On World Hepatitis Day, let us put an end to all forms of discrimination that is meted out to people suffering from hepatitis.
World Hepatitis Day, observed on July 28 every year, aims to raise global awareness of hepatitis — a group of infectious diseases known as Hepatitis A, B, C, D, and E — and encourage prevention, diagnosis, and treatment. Hepatitis affects hundreds of millions of people worldwide, causing acute and chronic disease and killing close to 1.34 million people every year. Hepatitis causes liver diseases and can also kill a person. World Hepatitis Day is one of eight official global public health campaigns marked by the World Health Organization (WHO).
WHO keeps this year’s theme is “Hepatitis-free future,” with a strong focus on preventing hepatitis B among mothers and newborns. On 28 July, WHO will publish new recommendations on the prevention of mother-to-child transmission of the virus. HBV can be prevented among newborns through the use of a safe and effective vaccine. WHO is calling on all countries to work together to eliminate viral hepatitis as a public health threat by 2030.
Significance of the theme
WHO says, “A hepatitis-free future is achievable with a united effort.”
With 2020’s theme for World Hepatitis Day being “Hepatitis-free future”, it becomes all the more crucial to know about the nature, prevention, and treatment of these viral illnesses. Hepatitis A and E are usually self-limited infections and comparatively not as severe as the other types. Hepatitis B and C are the leading causes of hepatitis-related deaths and can lead to serious conditions and cause long-term liver damage like liver cirrhosis, acute on chronic liver failure, liver cancer, or even death. Hepatitis D usually occurs in conjunction with Hepatitis B. Hepatitis B and C especially pose a serious threat to India as suggested by the numbers.
Once diagnosed, the course of treatment is based on whether the infection is acute or chronic. In the current scenario, it is vital to get a test and have the medications started, as those with pre-existing health conditions are at a higher risk of contracting the COVID-19 virus. Increased awareness through campaigns, initiatives, and discussions will help spread information as well as reduce the stigma about the disease. Awareness will also enable access to testing, ultimately resulting in early diagnosis.
WHO mentions the following points in dealing with the situation:
PREVENT infection among newborns. All newborns should be vaccinated against hepatitis B at birth, followed by at least 2 additional doses.
STOP TRANSMISSION from MOTHER to CHILD. All pregnant women should be routinely tested for hepatitis B, HIV, and syphilis and receive treatment if needed.
LEAVE NO ONE BEHIND. Everyone should have access to hepatitis prevention, testing, and treatment services, including people who inject drugs, people in prisons, migrants, and other highly-affected populations.
EXPAND access to testing and treatment. Timely testing and treatment of viral hepatitis can prevent liver cancer and other severe liver diseases.
MAINTAIN essential hepatitis services during COVID-19. Prevention and care services for hepatitis – such as infant immunization, harm reduction services, and continuous treatment of chronic hepatitis B – are essential even during the pandemic.
Education of the masses is the way forward to find these missing millions and ensuring that they receive proper treatment and care. Only then, it is possible to drastically reduce the number of patients who would suffer from these diseases and eliminate the risk of the virus and achieve the dream of “Hepatitis-free” India.
Let us learn to protect ourselves from Hepatitis diseases on World Hepatitis Day.
India Government could ban more than 200 other applications in country. Last month, the Indian government banned 59 Chinese apps in India, after that they are planning to banned other 250 also because of users privacy and national security violations. This includes PUBG, zili, allibaba express,Capcut, FaceU, Meitu, LBE Tech, Perfect Corp, Sina Corp, Netease Games and other 250 apps. As per the report these apps are included in the activities that were “prejudicial to sovereignty and integrity of India, defense of India, the security of the state and public order.” Report said, government will follow a proper procedure before such bans, then likely to act on it soon.
Deforestation, clearance,clearing is the removal of a forest or stand of trees from land which is then converted to a non-forest use.Deforestation can involve conversion of forest land to farms,ranches or urban use. The most concentrated deforestation occurs in tropical rainforest.About 31% of Earth’s land surface is covered by forests. The primary cause of deforestation is agriculture. Trees are cut down for use as building material or sold as fuel.
The removal of trees without sufficient reforestation has resulted in habitat damage, biodiversity loss and arudity. Deforestation causes extinction, changes to climatic conditions, desertification, and displacement of populations. It also effects on environment. It rises global warming, carbondioxide, biosequestration, soil erosion, fossil fuels.Deforestation is more extreme in tropical and subtropical forests in emerging economies.subsistence farming is responsible for 48% of deforestation; commercial Agricultural is responsible for 32%; logging is responsible for 14%, and fuel wood removals make up 5%.
Effects and hazards
Another cause of deforestation is climate change. 23% of tree cover losses result from wildfires and climate change increase their frequency and power.The rising temperatures cause massive wildfires especially in the Boreal forests.majority of deforestation was caused by industrial factors, including extractive industries, large-scale cattle ranching, and extensive agriculture.The water cycle is also affected by deforestation. Trees extract groundwater through their roots and release it into the atmosphere.
Deforestation eliminates a great number of species of plants and animals which also often results in an increase in diseases.The diseases that passed to humans in this way in the latest decades include HIV, Ebola, Avian flu, Swine Flu, and likely the COVID-19 pandemic are source from degradation of air and trees . The forest products industry is a large part of the economy in both developed and developing countries. Rapidly growing economies also have an effect on deforestation. The Europian union is one of the largest importer of products made from illegal deforestation.Damage to forests and other aspects of nature could halve living standardsfor the world’s poor and reduce global GDP.
Rainforests once covered 14% of the earth’s land surface; now they cover a mere 6% and experts estimate that the last remaining.The massive use of charcoal on an industrial scale in europewas a new type of consumption of western forests. The mangolians resulted in the reduction of 700 million tons of carbon from the atmosphere by enabling the re-growth of carbon-absorbing forests.Amazon rain forests are the another example for effects of deforestation and climatical change.
Save trees save lives
The wholescale clearance of woodland to create agricultural land can be seen in many parts of the world. In 2019, the world lost nearly 12 million hectares of tree cover. Nearly a third of that loss, 3.8 million hectares. Controls: Transferring rights over land from public domain to its inhabitants is argued to be a cost-effective strategy. Reforestation or planting trees are methods of control for deforestation.
An article is a piece of writing written for a large audience. The main motive behind writing an article is that it should be published in either newspapers or magazines or journals so as to make some difference to the world. It may be the topics of interest of the writer or it may be related to some current issues. The topic can either be serious or not-so-serious; same goes for its tone and language.
Objectives of Article Writing
An article is written with the following objectives
It brings out the topics or the matter of interest in the limelight
The article provides information on the topics
It offers suggestions and pieces of advice
It influences the readers and urges them to think
The article discusses various stories, persons, locations, rising-issues, and technical developments
Rules of article writing
Rule #1 for writing a good article: minimize your barrier to entry.
Make it easy for your reader to be drawn in. A large opening paragraph at the start of an article is a huge barrier to entry. Your reader has to wade through a large wall of text before determining if the article is really interesting and worth reading. This requires a large expenditure of effort. Most people won’t bother.
Keep your opening short and punchy. A one-sentence or two-sentence leading paragraph is an easy buy-in. You can skim it and read it in barely more time than it would take to scroll past.
Start with something short and easy to engage with. Prove to your reader that you’re providing value, then ask them to expend effort.
Rule #2 for writing a good article: keep your paragraphs short and your text visually appealing.
In general, shorten everything. How many times have you seen rows and rows of dense paragraphs and lost interest? Be honest. Even after you’ve sold a reader on committing, you can lose them if consumption becomes too much work.
Short paragraphs, on the other hand, are tantalizing. They’re easy. They feel like an accomplishment. You always want to read just one more — your eye gets drawn down the page. So break your text up. Keeps your reader chasing the words from paragraph to paragraph pace them. Give them space between ideas.
Balance words with empty spaces — like the breaths between spoken sentences.
Note: short does not mean that your writing can’t be stylistic and beautiful. Do not make the mistake that short must be bland. I thought that once, and I was wrong. Short means strong and precise — like a shot of tequila instead of a bottle of light beer. See?
When you’re brief, your words aren’t simple and cheapened. They’re potent.
Rule #3 for writing a good article: keep it short and sweet.
As the old adage says, “kill your darlings.” This is a bleed-over from rule #2, but it deserves its own rule, because it’s important. Just get to the point. Cut out all unnecessary words in a sentence. If a complete sentence doesn’t take you another step closer to making your point, scrap it completely. It hurts, but your writing will be better.
Rule #4 for writing a good article: give me substance.
One of the worst things on any news feed is an article that says nothing. They’re shockingly common. So often people just write fluff. Often the empty articles are packaged up as something useful. There are enough “top five tips” and “productivity hacks” articles in the world to last me to eternity — if I didn’t die of boredom first. Rarely do any of them contain anything useful. They’re just abstractions — they have nothing of substance to say.
There are shallower, surface-level blog posts on my radar in any given day than I care to count.
They’re made of words, but there’s no point and no meaning. It’s content for the sake of having content.
Don’t write content for the sake of writing content. Write content for the sake of conveying meaning and understanding. Tell your reader something. Imagine they ask “why?” in response, and then answer that question.
The world does not need more surface-level going-through-the-motions content. It needs content designed to teach, convey meaning, make people understand.
Rule #5 for writing a good article: tell me a story.
People love stories. It’s one of the basic truths of humanity — we always respond to a compelling story. Keep this knowledge in your toolbox!
One of the best ways to draw a reader into an article is to bring it to life with human interest. Capture their attention with a recounting of an event, the setting of a stage, the unfolding of a plot.
Stories are a brilliant way to open articles. They’re equally brilliant ways to illustrate a point. They don’t have to be excessive and garish to be effective. Tell me in your article about a specific tool you recommend using, and then tell me a story about how you used it yourself and what it did for you. Short, simple, to the point, but suddenly your article is human.
Avoid dry writing. In the content-oversaturated age of the internet, nobody’s going to read something bland.
Rule #6 for writing a good article: show, then tell.
Start by showing me your point in action, and then explain to me what it means and why it matters.
This is a rule for your overall structure. Present your ideas in the following order: illustration, explanation, and understanding. Shows it to me, then tell me what it is, then help me understand why it works and how to use it myself.
Any other order will bore your reader, and will likely make less sense.
At the end
The final and unstated rule of good writing is practice. Practice, practice, practice. Practicing one’s craft is how one perfects it. Practice until you internalize the form and structure of a good article, and producing them becomes second nature.
Everybody has something interesting to say. You have more to share than you realize — and the world is always in need of meaningful, compelling content that conveys knowledge and helps people understand. Go create some!
The Dassault Rafale is a French twin-engine, canard delta wing, multirole fighter aircraft designed and built by Dassault Aviation. Equipped with a wide range of weapons, the Rafale is intended to perform air supremacy, interdiction, aerial reconnaissance, ground support, in-depth strike, anti-ship strike, and nuclear deterrence missions. Many of the aircraft’s avionics and features, such as direct voice input, the RBE2 AA active electronically scanned array (AESA) radar, were domestically developed and produced for the Rafale program. Originally scheduled to enter service in 1996, the Rafale suffered significant delays due to post-Cold War budget cuts and changes in priorities. The aircraft is available in three main variants: Rafale C single-seat land-based version, Rafale B twin-seat land-based version, and Rafale M single-seat carrier-based version.
The Rafale is being produced for both the French Air Force and for carrier-based operations in the French Navy. The Rafale has been marketed for export to several countries and was selected for purchase by the Indian Air Force, the Egyptian Air Force, and the Qatar Air Force. Due to its great capabilities, the first batch of 5 raflaes arrives in India in two days.
On the one hand, when there are neighbors like China and on the other hand, when there are neighboring countries like Pakistan, India needs to work on both its army and the Indian Air Force. In such a situation, 5 Rafale aircraft was given to the Indian Army yesterday. These Rafale aircraft flew from France yesterday and reached the UAE airbase Al Dhafra today. Here their maintenance and refueling work will be done. After this, these fighter aircraft will fly and arrive at Ambala Air Force Base tomorrow. With this aircraft joining the Indian Air Force, the morale of the Indian Army will be greatly elevated. However, the condition of the Airforce is not good right now because there is a shortage of squadron. This thing has been told in many reports. But with Rafael joining the Indian Army, it can play a decisive role in winning a war.
“You can call them (Rafale) both beauty and the beast,” said Indian Ambassador to France Jawed Ashraf after interacting with the IAF pilots at the airbase before they set off for India. “Delivery of 10 aircraft has been completed on schedule. Five will stay back in France for a training mission. The delivery of all 36 aircraft will be completed on schedule by the end of 2021,” the Indian embassy in Paris said in a statement. India and France signed a Euro 7.87-billion ( ₹59,000 crores approximately) deal on September 23, 2016, for 36 Rafale jets. The IAF official said the air-to-air refueling of the aircraft will be undertaken with dedicated tanker support from the French Air Force. “Our air force pilots tell us that these are extremely swift, nimble, versatile, and very deadly aircraft,” said Ashraf while congratulating the IAF pilots on becoming the first ones to fly one of the world’s most advanced fighter aircraft. The envoy thanked Dassault Aviation, the manufacturer of the aircraft, for delivering the fleet on time, the French government and the French Air Force for extending all required support.
COVID-19 began in the month of December in 2019 and soon it grew into a pandemic, leading to several losses of lives and locking down of many cities. Social distancing became the key to escape out of this problem. But, with this solution came other problems. We are able to follow social distancing by keeping us locked in our houses but this stopped students’ education too. But we can’t just stop everything due to this COVID thing. We need to find an effective solution to continue the education of students. We need to continue the functioning of schools and colleges.
Online Classes
In the times of the internet, the one and the only solution are online classes. The online way to share knowledge and information now is the internet. It has proved to be a real miracle these days, connecting millions and making information access fast and easy. Be it school, college, tuition, or coaching classes, knowledge is now being delivered to students who are sitting at their home and can learn things sitting there only. Students now need a mobile or desktop and fast internet connection to attend their online classes and learn things. It is not possible for a pandemic to stop students from learning.
How it is a different experience?
This way of learning is totally new to everyone, be it students, be it teachers or be it parents. We were already involved in some small ways of e-learning but a complete shift towards this type of mode is something new and challenging to everyone. Teachers are continuously involved in finding new ways to make e-learning more interactive and interesting for students. They are continuously evolving their way of teaching and trying to give them a class-type of feeling. Teachers are also learning to adapt with new softwares and explore things. Students are learning how to deal with online homework submissions, doubt-sessions and examinations. But, the problem is that the medium of interaction is always an electronic device. Hence, students are subjected to fatigue and mental stress. They seem irritated and develop body pain sitting still at a particular position holding their phones or laptops. Students are also developing stress on eyes. It is quite difficult for them to adjust with all of these. It seems that this way of teaching costs their health, both mental and physical. Besides this, internet is not available to all the areas of the country and to all the students. Poor students can’t afford high speed data. This method of teaching, is thus, a barrier between poor students and education. It is a harsh truth that they are left behind. We need to work together towards this to make education available to these students also.
When you are looking for accuracy and exacting standards in cutting parts, you can use a high speed rotary die cutting machine. These machines are designed to work with a range of materials, and they can be set up inside any business or shop. Continue reading to learn what can be done when you would like to improve your manufacturing process. You will save money, save time, and avoid inconsistencies that will lose money, cause damage, or even cause injuries when your parts are not created properly.
Why Is Precise Cutting Important?
Precise cutting is important for every business because you need to know that the parts you have made will fit properly. Your customers are expecting you to give them the exact measurements they want, and these measurements are important when you are putting together several parts to build a product.
What Is The Process Like?
When you are using a high speed rotary die cutting machine, the machine does all the work for you. You will use special die cutters to cut each part, and these die cutters are installed and/or changed by workers who manage these machines. There is a motor on the machine that powers the cutter, and the machine will cut the material against an anvil roll.
You can laminate raw materials together, and you can quickly move from one item to another as you use the machine. You do not need to check your workspace, adjust your workspace, or clean your workspace. The machine does most of the work, and you can quickly clean up the interior of the machine.
How Do You Choose Rotary Die Materials
Die cutting is one of the most versatile things you can do to ensure that your business makes quality parts. You can design anything you want using one of these machines, and you can choose from a range of raw materials that will be just right for your business. Because you are allowed to laminate pieces, you can create the strongest materials possible.
When you are choosing your parts, you should look at:
Plastic
Rubber
Cork
Paper
Felt
Most fabrics
Foam
When you use these materials, you can get the exacting shapes that you are looking for. You do not need to guess about dimensions, and you can change the dimensions on the machine at any time. This allows your staff to move from one design to another quickly. You do not need to change the settings on a large machine, and you do not need to wait hours while the machine is adjusted. One die cutting machine can do all the work you need, and you will double your production capacity with another machine.
Custom Die Cutting Has Several Advantages
Custom die cutting is the most precise thing that you can do when you are creating parts for your company. You have several advantages when you are using these devices, and you should make sure that you consider switching over to die cutting to save money and time. These advantages include:
You can cut from a continuous roll to save time
You will produce less waste because the machine makes the cut once. You do not need to overuse your materials, and you can minimize waste while ensuring the die cutting machine has just enough material to get the work done.
Precision cutting occurs with a very low tolerance. This makes it much easier for the machine to work, the machine is not under tension that will make it break, and the machine is much easier to clean and power.
You can easily turn over to a new product, and you can get your work done much faster because the machine takes out several steps that make hand-cutting difficult.
You can get a consistent cut on every project no matter how many parts you need to create.
You can cut something that is very small with these machines because the speed of the die allows you to cut just once before the material breaks
You can do multiple cuts on the same project that will all be consistent.
You can use kiss cutting materials when needed.
When you are using die cutting, you should make sure that you have considered how fast you can get your work done. You can win contracts because you can make promises to your customers, and your parts will be extremely consistent. This means that you can build products without any trouble. This means that each product you create will be very consistent.
You Can Make Prototypes Easily
You can make prototypes at any time, and you will find that you can test these pieces without wasting all your time. You can set up the machine to make the new part, and you can test those parts at any time. You can go back to check on the parts again, and you can make a new prototype every few minutes until you know what you need to get the project done.
This also allows you to build prototypes for your customers. Your customers can try these parts, and they will let you know which one you should use. You can repeat this process in moments, and you can make a lot more money because you are not wasting cash on expensive prototypes that take days to complete.
Look Into Die Cutting Today
You can look into die cutting at any time, and you should make sure that you have considered which parts you can use. You can invest in some amazing parts that you can cut quickly, and you can create something that is very accurate. You can use the die cutting process to build your own products, or you can use this process when you need to create prototypes for your customers. Die cutting streamlines all your processes and helps your business increase profits.
Dairy farming is a class of agriculture for long-term production of milk, which is processedfor eventual sale of a fairy product.Dairy production has come a long way since the days of milking by hand. These days, machines are used to help the farmer milk several cows at once.The plant which processes milk and produces milk products are called dairy plant or dairy.
Commercial dairy farms are typically one-species enterprises. Dairy farms typically consist of high producing dairy cows. But some species used in commercial dairy farming include goats,sheeps and camels. In Italy, donkey dairies are also used. The dairy farmers would fill barrels with milk bring it to market on a wagon and sell it for money.
Dairy farming has been part of agriculture for thousands of years.Large scale dairy farming is only viable where either a large amount of milk is required for production of more durable dairy products such as cheese, butter, etc. milk preservation methods: Cool temperature has been the main method.Ice banks were the first type of bulk milk cooler. plate heat exchanger (PHE),This device utilizes a number of specially designed stainless steel plates with small spaces between them.
Modern technologies of milking
MILKING MACHINE: It is also known as milking pipeline,This uses a permanent milk-return pipe and a second vacuum pipe that encircles the barn. The milking device shrank in size and weight to the point where it could hang under the cow, held up only by the sucking force on the cow’s udder.The pipelines allowed barn length to keep increasing and expanding.
There is a great deal of variation in the pattern of dairy production worldwide. but, The milking of cows was traditionally a labor-intensive operation and still is in less developed countries.Worldwide, the largest cow milk producer is the United States, the largest cow milk exported in New zealand ,and the largest importer is china. India become largest milk producer and dairy farming in world by sharing 17% of total.
Dairy products
The products of dairy is
Butter. Butter and butter blends.
Cheese. Natural and processed cheese products.
Cultured Dairy. Yogurt, cottage cheese, sour cream, dips and other cultured dairy foods.
First of all there’s no one in India who hasn’t watch anime, it used to be popular and it is popular till now but, if there are people who are thinking what particularly an anime is, so let me tell you every animation you watch like Chotta Bheem or Little Krishna are Indian animations because they are made in India in the same way animations made in Japan are called Anime. We can guess the popularity of Anime by some world wide famous shows like Dragon Ball Z, Shinchan,Pokemon,etc(many people dont know this, but yes these are also Anime).But Anime is not limited to these limited numbers, there are number of quality Anime people don’t know about.But the main problem is slowly peoples have stopped watching Anime or even worse they don’t know what anime is. So I am going to tell you some points according to my researches why, despite having big audience Anime has been wiped out of Indian Televisions.
1:Mature Content
As there is the ideology for Animation in India, that it is only for kids. Anime is like a big slap for people with this ideology.If we compare Indian TV shows with Anime.Most of the Indian TV animations have repeated story-line whereas Anime has awesome unique story-line, well influenced characters and above all it is suitable for every age group(unlike Indian TV cartoons targeting only children between 4-5 years).When adults are also there in targeted age group they have to add some adult content like relationship,sex and violence which are Censor Board won’t allow. To some extent it is right to for children to not watch such extreme content but when shows like Shinchan is also censored than it is not ok.
2:A PROPAGANDA AGAINST KIDS
It is clear to all how are mainstream media is making us fool, its main motive is to keep the audience dumb and of low IQ because if we became smart then there illogical shows will come to an end.For example a kid gets to know about gravity and solar system from Doraemon .Because of the shows kids are watching now there IQ level and understanding capability has also been worn out.For this people will say “If Anime is available in the internet then what is the need for broadcasting it in TV”they don’t understand that there are majority of people in India who don’t have much amount of. That is why Anime broadcasting in India is important because people who don’t have internet connectivity would have to look for other options like TV and movies.
3:MONOPOLY
Believe it or not our Entertainment Industry feels insecure about Anime,that is why they don’t want Anime to come in Indian Market.It is common in Indian Entertainment Industry, that there will be only some number of people who will run whole thing by themselves and won’t allow any other person to even enter.They misuse their power and put a dirty monopoly over it.
4:CULTURAL DIFFERENCE
There is a big culture difference in India and Japan, like girls in Japan mostly wear skirts unlike India where full body clothes are the first priority of society because of it shows like these are mostly banned so that Indian girls don’t get influenced by their culture. I know it does not even sound like a valid point to ban Anime in India but I have seen such extremist people who wants Anime to not air on Indian TV’s because of this.
The High courts of India are the principal civil courts of original jurisdiction in each state and union territory. However, a high court exercises its original civil and criminal jurisdiction only if the subordinate courts are not authorized by law to try such matters for lack of pecuniary, territorial jurisdiction. High courts may also enjoy original jurisdiction in certain matters, if so designated specifically in a state or federal law.
Basically, the work of most high courts primarily consists of appeals from lower courts and writ petitions in terms of Article 226 of the constitution. Writ jurisdiction is also an original jurisdiction of a high court.
Each state is divided into judicial districts presided over by a district and sessions judge. He is known as district judge when he presides over a civil case and session’s judge when he presides over a criminal case. He is the highest judicial authority below a high court judge. Below him, there are courts of civil jurisdiction, known by different names in different states. Under Article 141 of the constitution, all courts in India — including high courts — are bounded by the judgments and orders of the Supreme Court of India by precedence.
Judges in a high court are appointed by the President of India in consultation with the Chief Justice of India and the governor of the state. High courts are headed by a chief justice. The chief justices rank fourteenth (within their respective states) and seventeenth (outside their respective states) on the Indian order of precedence. The number of judges in a court is decided by dividing the average institution of main cases during the last five years by the national average, or the average rate of disposal of main cases per judge per year in that High Court, whichever is higher.
The Calcutta High Court is the oldest high court in the country, established on 2 July 1862. High courts that handle numerous cases of a particular region have permanent benches established there. Benches are also present in states which come under the jurisdiction of a court outside its territorial limits. Smaller states with few cases may have circuit benches established. Circuit benches (known as circuit courts in some parts of the world) are temporary courts which hold proceedings for a few selected months in a year. Thus cases built up during this interim period are judged when the circuit court is in session. According to a study conducted by Bangalore-based NGO, Daksh, on 21 high courts in collaboration with the Ministry of Law and Justice in March 2015, it was found that average pendency of a case in high courts in India is 3 years. High court looks after the issues which are not solved in district court. High courts were first established in three presidency cities of Calcutta, Bombay and madras in 1862. The high court of Delhi came up in 1966. Currently there are 25 high courts. While many states have their own high courts, Punjab and Haryana share a common high court at Chandigarh, and four northeast states have a common high court at Guwahati. Some high courts have been benches in other parts of the state for greater accessibility.
JURISDICTION AND SEAT OF HIGH COURTS
Name
Year
Territorial establishment jurisdiction
Seat
Allahabad
1866
Uttar Pradesh
Allahabad (Bench at Lucknow)
Andhra Pradesh
1956
Andhra Pradesh
Hyderabad
Bombay
1862
Maharashtra, Goa, Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu
Bombay (Benches at Nagpur, Panaji and Aurangabad)
Calcutta
1862
West Bengal
Calcutta (Circuit Bench at Port Blair)
Delhi
1966
Delhi
Delhi
Guwahati(2)
1948
Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Nagaland,Tripura, Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh
Guwahati (Benches at Kohima, Aizwal & Imphal. Circuit Bench at Agartala & Shillong)
Gujarat
1960
Gujarat
Ahmedabad
Himachal Pradesh
1971
Himachal Pradesh
Shimla
Jammu & Kashmir
1928
Jammu & Kashmir
Srinagar & Jammu
Karnataka(3)
1884
Karnataka
Bangalore
Kerala
1958
Kerala & Lakshadweep
Ernakulam
Madhya Pradesh
1956
Madhya Pradesh
Jabalpur (Benches at Gwalior and Indore)
Madras
1862
Tamil Nadu & Pondicherry
Madras
Orissa
1948
Orissa
Cuttack
Patna
1916
Bihar
Patna
Punjab& Haryana(4)
1975
Punjab, Haryana & Chandigarh
Chandigarh
Rajasthan
1949
Rajasthan
Jodhpur (Bench at Jaipur)
Sikkim
1975
Sikkim
Gangtok
Chhattisgarh
01/11/2000
Chhattisgarh
Bilaspur (Chhattisgarh)
Jharkhand
2000
Jharkhand
Ranchi
Uttarakhand
2000
Uttarakhand
Nainital
2. Originally known as the Assam High Court, renamed as Guwahati High Court in 1971.
3. Originally known as Mysore High Court, renamed as Karnataka High Court in 1973.
4. Originally known as Punjab High Court, renamed as Punjab & Haryana High Court in 1966.
Constitution and composition of High courts
Every high court consists of a Chief Justice and a number of judges, who are determined by the President from time to time. Article 217 deals with the appointment of judges and states that every judge of high court shall be appointed by the President by warrant under his hand and seal after consultation with the Chief Justice of India, the Governor of the state.
Jurisdiction and powers of High Court
The powers and jurisdiction of High Court can be classified under following heads:
1) Original Jurisdiction- it means that applicant can directly go to High Court and not by means of appeals. This power is used in the following matters –
• Disputes arising out of relating to members of Parliament and state legislative assembly
• Relating to marriage, law, admiralty divorce, contempt of court etc
• Enforcement of fundamental rights (Supreme Court also has this power)
• Cases transferred from other court to itself which involves a question of law.
2) Writ Jurisdiction- Article 226 states that High Court shall have power throughout the territories in relation to which it exercises jurisdiction to issue to any person or authority including in appropriate cases, any government, within those territories directions, orders, or writs.
3) Appellate Jurisdiction-
It is said that the high court is the primary court of appeal i.e. it has power to hear the appeals against the judgment of the subordinate courts within its territories. This power can be classified in to 2 categories-Civil jurisdiction and Criminal jurisdiction
In civil cases its jurisdiction includes to the orders and judgments of the district courts, additional district courts and other subordinate courts.
In criminal cases its jurisdiction includes judgments relating to sessions courts and additional sessions court. These cases should be involving imprisonment for more than 7 years, confirmation of any death sentence awarded by session court before execution
4) Power of Superintendence –
The High Court has this power over all courts and tribunals except those dealing with the armed forces functioning in the state. Hence in the exercise of this power it may –
• Call for return from such courts
• May issue general rules and prescribe forms for regulating the practice and proceedings of such courts
• Prescribe the form in which books and accounts are being kept by the officers of any court
• Settle fees payable to the sheriff clerks, officers and legal practitioners
The constitution does not place any restriction on this power of superintendence over the subordinate courts, it is not only by means of appeal by the person, it can be suo motto. It is of the nature of revision as it verifies the earlier judgments. In this regard it is considered as a special function as the Supreme Court has no similar power vis a vis the High Court.
5) Control over Subordinate Courts –
This is an extension of the above supervisory and appellate jurisdiction. It states that the High Court can with draw a case pending before any subordinate court, if it involves the substantial question of law. The case can be disposed of itself or solve the question of law and return back to the same court. In the second case the opinion tendered by High court would be binding on the subordinate court. It also deals with matters pertaining to posting promotion, grant of leave, transfer and discipline of the members there in. In this regard it appoints officers and servants to be made by Chief Justice or such other judge of High Court as the Chief Justice may direct.
6) Court of Record – It involves recording of judgments, proceedings and acts of high courts to be recorded for the perpetual memory. These records cannot be further questioned in any court. Based on this record it has power to punish for the contempt of court either with simple imprisonment or with fine or both.
7) Judicial Review –
This power of High Court includes the power to examine the constitutionality of legislative and executive orders of both central and state government. It is to be noted that the word judicial review is no where mentioned in our constitution but the Article 13 and 226 explicitly provide High Court with this power.
8) Extension of jurisdiction of High Court to Union Territories –
Parliament by law may extend the jurisdiction of a High Court to or exclude the jurisdiction of a high court from any union territory.
Procedure for removal of Judges:
The judge’s enquiry act governs the removal or impeachment of judges of High Court. Hence the grounds for removal are
• Proved misbehaviour
• Incapacity
He is removed by the President as per the removal order passed by each house of the parliament by a special majority i.e. a majority of the total membership of the house and a majority of not less than two thirds of members present and voting. A detailed procedure followed is as follows:
1. The initial removal motion to be signed by 100 members in Lok Sabha or by 50 members of Rajya Sabha and be presented to the speaker/ chairman of the house.
2. The speaker has the option of either accepting or rejecting the motion
3. If it is accepted a committee would be constituted to investigate the matter
4. The committee so constituted consists of chief justice or judge of Supreme Court, chief justice of high court and a distinguished jurist.
5. If the committee ascertains the guilty of the judge then the houses take up the issue.
6. If the motion is passed in each house of the parliament by a special majority then the it is later presented to the President for his assent.
7. The President then passes order for removal of judge. The judge is considered removed from that day. (In fact no judge has been removed till now)
Transfer of a judge from one high court to another (Article 222) –
According to it the President may after consultation with the chief justice of India transfer a judge from one High Court to any High Court. Also when a judge has been or is so transferred he shall during the period he serves, after the commencement of the constitution act as a judge of the other high court, so shall be entitled to receive in addition to his salary such compensatory allowance as may be determined by Parliament by law and until so determined such compensatory allowance as the President may by order fix.
Later on in 1977 in K Ashok Reddy case ruled that there requires judicial review in case of arbitrary transfer of judges. Hence as to locus standi only the judge who is transferred can challenge it.
Appointment of acting Chief Justice (Article 223) –
When the office of Chief Justice of a High Court is vacant or when any such Chief Justice by reason of absence or otherwise, unable to perform the duties of his office, the duties of the office shall be performed by such one of the other Judges of the court as the President may appoint for the purposes. However, appointments of persons other than district judges to the judicial service of a state shall be made by the Governor of the state in accordance with rules made by him after consultation with the state public service commission and with the high court exercising jurisdiction in relation to such state.
International Journal of Research (IJR) 