Christopher Marlowe, also known as Kit Marlowe, was an English playwright, poet, and translator of the Elizabethan era. Marlowe is among the most famous of the Elizabethan playwrights. He was Shakespeare’s most important predecessor in English drama, who is noted especially for his establishment of dramatic blank verse. He was born at Canterbury and educated there and at Cambridge. He adopted literature as a profession and became attached to the Lord Admiral’s players.

Marlowe’s plays, all tragedies, were written within five years (1587-92). He had no bent for comedy, and the comic parts found in some of his plays are always inferior and maybe by other writers. Only in Edward II does he show any sense of plot construction, while his characterization is of the simplest, and lacks the warm humanity of Shakespeare’s. All the plays, except Edward II, revolve around one figure drawn in bold outlines. This character shows no complexity or subtlety of development and is the embodiment of a single idea.

In Tamburlaine the Great, the shepherd seeks the “sweet fruition of an earthly crown,” in The Jew of Malta Barabbas seeks “infinite riches in a little room,” while the quest of Doctor Faustus is for more than human knowledge. Each of the plays has behind it the driving force of this vision, which gives it an artistic and poetic unity. It is, indeed, as a poet that Marlowe excels. Though not the first to use blank verse in English drama, he was the first to exploit its possibilities and make it supreme. His verse is notable for its burning energy, its splendour of diction, its sensuous richness, its variety of pace, and its responsiveness to the demands of varying emotions.

The Massacre at Paris is a short and luridly written work, the only surviving text of which was probably a reconstruction from memory of the original performance text, portraying the events of the Saint Bartholomew’s Day Massacre in 1572, which English Protestants invoked as the blackest example of Catholic treachery. It features the silent “English Agent”, whom subsequent tradition has identified with Marlowe himself and his connections to the secret service. The Massacre at Paris is considered his most dangerous play, as agitators in London seized on its theme to advocate the murders of refugees from the low countries and, indeed, it warns Elizabeth I of this possibility in its last scene.

Doctor Faustus (or The Tragicall History of the Life and Death of Doctor Faustus), based on the German Faustbuch, was the first dramatised version of the Faust legend of a scholar’s dealing with the devil. While versions of “The Devil’s Pact” can be traced back to the 4th century, Marlowe deviates significantly by having his hero unable to “burn his books” or repent to a merciful God to have his contract annulled at the end of the play. Marlowe’s protagonist is instead carried off by demons, and in the 1616 quarto his mangled corpse is found by several scholars. Doctor Faustus is a textual problem for scholars as two versions of the play exist: the 1604 quarto, also known as the A text, and the 1616 quarto, or B text. Both were published after Marlowe’s death. On 30 May Marlowe was stabbed to death during a fight at a house in Deptford, apparently after an argument about a bill. He was about 29. The incident’s relation, if any, to Marlowe’s investigation by the Privy Council is unknown.

John Donne was an English poet, scholar, and secretary. John Donne is considered now to be the pre-eminent metaphysical poet of his time. He was born in Bread Street, London in 1572 to a prosperous Roman Catholic family. He was the son of a wealthy merchant. His parents were Roman Catholics, and he was educated in their faith before going to Oxford and Cambridge. He entered the Inns of Court in 1592, where he mingled wide reading with the life of a dissolute man-about-town. He wrote his Satires, the Songs and Sonets, and the Elegies, but, though widely circulated in manuscript, they were not published until 1663, after his death. He entered the Anglican Chruch, after a severe personal struggle, and in 1621, became Dean of St. Paul’s, which position he held until his death in 1631. He was the first great Anglican preacher.

His Poetry

Donne was the most independent of the Elizabethan poets and revolted against the easy, fluent style, stock imagery, and pastoral conventions of the followers of Spenser. His poetry is forceful, Vigorous, and despite faults of rhythm, often strangely harmonious. His cynical nature and keenly critical mind led him to write satires, such as Of the Progres of the Soule (1601). His love poems, the Songs and Sonets, were written in the same period, and are intense and subtle analyses of all the moods of a lover, expressed in vivid and startling language, which is colloquial rather than conventional. His poems are all intensely personal and reveal a powerful and complex being. Among the best known and most typical of the poems of this group are Aire and Angels, A Nocturnall upon S.Lucies day, A Valediction: forbidding mourning, and The Extaise.

His religious poetry was written after 1610, and the greatest, the nineteen Holy Sonets, and the lyric such as A Hymn to GOD THE FATHER, after his wife’s died in 1617. They too are intense and personal and have a force unique in this class of literature. “He affects the metaphysics”, said Dryden of Donne, and the term ‘metaphysical’ has come to be applied to Donne and a group of poets who followed him. The most distinctive feature of the metaphysical is their imagery, which, in Donne, is almost invariably unusual and striking, often breath-taking, but sometimes far-fetched and fantastic.

His Prose

Donne’s prose work is considerable both in bulk and achievement. The Pseudo-Martyr (1610) was a defense of the oath of allegiance, while Ignatius His Conclave (1611) was a satire upon Ignatius Loyola and the Jesuits. The best introduction to Donne’s prose is his Devotions (1614), which give an account of his spiritual struggles during a serious illness. His finest prose works are his Sermons, which number about 160. In seventeenth-century England, the sermon was a most important influence, and the powerful preacher in London was a public figure capable of Wielding great influence. Donne’s sermons, of which the finest is probably Death’s Duell (1630), contain many of the features of his poetry. Donne seems to have used a dramatic technique that had a great hold on his audiences.

Conclusion

Donne left a deep and pervasive influence on English poetry. The metaphysical lyricists owed a great debt to him. Sometimes, his followers excelled him in happy conceit, passion, and paradoxical reasoning. And yet he gave a sincere and passionate quality to the Elizabethan lyric. He is one of those great poets who have left a mark on the history of English poetry. At times, his poetry is strange, fantastic, bizarre, maybe repellent. Donne may not be capable at times of graceful love or sweetness of song, but he enriched Elizabethan poetry with sincerity, originality, and fullness of thought.

Renaissance means rebirth. The word is usually used about the revival of learning of classical literature between the fourteenth and the sixteenth century. During this period there developed a spirit of inquiry, a spirit of freedom of thought and action. Social, political, and religious ideas were all revolutionized. In the words of Prof. Jebb, “The Renaissance in the largest sense of the term is the process of transition in Europe from the medieval to modern order”. The word “Renaissance” suggests different things to different people. To the love of art and literature Renaissance means the recovery of the masterpieces of the ancient world and the revived knowledge of Greek and Latin. Hence, Walter Pater is right in calling the Renaissance “a complex and many-sided movement”.

Renaissance Inventions and Discoveries

There were certain inventions and discoveries, which contributed to the general movement of the Renaissance. Of these, the most important was the invention of the printing press. The art of printing was introduced into Europe by John Gutenberg of Germany in 1454 and a few years, presses were established in every important town of Western and Central Europe. The first Latin Bible was printed in 1455, at Mainz in Germany. The art of printing reached all over the world. The first printing press in England was established in 1476 by William Caxton at Westminister. Another invention of great importance was the “mariner’s compass”, which enabled sailors to undertake longer voyages that had hitherto been possible. Along with this came also the invention of the telescope, a century later. The invention of the telescope marks the beginning of the science of astronomy.

Renaissance Writers

Dante, Petrarch, and Boccaccio prepared the ground for the Renaissance in Italy. Italian states were ruled by despots who competed with one another in the splendor of their courts. Another great Italian writer of the period was Machiavelli. In France, the effect of the Renaissance was seen in the lyric poetry of Ronsard, the vigorous prose of Francis Rabelais, and the scholarly essays of Montaigne. In Spain, the literary glory of the Renaissance was the glory of Cervantes. His “Don Quixote”, a burlesque of the romances of Chivalry is the most beautiful gift of the Renaissance of the literature of the world. In England, the Renaissance was heralded by Geoffrey Chaucer and selling who had contacts with Italy. A good start was given by three Oxford friends, Thomas Linacre, William Grocyn, and Hugh Latimer. All of them studied in Italy and later lectured on Greek at Oxford University.

Renaissance Art and Literature

The period of Renaissance was also an age of translation. Virgil, Ovid, Cicero…were all translated into English. The first part of Chapman’s “Homer” appeared in 1598. Thus people like Shakespeare who knew little Latin and less Greek became familiar with classical mythology. The Renaissance in literature may be said to have begun in England with Sir Thomas More. His Famous work, “Utopia”, which is a Greek word meaning “nowhere” was written in Latin and first published in 1516. The English translation was published in 1551. Spenser, the author of the first great English epic “Faerie Queene”, is the representative poet of the English Renaissance. The names closely associated with the Renaissance in Art and literature are those of Michael Angelo, Raphael, and Leonardo da Vinci. They were all-rounder’s, poets, painters, and sculptors. Their work is the glory of the picture galleries in Europe. As a sculptor, Michael Angelo’s most famous work is the Virgin Mary holding the dead body of Christ on her lap. As a painter, he painted the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel and the great fresco of the “Last Judgement” on the walls of the same Chapel. As a poet, Michael Angelo wrote many sonnets and love poems. Leonardo da Vinci is famous for the fresco of the “Last Supper” in the refectory of Maria Delle Grazie in Milan.

Renaissance Religion

The Renaissance in religion consists of two movements, the Reformation and Counter-Reformation. The Reformation started in Germany. Martin Luther, the leader of the Movement, translated the Old and New Testaments into German. William Tindale gave an English rendering of the translation made by Erasmus. These translations of the Bible helped people to read and interpret the text for themselves. As an antidote to this, there started a Counter-Reformation and founding of the society of Jesus by Ignatius of Loyola in 1540. As an outcome of this Renaissance in religion, there was a split in the church and those who protested against the supremacy of the pope came to be known as Protestants.

Many of Shakespeare’s plays have historical elements, but only certain plays are categorized as true Shakespeare histories. The “history plays” written by Shakespeare are generally thought of as a distinct genre: they differ somewhat in tone, form, and focus from his other plays (the “comedies,” the “tragedies” and the “romances”). Shakespeare’s history play can be divided into two types those dealing with English history and those dealing with Roman history. For the first type, Shakespeare borrowed materials from the English chronicles plays of the period. Marlowe and Peele had written historical plays and chronicle history was popular at that time because it flattered the patriotic spirit of the English. When converted into dramatic form, chronicle history gave opportunities for striking action and enabled the playwrights to freely mingle the comic and the tragic. Shakespeare followed the theatrical fashions of the time.

While many of Shakespeare’s other plays are set in the historical past, and even treat similar themes such as kingship and revolution (for example, Julius Caesar, Antony and Cleopatra, Hamlet, or Cymbeline), the eight history plays have several things in common: they form a linked series, they are set in late medieval England, and they deal with the rise and fall of the House of Lancaster-what later historians often referred to as the “War of the Roses.”

Shakespeare’s most important history plays were written in two “series” of four plays. The first series, written near the start of his career (around 1589-1593), consists of Henry VI, Parts 1, 2 & 3, and Richard III, and covers the fall of the Lancaster dynasty–that is, events in English history between about 1422 and 1485. The second series, written at the height of Shakespeare’s powers (around 1595-1599), moves back in time to examine the rise of the Lancastrians, covering English history from about 1398 to 1420. This series consists of Richard II, Henry IV, Parts 1 & 2, and Henry V.

Shakespeare drew on several different sources in writing his history plays. His primary source for historical material, however, is generally agreed to be Raphael Holinshed’s massive work, The Chronicles of England, Scotland, and Ireland, published in 1586-7. Holinshed’s account provides the chronology of events that Shakespeare reproduces, alters, compresses, or conveniently avoids-whichever serves his dramatic purposes best. However, Holinshed’s work was only one of an entire genre of historical chronicles that were popular during Shakespeare’s time. He may well have used many other sources as well; for Richard II, for example, more than seven primary sources have been suggested as having contributed to the work.

It is important to remember when reading the history plays, the significance to this genre of what we might call the “shadows of history.” One of the questions which preoccupy the characters in the history plays is whether or not the King of England is divinely appointed by the Lord. If so, then the overthrow or murder of a king is tantamount to blasphemy and may cast a long shadow over the reign of the king who gains the throne through such nefarious means. This shadow, which manifests in the form of literal ghosts in plays like Hamlet, Macbeth, Julius Caesar, and Richard III, also looms over Richard II and its sequels.