 15(4): e85.

Mucha, Sarah (2020) Biden harnesses influencer star power to ramp up digital outreach, CNN, 17 June 2020 at CNNhttps://edition.cnn.com/2020/06/17/politics/biden-campaign-influencers/index.html accessed date 19/03/2024

Peck JL. (2014) Social media in nursing education: responsible integration for meaningful use, Journal of Nursing Education, 53 (3): 164–169 at https://doi.org/10.3928/01484834-20140219-03

Pros and Cons of Social Media in Healthcare (2022 Guide)

https://digitalismedical.com/blog/pros-and-cons-of-social-media-in-healthcare/ accessed date 16/03/2024

Robinson, Lawrence and Melinda Smith, M.A. (2020) Social Media and Mental Health

file:///C:/Users/User/Downloads/Social%20Media%20and%20Mental%20Health.pdf accessed date 17/03/2024

Singhmar, Nikhil Kumar (2024) How important are social media influencers in Indian elections? at https://thewire.in/politics/how-important-are-social-media-influencers-in-indian-elections accessed date 17/03/2024

Social media and its impact on society – positive and negative impact

at https://testbook.com/ias-preparation/social-media-and-its-impact-on-society accessed date 17/03/2024

Why Biden is investing in influencers to help with this year’s election at https://theconversation.com/why-biden-is-investing-in-influencers-to-help-with-this-years-election-224912 accessed date 17/03/2024

^[1] Peck JL. (2014) Social media in nursing education: responsible integration for meaningful use, Journal of Nursing Education, 53 (3): 164–169 at https://doi.org/10.3928/01484834-20140219-03

^[2] https://www.statista.com/topics/751/facebook/#topicOverview accessed date 18/03/2024

^[3] https://backlinko.com/youtube-users accessed date 18/03/2024

^[4] Global social media statistics at https://datareportal.com/social-media-users accessed date 16/03/2024

^[5] Kaur, Surjit and Kaur, Manpreet (2013) Impact of social media on politics, Gian Jyoti e-journal, 3(4): 23-29.

^[6] Kaplan, A.M. and Haenlein, M. (2010) Users of the World, Unite! The Challenges and Opportunities of Social Media. Business Horizons, 53, 59-68. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bushor.2009.09.003.

^[7] Dewing, Michael (2010) Social media an introduction, Social affairs division, parliamentary information and research services, Library of Parliament.

^[8]Mayfield.Is blogging innovation journal? at http//www.innovationjounral.org//archive/INJO Baltaziz,pdf. Accessed date 16/03/2024

^[9] Kudumula, Durga (2022) What Are the Types of Social Media? at

https://blog.digimind.com/en/insight-driven-marketing/what-are-the-types-of-social-media accessed date 17/03/2024

^[10] Social media and its impact on society – positive and negative impact

At https://testbook.com/ias-preparation/social-media-and-its-impact-on-society accessed date 17/03/2024

^[11] ibid

^[12] Kumar, Krishna (2023) The Role of Social Media in Shaping Indian Politics at https://medium.com/@krishnakumar10000/the-role-of-social-media-in-shaping-indian-politics-960a38ebfb37 accessed date 07/03/2024

^[13] Jose, Jelvin (2021) The Politicization of Social Media in India, South Asian Voices at https://southasianvoices.org/the-politicization-of-social-media-in-india/ accessed date 07/03/2024

^[14] ibid

^[15] Singhmar, Nikhil Kumar (2024) How important are social media influencers in Indian elections? at https://thewire.in/politics/how-important-are-social-media-influencers-in-indian-elections accessed date 17/03/2024

^[16] ibid

^[17] Deuskar, Nachiket (2023), Why are so many Indian politicians giving interviews to social media influencers? at https://scroll.in/article/1052678/why-are-so-many-indian-politicians-giving-interviews-to-social-media-influencers accessed date 17/03/2024

^[18] ibid

^[19] ibid

^[20] Why Biden is investing in influencers to help with this year’s election at https://theconversation.com/why-biden-is-investing-in-influencers-to-help-with-this-years-election-224912 accessed date 17/03/2024

^[21] Robinson, Lawrence and Melinda Smith, M.A. (2020) Social Media and Mental Health

file:///C:/Users/User/Downloads/Social%20Media%20and%20Mental%20Health.pdf accessed date 17/03/2024

^[22] ibid.

^[23] Chen, Junhan and Wang, Yuan (2021) Social media use for health purposes: systematic Review, Journal of Medical Internet Research, 23(5)doi:10.2196/17917. Also see Braun LA, Zomorodbakhsch B, Keinki C, Huebner J. (2019) Information needs, communication and usage of social media by cancer patients and their relatives. J Cancer Res Clin Oncol 145(7):1865-1875

^[24] Ibid.

^[25] Ibid. Also see Jha A, Lin L, Savoia E. (2016) The use of social media by state health departments in the US: analyzing health communication through Facebook. J Community Health 41(1):174-179.

^[26] Bernhardt M, Jay and Alber, J and Gold RS (2014) A social media primer for professionals: digital do’s and don’ts, Health Promot Pract,15(2):168–172 at https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24396119/#:~:text=When%20used%20wisely%20and%20prudently,recognition%20and%20improve%20one’s%20reputationaccessed date 16/03/2024 DOI: 10.1177/1524839913517235. Also see Fogelson NS, Rubin ZA, Ault KA (2013) Beyond likes and tweets: an in-depth look at the physician social media landscape, Clin Obstet Gynecol. 56(3):495–508. See Moorhead SA, Hazlet DE, Harrison L, et al. (2013) A new dimension of health care: systemic review of the uses, benefits, and limitations of social media for health care professionals. J Med Internet Res. 15(4): e85.

^[27] Pros and Cons of Social Media in Healthcare (2022 Guide)

https://digitalismedical.com/blog/pros-and-cons-of-social-media-in-healthcare/ accessed date 16/03/2024

SAY NO TO DRUGS

On International Day Against Drug Abuse and Illicit Trafficking, we should be more serious about this hazard, that destroys the lives of millions including youngsters.the theme for this year’s anti-drug abuse day Is “Better Knowledge for Better Care”. The main idea behind this theme is to stress upon the need of improving the understanding of the world drug problem.

The day is also marked as an expression of its determination to strengthen action as well as cooperation and achieve the society which is free of drug abuse.Around 35.6 million people across the world are victims of drug abuse, according to the World Drug Report 2020 published by the UN Office on Drugs and Crime. Young adults and teenagers account for the largest share of those using drugs and most of them suffer from HIV, Hepatitis C and other related diseases. Only one out of eight people who need treatment and rehabilitation are able to get it, according to the report.

So many people want to quit but they can’t due to lack of awareness and social stigma. We need to take a step to secure our life and future, this is our responsibility being a citizen of a country .

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Exploring Different Types of Therapy for Anxiety Relief

Understanding Anxiety: Definition and Impact on Daily Life

How Therapy Can Alleviate Symptoms of Anxiety

The Role of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy in Managing Anxiety

Long-term Benefits and Success Rates of Therapy for Anxiety Disorders

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Connecting With Relatives and Building Your Family Tree With DNA

Assessing Inherited Health Risks From Genetic Data

Identifying Genetic Markers for Traits and Attributes

Ethnicity Estimates and Historical Migration Patterns

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Ensuring a Healthy Pregnancy

Postpartum Recovery

Feeding Your Baby with Breast Milk

Why Breastfeeding is Good for Your Baby

Creating a Nurturing Environment

Modeling Healthy Habits for Your Child

Preventing and Managing Chronic Health Conditions

Maintaining Emotional Well-being

Seeking Professional Support When Needed

Conclusion

Frequent Queries

Key Takeaways

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