Emerging Trends in Climate Litigation and Constitutional Rights in India

Daily writing prompt

Tell us about your favorite pair of shoes, and where they’ve taken you.

Sajid A. Patel

Assistant Professor in Mercantile Law,

D.A.V. Velankar College of Commerce, Solapur

Abstract

In 2023, climate litigation in India underwent significant doctrinal and institutional development, with courts increasingly articulating environmental protection as a constitutional mandate. Although the formal recognition of climate rights under Article 21 occurred in 2024, the intellectual and jurisprudential foundation for this development was firmly established in 2023 through sustained judicial activism, the strategic use of public interest litigation, and rights-oriented interpretations of environmental law. This paper analyses how Indian courts in 2023 broadened constitutional jurisprudence to respond to the challenges of climate change, with particular emphasis on Article 21 (Right to Life), Article 14 (Right to Equality), and the principle of intergenerational equity. It examines significant judicial decisions, doctrinal innovations, and emerging adjudicatory trends that collectively positioned the Indian judiciary as a central actor in the governance of climate change.

Keywords: Climate Litigation, Constitutional Rights, Article 21, Environmental Justice, Sustainable Development, Public Interest Litigation, Intergenerational Equity, National Green Tribunal.

Introduction

In 2023, India’s vulnerability to the growing impacts of climate change became unmistakably clear and a matter of urgent national concern. The country witnessed record-breaking and prolonged heat waves across several regions, severely affecting public health, agricultural productivity, water availability, and overall economic stability. At the same time, monsoon patterns became increasingly erratic and unpredictable, disrupting traditional rainfall cycles on which millions of farmers depend. The situation was further aggravated by destructive floods in Assam and Himachal Pradesh, which caused large-scale displacement, infrastructure damage, and significant loss of life and property. These extreme climatic events collectively exposed the limitations and inadequacies of existing governmental policies and administrative preparedness, thereby intensifying public scrutiny of the State’s climate governance framework. As a result, affected individuals and civil society groups increasingly invoked constitutional rights to demand stronger, more accountable, and scientifically informed climate action.

Against this backdrop, the Indian judiciary long recognized for its expansive and purposive interpretation of fundamental rights emerged as a central forum for addressing climate-related grievances. Courts were approached not merely to resolve isolated environmental disputes but to examine broader constitutional obligations concerning climate protection and environmental sustainability. Although statutory instruments such as the Environment Protection Act and adjudicatory bodies like the National Green Tribunal provided procedural mechanisms for environmental redress, many litigants perceived these frameworks as insufficient to address the systemic and long-term challenges posed by climate change. Consequently, there was a growing shift toward constitutional litigation, with petitioners seeking explicit judicial recognition of climate rights as an integral component of fundamental rights, thereby reinforcing the role of constitutional law in shaping India’s climate governance.

Constitutional Mandate and Judicial Activism for Climate Protection

Right to Life and Environmental Protection (Article 21)

Article 21 of the Constitution of India says that no person shall be deprived of life or personal liberty except according to procedure established by law. Judicial interpretation has significantly expanded the meaning of “life” to include the right to live with dignity, health, and a clean and safe environment. In many cases like M.C. Mehta v. Union of India (Oleum Gas Leak Case) ((1987) 1 SCC 395), Subhash Kumar v. State of Bihar ((1991) 1 SCC 598), Indian Council for Enviro Legal Action v. Union of India ((1996) 3 SCC 212), M.C. Mehta v. Kamal Nath ((1997) 1 SCC 388), Vellore Citizens’ Welfare Forum v. Union of India ((1996) 5 SCC 647), A.P. Pollution Control Board v. Prof. M.V. Nayudu ((1999) 2 SCC 718), Hanuman Laxman Aroskar v. Union of India ((2019) 15 SCC 401), In Re: Noise Pollution:-Implementation of the Laws for Restricting Use of Loudspeakers ((2022) SCC On Line SC 150) the Supreme Court of India has held that right to pollution free environment is a part of Right to Life under Article 21 of the Constitution and so any type of pollution affecting human life is violative of fundamental Right to Life under Article 21.

Recently in M.K. Ranjitsinh & Others v. Union of India & Others (2024) Writ Petition (Civil) No. 838 of 2019 the Supreme Court held that Right to Life under Article 21 of the Constitution of India includes the right to live in a healthy environment and the protection of biodiversity. In this case a Writ Petition was filed to protect the Great Indian Bustard and Lesser Florican, two critically endangered bird species in India. For protection of climate protection of biodiversity is necessary and the same has been emphasised by the Court.

ii) Equality and Climate Vulnerability (Article 14)

Article 14 guarantees equality before law and equal protection of laws. Climate change disproportionately affects vulnerable populations, including rural communities, economically weaker sections, indigenous and forest-dwelling groups and Women and children.

Rural populations mainly depend on agriculture and natural resources. Climate change including erratic rainfall, droughts and floods disproportionately affects their livelihoods, leading to inequality in access to resources and justice which is violative of their fundamental right to equality under Article 14 of the Constitution. In M.K. Ranjitsinh & Ors. v. Union of India & Ors. the Supreme Court recognized the right to be free from adverse effects of climate change as part of Articles 21 and 14. This ruling emphasized that equality requires protecting vulnerable groups like rural farmers from disproportionate climate burdens. Similarly poor households face higher exposure to climate risks like heat waves, heavy rainfall, floods etc. due to inadequate housing, lack of healthcare, and limited adaptive capacity as compared to other people belonging to higher economic strata. Indigenous communities including tribal who are dependent on forest face displacement, biodiversity loss, and erosion of cultural rights due to deforestation and climate change. Article 14 requires equal protection of their rights, ensuring they are not side lined in climate governance. Women often suffer from climate induced resource scarcity of water and food security while children are more vulnerable to health impacts due to climate changes. In many cases including Rajnathsinh’s case the Supreme Court of India has emphasised that equality under Article 14 cannot be realized without addressing climate impacts, implicitly covering women and children.

iii)Directive Principles of State Policy

Part IV of Indian Constitution comprising of Articles 36 to 51 provides for Directive Principles of State Policy which are directives to the Government to be followed while making laws and policies for ensuring welfare of Indian citizens. Although Directive Principles are non-justiciable they provide crucial constitutional guidance in environmental matters. Article 48-A directs the State to protect and improve the environment and safeguard forests and wildlife. Indian courts have repeatedly used this provision to interpret fundamental rights in an environmentally progressive manner. Article 39(b) and (c) emphasise equitable distribution of resources and prevention of concentration of wealth. Climate governance, especially regarding natural resources, aligns with these principles. In many cases like M.C. Mehta v. Union of India (Oleum Gas Leak Case) ((1987) 1 SCC 395), M.C. Mehta v. Union of India (Ganga Pollution Case) ((1988) 1 SCC 471), T.N. Godavarman Thirumulpad v. Union of India ((1997) 2 SCC 267) and Narmada Bachao Andolan v. Union of India (AIR 2000 SC 3751) the Indian Judiciary used the provisions of Directive Principles of State Policy for protection and preservation of natural environment.

Fundamental Duty to protect environment

Article 51 A (g) of Indian Constitution imposes a duty upon every Indian citizen to protect and improve the natural environment. Even though fundamental duties are not directly enforceable, in many Indian judiciary has used them to justify restrictions on environmentally harmful activities, reinforce the legitimacy of environmental regulations and emphasise collective responsibility in climate governance. Thus in Vellore Citizens Welfare Forum v. Union of India ((1996) 5 SCC 647) the Supreme Court invoked Article 51A (g) along with Article 48A to emphasize citizens’ duty in environmental protection and evolved Precautionary Principle, which requires preventive action in cases of environmental risk, even in the absence of complete scientific certainty and Polluter Pays principle which imposes obligation upon the person who is responsible for pollution to bear the costs of remediation. In M.C. Mehta v. Union of India popularly known as Taj Trapezium Case ((1997) 2 SCC 353) the Supreme Court by using Article 51 A (g) justified restrictions on industries polluting near the Taj Mahal. In Almitra Patel v. Union of India ((2000) 2 SCC 679) the Supreme Court has stated that it is a fundamental duty of every citizen to not to not litter and to cooperate with municipal authorities. In T.N. Godavarman Thirumulpad v. Union of India ((1997) 2 SCC 267) the Supreme Court held that it is the fundamental duty of every citizen to protect the forests.

Role of Public Interest Litigation

Public spirited persons and N.G.Os. filed many Public Interest Litigations for protection of environment on behalf of affected communities. The rule of Locus Standi has been relaxed by the Supreme Court to broaden the access to justice for marginalized groups impacted by environmental degradation and pollution. Indian judiciary has used the fundamental rights, directive principles of state policy, fundamental duties in the Constitution to allow the Public Interest Litigations for protection of environment and those who are affected by environmental pollution and degradation.

Thus in Rural Litigation and Entitlement Kendra v. State of Uttar Pradesh (AIR 1985 SC 652) the Supreme Court ordered closure of limestone quarries in Mussoorie to prevent ecological damage. In M.C. Mehta v. Union of India (Oleum Gas Leak Case) (AIR 1987 SC 1086) expanded Article 21 to include environmental safety. In M.C. Mehta v. Union of India (Ganga Pollution Case) ((1988) 1 SCC 471) by allowing a Public Interest Litigation Court directed closure of polluting tanneries. In Narmada Bachao Andolan v. Union of India ((2000) 10 SCC 664) Supreme Court balanced development with environmental concerns. In many Public Interest Litigations filed in Delhi High Court and the Supreme Court it has been reiterated that Right to Life under Article 21 includes the right to clean air. The Courts have invoked Article 48 which is a Directive Principle and Article 51 A (g) which is Fundamental Duty to emphasise collective responsibility to protect the environment. In Bombay High Court and Madras High Court Public Interest Litigations were filed for municipal waste management. Courts directed civic bodies to comply with Solid Waste Management Rules, citing citizen’s duty under Article 51A (g). In 2023 in continuation of Writ Petition filed in 1995 in T.N. Godavarman Thirumulpad v. Union of India and Others ((1997) 2 SCC 267) the Supreme Court by monitoring compliance of forest conservation norm issued several directions for conservation of forests and illegalizing deforestation and encroachment in forests and enforced duty of state under Article 48 of Constitution. In M.K. Ranjitsinh v. Union of India (2024 SCC On Line SC 570) upon a Public Interest Litigation Supreme Court held that right to be free from adverse effects of climate change is a fundamental right under Article 21 of the Constitution.

Contemporary Developments in Climate Litigation Jurisprudence

Contemporary development of climate litigation jurisprudence can be explained with following points

i)Shift from Environmental Protection to Climate Accountability

Earlier in n the 1980s and 1990s, Indian courts primarily dealt with pollution control, deforestation, and industrial hazards which is evident from cases in which writ petitions were filed by public spirited persons like M.C. Mehta and other N.G.O.s. Earlier the focus of Indian judiciary was on preventing harm to environment causing by air, water, noise pollution and enforcing statutory compliance under laws like the Water Act, Air Act, and Forest Conservation Act. In cases in mid 90s Supreme Court of India has evolved certain new principles like Polluter Pays Principle, Precautionary Principle etc. Since 2019, Indian courts have increasingly addressed climate change impacts directly, moving beyond general environmental protection. In Hanuman Laxman Aroskar v. Union of India (2019) the court scrutinized environmental clearances for large projects, stressing climate‑sensitive decision‑making. Similarly in M.K. Ranjitsinh v. Union of India the Supreme Court protected endangered species like the Great Indian Bustard, linking biodiversity loss to climate change and intergenerational equity.

New era has witnessed active role of youth in protection of environment and environmental resources which is evident from a writ petition filed by Ridhima Pandey which was cited as Ridhima Pandey v. Union of India, Civil Appeal No. 388 of 2021, pending before the Supreme Court of India. In this case petitioner Ridhima Pandey emphasised on failure of Government of India to take adequate steps to combat climate change despite obligations of Government under the Environment Protection Act, 1986, the Forest Conservation Act, 1980, and international commitments like the Paris Agreement.

ii) Fundamental Rights-Based Framing of Climate Harm

The cases like Subhash Kumar v. State of Bihar (1991) and M.C. Mehta v. Union of India (Oleum Gas Leak, 1987) in which it was held that pollution‑free air and water are essential for Right to Life under Article 21 formed basis for linking environmental harm with constitutional rights. Later in N. Godavarman Thirumulpad v. Union of India (1997) Court held that forest conservation and ecological balance are integral to Article 21. Recent petitions, such as Ridhima Pandey v. Union of India (Civil Appeal No. 388 of 2021), shows that failure of State to protect climate violates fundamental rights. Apart from only environmental issue harm to climate and environment has now become a matter involving violation of fundamental rights.

iii) Doctrinal Innovations by Judiciary:-

Indian judiciary especially the Supreme Court has been inventing new doctrines in the litigations for environmental protection. Absolute Liability principle which makes an enterprise engaged in hazardous or inherently dangerous activities fully liable for any harm caused without any exception or defence was evolved by Supreme Court in M.C. Mehta v. Union of India (Oleum Gas Leak, AIR 1987 SC 1086). Precautionary Principle which says that when there is a risk of serious or irreversible environmental harm, the lack of complete scientific certainty cannot be used as a reason to delay preventive measures and Polluter Pays principle which says that the party responsible for causing pollution must bear the costs of managing and remedying the damagecaused to the environment were evolved by Supreme Court in Vellore Citizens’ Welfare Forum v. Union of India ((1996) 5 SCC 647). In M.C. Mehta v. Kamal Nath & Others, ((1997) 1 SCC 388) the Supreme Court evolved the doctrine of Public Trust doctrine which says that certain natural resources like rivers, forests, and coastal are preserved for public use, and the State acts as a trustee of these resources and so even State cannot transfer or exploit such resources for private gain, as they belong to the people collectively. In recent cases involving climate litigation like M.K. Ranjitsinh v. Union of India (2024) and Ridhima Pandey v. Union of India (2021) the principle of Climate Accountability and Climate Justice has been evolved by Supreme Court for protection of environment.

iv)Integration of International Climate Commitments

In many climate litigations Supreme Court has applied and integrated international norms and commitments for protection of environment. Thus in accordance with international convention of Rio Declaration (1992) in Vellore Citizens’ Welfare Forum v. Union of India ((1996) 5 SCC 647) Supreme Court has evolved Precautionary Principle and Polluter Pays Principle. In Ridhima Pandey v. Union of India the petitioner emphasised on Paris Agreement (2015) and contended that failure to meet emission reduction targets and adaptation measures violates both international commitments and fundamental rights domestically.

Conclusion

Indian climate litigation has moved beyond traditional environmental protection to embrace constitutional climate accountability. By interpreting Article 21 to include the right to a healthy environment and extending Article 14 to address climate vulnerability, the judiciary has firmly placed climate justice within the constitutional framework. The use of Directive Principles and Fundamental Duties highlights the shared responsibility of both the State and citizens in safeguarding ecological integrity. Public Interest Litigations have been crucial in widening access to climate justice, ensuring that marginalized communities are represented in constitutional adjudication. Judicial innovations such as the Precautionary Principle, Polluter Pays Principle, and Public Trust Doctrine have now evolved into climate-specific doctrines, while references to international commitments like the Paris Agreement show India’s engagement with global climate governance. Together, these developments establish the judiciary not only as a forum for environmental disputes but as a constitutional guardian of intergenerational equity and climate justice. Recognizing climate rights as fundamental rights marks a turning point in India’s constitutional journey, affirming that the struggle against climate change is inseparable from the protection of human dignity, equality, and life itself.

References

Leelakrishnan, Environmental Law in India (LexisNexis, 2021).
K.C. Agrawal, Environmental Pollution and Law (Agro Botanical Publishers, 1995).
Shibani Ghosh, Climate Change and the Law in India: Emerging Trends and Challenges
(Centre for Policy Research, 2023).
Sairam Bhat, Law of Environmental Protection in India (Eastern Book Company, 2012).
Archana Ashok Khandwe, Climate Change Litigation in India: Rising Judicial Activism Post–M.K. Ranjitsinh v. Union of India (2024), Ves College of Law Journal (2024).
Aakash Malik, Courts and Climate: How Judicial Interpretation Shapes Environmental Law in India, International Journal of Research and Analytical Reviews (IJRAR), Vol. 11, Issue 4 (Oct. 2024).
Shibani Ghosh, Litigating Climate Change in India: Emerging Trends and Challenges, NUJS Law Review (2023).
Lavanya Rajamani, The Increasing Role of Courts in Climate Governance: Lessons from India, Journal of Environmental Law (2022).
Mamta Devi, Constitutional Law and Climate Change in India: Is There a Right to a Sustainable Environment?, LHP College of Law Journal (2024).
Relevant Case Laws

What a Full-Service Digital Marketing Company in the USA Actually Does

Daily writing prompt

Write about your approach to budgeting.

View all responses

Leads are inconsistent. Ad spend keeps rising. You post content, but revenue doesn’t follow. Most founders don’t need more “marketing.” You need coordination. That’s where a real digital marketing agency USA earns its keep.

A true digital marketing company USA doesn’t sell random services. It builds a system that turns attention into measurable revenue. At Five Talents, we’ve seen small businesses waste months hiring freelancers who never spoke to each other. SEO ran one direction, paid ads another, the website converted poorly, and no one owned the funnel. That chaos costs money.

Strategy Before Tactics

Here’s what surprises many entrepreneurs. The best digital marketing agency starts with positioning and numbers, not ads. Before touching PPC advertising services or SEO services, we clarify the offer, margins, and break-even cost per lead. If you don’t know what you can afford to pay for a customer, paid advertising becomes gambling.

We build a clear go-to-market structure: audience, messaging, traffic channels, and conversion paths. That’s not theory. That’s how you protect your budget. A strong results-driven digital marketing company USA. begins with growth strategy consulting and messaging strategy services, because traffic without clarity converts poorly.

Traffic That Actually Converts

Once the foundation is right, traffic matters. This is where many internet marketing companies oversell impressions. You don’t need vanity metrics. You need qualified leads.

We combine Google Ads management services, paid social media services, and professional SEO services so your brand shows up at every stage of the buying cycle. Search engine optimization services build long-term visibility. PPC advertising services generate immediate demand. Social media marketing services warm up cold audiences.

But traffic alone won’t fix weak conversion paths. Your website design services and responsive web design services must support the campaign. We’ve increased demo bookings by over 30% simply by restructuring homepage messaging and tightening calls to action.

Content, Automation, and Retention

Acquiring leads is expensive. Keeping them costs less. A full-service online marketing agency handles content marketing services, email automation services, and sales copywriting services together. Why? Because acquisition and retention are one system.

Blog writing services attract search intent. Email funnel services nurture prospects who are not ready yet. Automated email marketing keeps your pipeline warm. When this runs properly, cost per acquisition drops.

For nonprofits, Google Ad Grant management and Google Ad Grant account setup unlock free Google Ads for nonprofits. Done right, nonprofit Google Ads services can generate thousands of targeted visitors without draining operational budgets.

Branding and Digital Infrastructure

You can run ads, but if your brand identity design feels inconsistent, trust suffers. Branding services, logo and brand design services, and website copywriting services create coherence. That coherence increases conversion.

We often step in as both digital marketing consultant and execution partner. Some clients need full implementation. Others need business growth consulting services and oversight for internal teams. Either way, accountability matters. That’s what separates a vendor from a partner.

If you are looking for a results-driven digital marketing company USA. that understands tight budgets and real growth pressure, visit Five Talents. We build marketing systems that produce leads, close sales, and support long-term business strategy services. If your marketing feels fragmented, it’s time to fix the structure.

Trauma and the Pursuit of Equality and Empowerment of Women: A Comparative Analysis of Texts by Margaret Atwood, Kiran Desai, and Arundhati Roy

Daily writing prompt

Write about your approach to budgeting.

View all responses

Citation

Qureshi, T., & Javed, I. (2026). Trauma and the Pursuit of Equality and Empowerment of Women: A Comparative Analysis of Texts by Margaret Atwood, Kiran Desai, and Arundhati Roy. International Journal of Research, 13(2), 135–145. https://doi.org/10.26643/ijr/2026/38

Tanzah Qureshi Dr. Indira Javed

Research Scholar, tanzahq02@gmail.com Professor

BU, Bhopal SNGGPG College Bhopal

Abstract-

This paper focuses on various cultural, social and political nuances that help to subjugate the women and the impact this has on the quest for equality. The women writers though shy away from being called the feminist still focus on the issues faced by women, their silent endurance to the discrimination and cultural subjugation which results in various problems faced by them. The female characters in the respective novels face their trails and are triumphant by resolving their psychological or sociological issues. The women writers by talking about these problems have brought them to the centre stage and have thus created a dialogue for gender equality. This analysis delves into Margaret Atwood, Kiran Desai, and Arundhati Roy’s intricate connection between trauma and the quest for empowerment of women by examining the specific manifestations of subjugation within their respective narratives.

Keywords– Trauma, Women empowerment, Gender equality, Alienation, Estrangeness Effect

Objectives

To understand the perspectives of gender from the view point of Margaret Atwood, Arundhati Roy and Kiran Desai,

To explain the effect of gender and patriarchy on women psyche,

Methadology

The research methodology of this research paper is qualitative in design. Researcher has used both primary and secondary material to prove the objectives. Textbooks, critical material such as Research Papers, Journals and viewpoints of experts have been utilized. This is descriptive, explanatory, analytical and comparative study.

Introduction

Trauma acts as a major barrier to women’s equality, rooted in systemic patriarchal structures, gender-based violence, and transgenerational cycles of abuse. It induces fear, anxiety, and diminished self-confidence, hindering autonomy and economic empowerment. Overcoming this requires trauma-informed approaches, safe spaces, and active engagement of men to dismantle inequality. Addressing trauma is not just an individual, therapeutic need but a necessary step for societal progress in achieving gender equality and empowering women to fully participate in all aspects of life.

Review of Literature and Discussion

“Through her vivid portrayals of women’s struggles and triumphs, Roy critiques the patriarchal systems that perpetuate gender inequality, while also celebrating the resilience and agency of her female protagonists” (Raman and Kumar 2021). This quote suggests that Roy in extreme goes against the gender restrictions and patriarchal norms. She is a feminist and womanist who thinks for women and talks about their empowerment in society, family and state.

Trauma manifests in many things, including the oppressive weight of patriarchal norms, the suppression of individual voices, and the psychological impact of societal expectations. These authors critically examine the systemic pressures which inflict deep-seated wounds upon women, and are manifested as internal conflicts and external struggles for autonomy by women. In Margaret Atwood’s works, female protagonists frequently navigate environments marked by male violence and exploitation, employing psychological defenses to process their suffering before embarking on a transformative journey towards self-reclamation. Specifically, in The Handmaid’s Tale, Atwood shows the extent of identity loss that the handmaids are stripped of their names. “My name isn’t Offred, I have another name, which nobody uses now because it’s forbidden” (Handmaid’s Tale 3).Atwood explores the intricate relationship between individual memory and societal control, demonstrating how the protagonist Offred utilizes personal recollections to maintain her sense of self amidst Gilead’s systematic attempts to erase her identity. This struggle for self-preservation through memory and resistance against oppressive systems is a recurring motif in Atwood’s works, often highlighting the specifically female nature of these struggles, such as issues surrounding reproductive rights and societal objectification (Banurekha and Abhinya). Atwood’s narratives consistently feature female protagonists who, despite their individual circumstances, actively resist victimhood by finding unique ways to assert their agency and challenge the patriarchal structures that seek to diminish them (Banurekha and Abhinya) ( Jaisy). We see Offred being subjected to gender-based oppression, violence, and objectification. Yet, she subtly defies these constraints through her passive rebellious acts like trying to maintain her autonomy by preserving the memories of her family. Furthermore,in Surfacing, Atwood intricately weaves the themes of environmental degradation and gendered oppression, portraying them as co-dependent systems of domination, where women’s bodies and the natural world become parallel sites of control and commodification ( Muthuswamy and Venkateshkumar). Atwood’s narratives delve into the fragmented psyche of her female characters , often caused by the female subjguation that they face, they have to reconnect with their past to make themselves whole again or to fight the demons of their past and overcome them. This fragmentation often stems from the deceptive patriarchal ideologies that diminish women’s autonomy and the sense of self. Offred, for instance, reclaims her fragmented self through storytelling and her monologues, critiquing the Gileadean propaganda and asserting her individuality. Her internal monologues serve as a critical tool for mental survival, allowing her to resist the imposed subjugation and maintain a semblance of her former identity

The profound psychological impact of such systemic subjugation necessitates a rigorous examination of the coping mechanisms and resistance strategies employed by these protagonists. The narrative often functions as a critical medium for these women to articulate their experiences and reclaim themselves within the oppressive structures.

Kiran Desai in her novel, ‘The Inheritance of Loss’ shows how trauma and displacement profoundly affect the identities and futures of its female characters, illustrating their arduous journeys toward self-discovery amidst postcolonial anxieties. Her protagonists grapple with both personal and collective traumas, revealing how gendered experiences intertwine with broader socio-political dislocations to shape their inner lives and external realities. “Could fulfillment ever be felt as deeply as loss?” (Inheritance of Loss 3)

This poignant question encapsulates the existential dilemmas faced by Desai’s characters, who are often caught between cultural expectations and personal aspirations. In her Novel, characters like Nimi, the judge’s wife went through abuse. “He beat her with a brass vase. She was never the same again”(Inheritance of Loss 186).

This line highlights the impact that abuse has on women and the subsequent changes that come with it. Nimi was beautiful and rich, Jemubhai, took advantage of the dowry money and yet he did not even treat his wife as a human being. Once he hurled her face in the toilet. whenever he met her, she had gone through phases of abuses and his ultimate decision to never see her brings her even more misery. She was neglected and abused. This systemic mistreatment, including marital violence and abandonment, leaves indelible psychological scars, illustrating how patriarchal structures inflict lasting damage on women’s sense of self-worth and agency. Such portrayals underscore the pervasive nature of gender inequality, where women are often confined to subordinate roles and subjected to various forms of exploitation, including psychological, economic, and sexual abuse. These profound and multifaceted traumas necessitate resilient coping mechanisms, which often manifest as internal resistance and a determined pursuit of self-redefinition against oppressive societal norms (Devraju) ( Sharma and Chouhan). The female characters in Desai’s works frequently navigate the complexities of cultural hybridity and identity crises, often reflecting the broader post-colonial struggles for self-definition in a globalized world (Tennyson) .

Desai through Sai shows the generational gendered changes. The changes are albiet subtle but Desai has shown these tranformations. Sai, though more educated and modern, still grapples with gendered expectations. Her romance with Gyan exposes the fragility of her autonomy in a society where women’s choices are often undermined. Her experiences highlight the subtle yet persistent ways in which patriarchal norms continue to influence even seemingly liberated women, forcing them to negotiate their desires within established societal frameworks (Desai). Her attempts to assert independence are frequently met with resistance, underscoring the enduring societal pressures that circumscribe female agency even in contemporary contexts.

Arundhati Roy also exposes the Indian society’s fragility when Ammu falls in love with Baba. This transgression of caste and social boundaries leads to tragic consequences, illustrating how societal rigidity and patriarchal control restrict women’s emotional and physical freedom, ultimately shaping their destiny. Roy’s novel The God of Small Things further underscores how societal prejudices and patriarchal systems contribute to the trauma experienced by women, often through the lens of forbidden love and its devastating repercussions on female protagonists. The tragic narratives of Ammu and other female characters reveal how the intersection of gender, class, and caste often subjects women to systemic oppression, leading to profound personal and intergenerational trauma. Her relationship with Velutha, an Untouchable, challenges the deeply entrenched caste system, highlighting the intersection of gender and caste as sites of resistance (Chacko 2000 and Nair 2002).

“She’s a woman. She’s not allowed to decide what she wants” (The God of Small Things 45). This statement profoundly encapsulates the pervasive subjugation experienced by women within rigidly hierarchical societal constructs, wherein patriarchal norms systematically curtail individual agency.

Rahel navigates a different path. She modern, independent well eduacted but still bears the scars of this societal conditioning, manifesting in her struggles with relationships and a pervasive sense of displacement. She does get married to a man but she struggles with emotional intimacy. She recognizes that Larry loves her, and she accepts the void that exists in her marriage.

“He couldn’t understand her. She couldn’t explain. They didn’t agree on things” (The God of Small Things 20). Their inability to bridge this communicative chasm underscores the profound alienation that can arise even within intimate partnerships when fundamental understandings of identity and desire diverge, a consequence often exacerbated by the entrenched societal pressures impacting female autonomy.

In The God of Small Things, the female characters, including Mammachi, Baby Kochamma, Ammu, and Rahel, despite their intellect and affluence, are unable to achieve their full potential due to a system of oppression rooted in gender. She understands the profound impact of her mother’s ostracization on her own capacity for connection, highlighting the intergenerational trauma inflicted by societal strictures. This intergenerational trauma, exacerbated by societal judgments and restrictive norms, manifests as a perpetual struggle against systemic oppression, impeding the women’s achieving their full potential and well-being (ALI).

Specifically, the analysis delves into how these authors utilize distinct narrative techniques to portray the psychological impact of trauma, often linking individual experiences of distress to broader socio-political injustices (Abubakar, 2017). Moreover, this section explores how the authors’ representational choices, particularly concerning gender and sexuality, contribute to a nuanced understanding of trauma within marginalized communities, thereby offering fresh insights into the intricate interplay of power and vulnerability (Ranga & Prasad, 2025). For instance, Atwood’s *Surfacing* explores the protagonist’s journey of individuation, directly linking her psychological recovery from past traumatic experiences to an introspective exploration of her unconscious mind (González Hernández, 2015) (Heidarizadeh, 2015). Desai, on the other hand, through characters like Bim, explores the enduring nature of trauma within familial structures, highlighting how intergenerational patterns of abuse and societal expectations shape feminine identity within traditional contexts (Kumar, 2024). Roy further complicates this by depicting characters, such as Rahel, who navigate complex socio-political landscapes where caste, gender, and historical legacies profoundly impact their identity and choices, underscoring the pervasive influence of societal and familial pressures (Kumar, 2024). This analytical framework further extends to examining how these authors, through their distinct literary styles, dismantle hegemonic narratives concerning gender and sexuality, advocating for more inclusive and equitable societal visions (Ranga & Prasad, 2025). Through their narratives, these authors collectively illuminate the intricate connections between personal suffering and systemic inequalities, advocating for a deeper understanding of how trauma permeates individual and collective consciousness (Heidarizadeh, 2015).

Discussion

The discussion section will elaborate on the implications of these findings, drawing connections between the narrative techniques and thematic concerns identified in the results section to broader theoretical frameworks concerning trauma studies, postcolonial literature, and feminist theory. Specifically, it will explore how Atwood, Desai, and Roy contribute to an understanding of trauma not merely as an individual psychological phenomenon, but as a deeply embedded socio-political construct shaped by historical oppressions and power imbalances.

And how these traumatic experiences, specifically of women, pave the way for a more nuanced approach where women realize that their sufferings wouldn’t end until and unless they change themselves. They take charge, and they resolve their traumas. This profound understanding is clearly shown in the generational changes that women see. Rahel and Ammu’s situation is different but the inherent trauma remains the same This cyclical nature of trauma across generations underscores the need for profound societal transformation rather than individual adaptation, suggesting that collective action is essential for true liberation from oppressive structures. Moreover, the enduring effects of Partition, as depicted in various literary works, highlight how historical events continue to shape the traumatic experiences of women, emphasizing the need for a comprehensive understanding of their lived realities.This literary analysis delves into the psychological underpinnings of female protagonists, revealing how characters like Mariam and Rahel internalize their mothers’ trauma, perpetuating cycles of self-perception influenced by gendered oppression and cultural exclusion (Işık, 2025). This intergenerational transference of trauma not only molds their individual identities but also reflects broader societal narratives where women’s worth is often defined by their roles within patriarchal structures (Kumar, 2024).

Furthermore, the psychological exploration of these characters often reveals a fractured self, necessitating an internal journey toward self-knowledge and integration, much like Jungian individuation, where protagonists reconcile conscious and unconscious elements to achieve wholeness (González Hernández, 2015) (Banurekaa & Abinaya, n.d.).

Result and Findings

This section presents the findings from the textual analysis, highlighting recurrent thematic patterns and narrative strategies employed by Atwood, Desai, and Roy in depicting trauma and the struggle for equality. A critical examination of these literary works reveals how deeply ingrained societal structures exacerbate personal suffering, simultaneously illuminating the resilience and agency of characters striving for liberation.

Anita Desai has focused on the psychological nuances of her characters, delving into their inner lives and frustrations within a changing societal landscape. Her protagonists often grapple with neurotic conditions arising from an inability to adapt to harsh realities, leading to psychological disturbances whether they react aggressively or compromise with their situations

Atwood’s female charcters often grapple with deeply personal traumas such as abuse, imprisonment, and objectification, which underscore the broader societal pressures faced by women.

Conversely, Kiran Desai’s protagonists frequently navigate the trauma of displacement and cultural alienation, revealing the profound psychosocial impact of globalization and postcolonial identities on individuals. In contrast,

Arundhati Roy’s literary contributions explore the pervasive trauma inflicted by systemic injustices, including caste discrimination and environmental degradation, demonstrating how deeply rooted societal structures perpetuate cycles of suffering and inequality.

Conclusion

These narratives, through their poignant portrayal of female suffering and resilience, highlight the critical need for gender equality as a means to alleviate the deep-seated trauma inflicted by patriarchal structure. Roy intricately weaves the stories of three generations of women—Baby Kochamma, Mammachi, Ammu, and Rahel—to highlight the difficult situation of women in post-colonial nations, demonstrating how their social positions were profoundly affected by the legacies of imperialism and the British colonizers’ oppressive humanitarian missions. This intergenerational trauma, exacerbated by societal judgments and restrictive norms, manifests as a perpetual struggle against systemic oppression, impeding the women’s achieving their full potential and well-being.

The women writers by highlighting the generational changes in the autonomy of women show the changes that have occurred over time and the need for continued advocacy to achieve full gender equity.

Atwood, Desai, and Roy, bring trauma and gender equality to the forefront of their narratives, using literature as a powerful space to explore the collective loved experience of women under the oppressive systems of patriarchy. Their works emphasise that trauma is not just a personal or psychological issue but also a reflection of broader social, cultural and political forces that affect women. By portraying trauma as a product of patriarchy and postcolonial structures, these authors challenge the traditional approaches and call for a more inclusive understanding of healing. Their narratives emphasize that true empowerment requires both personal recovery as well as dismantling the systems that perpetuate harm. These authors use fiction to amplify women’s voices, confront systems that perpetuate harm and envision a future where healing is tied to equality and liberation. They bring trauma to a center stage as a feminist and political issue making a strong case of empowerment of women through narrative and structural change.

References

Abubakar, Sadiya. “Art as Narrative: Recounting Trauma through Literature.” IRA-International Journal of Management & Social Sciences (ISSN 2455-2267), vol. 8, no. 1, Aug. 2017, p. 118.

ALI, Yaseen. The Politics of Feminism in the Eyes of Postcolonial Studies. DergiPark (Istanbul University), July 2021.

Atwood, Margaret. The Handmaid’s Tale. Toronto, Ontario: McClelland Steward Ltd, 1985.

_____ and J. Brooks Bouson. Critical Insights. 2013.

Banurekaa, S., and S. Abinaya. Emerging Women in Margaret Atwood’s Select Novels.

Barman, R. P. Exploring Feminine Identity Challenges in Anita Desai’s Fiction. SSRN Electronic Journal, Jan. 2024.

Chacko, M. Caste and Gender in Arundhati Roy’s The God of Small Things. Economic and Political Weekly, Issue 35 volume 42, 2000. PP, 3745-3750.

Desai, Kiran. The Inheritance of Loss. Penguin, India. 2006.

Devaraju, Vanitha. The Theme of Loss and Grief in Shashi Deshpande’s Small Remedies. Smart Moves Journal Ijellh, Vol. 6, no. 10, Oct. 2018.

González Hernández, Ma Lourdes. The Mapping of the Self. 2015.

Heidarizadeh, Negin. “The Significant Role of Trauma in Literature and Psychoanalysis.” Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences, vol. 192, June 2015, p. 788.

Jaisy, D. L. An Eco-Feminism: A Study OF Margaret Atwood’s The Handmaid’s Tale. 2018.

Kumar, B. Magesh. “Exploring Feminine Identity: A Comparative Analysis of Female Protagonists in Anita Desais- Clear Light of Day and Arundhati Roys- The God of Small Things.” International Journal for Research in Applied Science and Engineering Technology, vol. 12, no. 6, June 2024, p. 1670.

Mutuswamy, Priyadarsini, and Venkateshkumar. “Roots of Ruin: Ecofeminist Echoes of Environmental and Gendered Subjugation in Margaret Atwood’s Dystopias.” International Journal For Multidisciplinary Research, vol. 7, no. 3, June2025.

Raman, P. and Kumar. The Language of Rebellion: A Study of Arundhati Roy’s Narrative Techniques. International Journal of Literature, Volume 22, Issue 3, 2021. PP, 395-410.

Ranga, R., and Pushkala Prasad. “The Politics of Representing Gender and Sexuality in Arundhati Roy’s Selected Books.” World Journal of English Language, vol. 16, no. 1, Sept. 2025, p. 305.

Sharma, Divyani, and Swati Chauhan. “Portrayal of Patriarchal Subjugation of Women in the Selected Works of Anita Nair.” Rupkatha Journal on Interdisciplinary Studies in Humanities, vol. 15, no. 5, Dec. 2023.

Tennyson, M. E. “Cultural Hybridity and Identity Crisis in The Inheritance of Loss.” Studies in Social Science & Humanities, vol. 3, no. 7, July 2024, p. 37.

Wangmo, Thinley, and Margaret Atwood. The Fall of Women under the Masculine World and the Rise of Women through the Awakening of Feminist Instinct in Surfacing by Margaret Atwood. Apr. 2018.

Women and Resistance in Arundhati Roy’s *The God of Small Things*. *Journal of Feminist Literary Criticism*, 4(1), 45-59. [19] Raman, P. (2021).

Nair, A. Love and Loss in Arundhati Roy’s The God of Small Things. Indian Literature Quarterly, Issue 6, Volume 2) 2002. PP, 105-119.

Interdisciplinary Study of Margaret Atwood’s Novel Surfacing

Daily writing prompt

Are you patriotic? What does being patriotic mean to you?

View all responses

VarshaPatil

Department of English,

JET’sZ.B.Patil College, Dhule-424002 (MS)

E-mail: varshapatil.vp.100@gmail.com

Abstract:

Margaret Atwood’s novel Surfacing is a landmark novel in Canadian literature. It presents a richly layered narrative that lends itself to interdisciplinary interpretation. The paper examines the novel through the critical frameworks of eco-criticism, gender studies, psychoanalytic theory, postcolonial discourse and mythological studies.The young and unnamed protagonist comes back to Northern Quebec, the wilderness in search of her father who disappears. Her journey into the Quebec wilderness in search of her father transforms into a search for her identity. The novel throws light on gender oppression, cultural imperialism, environmental problems and psychological issue. Surfacing is immensely relevant in the present scenario of environmental crisis, gender oppression and cultural crisis. Atwood proposes that authentic survival necessitates confronting truth, reclaiming fractured identity and restoring an ethical relationship with Nature.

Keywords:Interdisciplinary studies,eco-criticism, psychoanalysis, mythological studies

Research Objectives:

To examine Surfacing through an interdisciplinary framework.
To analyze the representation of ecological consciousness.
To investigate the critique of patriarchal structures within the narrative.
To explore the psychological dimensions of repression, trauma, and self-recovery as reflected in the narrator’s journey.
To evaluate the novel’s engagement, its critique of American cultural imperialism.
To examine the mythic and archetypal patterns that structure the narrator’s symbolic descent and rebirth.
To show how survival operates as a multidimensional concept, encompassing ecological responsibility, gender autonomy, psychological integration, and cultural sovereignty.

Introduction:

Margaret Atwood is the most distinguished contemporary Canadian novelist, poet,environmentalist and human activist. Her novel Surfacing was published in 1972. It was a period during which second wave feminism was at the height of its momentum and influence.The novelSurfacing throws light on the social- political issue of the late 20^thcentury, such as the environmental degradation, second wave feminism, Canadiannationalism.The young and unnamed protagonist comes back from Toronto to Northern Quebec, the wilderness to search for her father, who disappears. Her friend, DavidAnna and Joe have accompanied her. She is a commercial artist. She has come back to Northern Quebec Bush after 9 years. Her coming to the wilderness becomes the arena, for her psychological crisis and regenerative self-realization. It function as the locus of her psychological fragmentation and eventual integration.

An interdisciplinary reading of thenovel Surfacing foregrounds its structural and thematic complexity.Surfacing emerges as a dynamic narrative that operates andconceptualizesmeaning on multiple levelssuch as ecological consciousness, gender theories, postcolonial unease and mythic symbolic coverage.The novel’s central motif is survival which goes beyond physical endurance.It encompasses ecological accountability, psychological reconciliation and cultural sovereignty. It critiques environmental exploitation, gender oppression,cultural imperialism, and psychological suppression.

Annis Pratt a feminist archetypal criticconsiders the novel in terms of “a quest for rebirth and transformation”.Prof.CoomiV.Vevaina from University of Mumbai, India discusses the novel from”Jung’s psychoanalysis”.To SushilaSingh, the novel is “a significant nationalist and feminist work of art”. Russell Brown finds in Surfacing “implications of the artist in the myth-makingprocess”.Surfacing has been interpreted by applying various disciplines.

Interdisciplinary study of Surfacing enables to analyse the text by applying multiple theoretical lenses such as humanities, social sciences, environmental studies, psychology, gender studies. The synthesis of these theoretical frameworks enable more comprehensive understanding of Atwood’s strategy.

Eco-criticism studies the representation of Nature. It also studies the relationship between Nature and human beings. The northern Quebec wilderness brings about the protagonist’s transformation and self- realization. The dead heron symbolises cruelty done towards Nature. The crucificationimagery reminds us of religious sacrifice. The dead heron symbolizes ecological violence .By doing harmfulact the human world is alienated from the natural world. The gulf between these two worlds becomes increasingly pronounced over time. She criticises the Americans who fish and litter in the lake. To her this act symbolizes capitalistic exploitation.

The novel Surfacing advances, a sustained critic of American imperialism, representing it as a force that commodities and victimizes the natural world. The protagonist identifies herself with the Nature. She says:

I am not an animal or tree, I amthe thingin which the trees and animals move and grow. I am a place. (236)

The mystical assertion signalsrepudiation of anthropocentric supremacy as she reconceives herself as an organic participant within a broader ecological continuum.

To become one with the Nature, she renounces everything. She rejects clothing and canned food. She comes back to the Nature, which enables her to regain her wholeness andrealize her strength. Her stay on the Northern Quebec Island enables her to regain her consciousness of victimization of natural elements. The lake symbolizes the ecological depth. The narrator’s dive into the lake is the symbolic immersion into primordial origins. The landscape is polluted and destroyed by the colonisers, the Americans. She feels that the act of eating of the herons is an exercise of power.

Her search is the search for herself, identity.She rejects to be victimized. Psychoanalysis interprets the novel as narrative of separation. The protagonist looks ather relationship with art teacher as a blow from patriarchy. She sacrifices everything for him. The art teacher seduces her and makes her pregnant. The forced abortion keeps her always restless. She considers herself as a murderer and suffers from a guilt consciousness. She says:

But I bring with me from the distant pass five nights ago, the time traveller, the premaevalone who will have to learnshape of a goldfish now in my belly, undergoing its watery changes.Word furrowspotential already in its proto-brain untravelled paths (249).

She is no more than a dead onedue to the act of an enforced abortion. She feels that her ‘self’ has been divided into two halves. After this betrayal and forced abortion, she decides to live on the Northern Quebec Island to forget the past and its memories.

Postcolonial criticism examines power relations between the colonizers and colonized.The American tourists in Surfacingsymbolizecultural imperialism. She observes them who reduce the sacred landscape to a resource for consumption. They pollute the lake. The wilderness is Canadian identity, which is threatened by technology, moral corruption and capitalist expansion.

The quest of the protagonist is a mythic quest. The lake functions as a womb. Her dive into the lake symbolizes immersion into the womb. Her coming out of waterleads towards the process of transformation. Water purifies her in totality and leads to her survival in the real sense. She is a transformed soul.

The protagonist’s imagination to shed human skinand the repression shows archetypalreturn to origin of life. Her emergence from the wilderness symbolizes the resurrection.

Surfacing is a very wonderful text for interdisciplinary study by applying various disciplines. The novel is a comment on survival, identity and moral responsibility.Through interdisciplinary synthesis Surfacing, conceptualizes survival as a multidimentional construct. Atwood shows that individual,ecological, national healing requires facing truth and cultivating a harmonious relationship with Nature.In the present context of environmental precarity, gender inequalities and accelerating cultural homogenization, Surfacing retains urgent contemporary resonance.

References:

Atwoodb Margaret. Surfacing. London: Virago Press, 2009. Print.
Pratt Annis.“Surfacing and the Rebirth Journey”.The Art of Margaret Atwood:Essays in Criticism. Ed. Cathy N. Davidson and Arnold E.Davidson. Toronto Anansi Press,1981.Print.
VevinaCoomi S. Re/MemberingSelves Alienation and Survival in the Novels of Margaret Atwood and Margaret Laurence. New Delhi: Creative Book, 1996.Print.
Singh Sushila. Joyce Carol Oates and Margaret Atwood: Two Forces of the Two World Feminism. Punjab University Bulletin 18.1(1987) Print.
McCombsJudith.Critical Essays on Margaret Atwood.Boston: G.K.Hall,1988.Print.
RigneyHill. Madness and Sexual Politics in the Feminist Novel: Studies in Bronte,Woolf,Lessing and Atwood. Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin, 1978.Print.
MalashriLal. “Canadian Gynocritics: Context of Meaning in Margaret Atwood’s Surfacing”. Perspectives on Women: Canada and India. Ed.AparnaBasu.New Delhi: Allied Publishers,1995.Print.

The Glimpses of Human Rights and Society in the Novels “Untouchable” and “The God of Small Things”

Daily writing prompt

Have you ever unintentionally broken the law?

View all responses

Dr. Ravindra Ramdas Borse

B.P.Arts, S.M.A. Sci. and K.K.C. Com. College, Chalisgaon

Email: ravindraborse1@gmail.com

ABSTRACT

The present study aims to observe the role of human rights in the societies before and after the independence India. It is studied through the novels of Indian writing in English. Here, it is an attempt to study, discuss and find out the reflection and violation of human rights in Indian society during pre-independence and post-independence period through the Indian fiction in English with reference to the selected novels of Mulk Raj Anand and Arunthati Roy. For this study two novels have been selected, first is “Untouchable” and another one is “The God of Small Things”. Selection of these writers and novels is based on the particular principles and thoughts. The basic criterion of selecting these writers and novels is the issue of “Human Rights”. Both the novels belong to two deferent periods of Indian history still they have a common theme that is humiliation of mankind and violation of human rights in the society. As we know that Mulk Raj Anand is the pioneer of Indian writing in English. He is an eminent writer in the history of Indian English Fiction. He is the first Indian writer who dared to write and raised the voice of deprived people in pre- independent India. On the other hand, Arundhati Roy is an author who belongs to post- independent period of India. In her novel, she tries to show the real picture and approach of Indian literate society and its people towards the poor and backward people through the depiction of Indian cultures and societies. In her novel “The God of Small Things”, she depicted the real picture of Indian people and their approach towards the illiterate and backward class people.

Above mentioned novels have been selected on the basis of following principles:

1. Both the novels focus on different cultures with common agenda.

2. The selected novels depict the plight and pathetic condition of downtrodden people in Indian society before and after the independence.

3. The writers of these novels have concern for underprivileged people.

4. Violation of human rights has been keenly depicted by these authors in above mentioned novels.

5. There is an ample scope for the study of human rights and its violation in India as shown in said novels.

KEYWORDS:

Deprived, underprivileged, downtrodden, human rights, backward, literate, illiterate, pre-independence, post-independence, plight, caste, creed, culture, multi-cultural, multi-lingual.

INTRODUCTION:

“Human Rights” are rights which have been offered to all human beings by birth with the purpose and aim of no discrimination. Without ‘Human Rights’ it’s impossible to the people to leave their life merrily. Each and every member in society needs of it. It helps all the human beings to live with freedom and peace. “Human Rights” can be considered as a basic rights or fundamental rights which have been offered to every individual. These rights are crucial in our life just like the ‘Food’,’ Cloths’ and ‘Shelter’ as the three basic needs of every human beings. Human rights have special significance in India and it also plays a vital role in the country like India. Role of ‘Human Rights” in a country like India is quiet complicated because it’s a large country in the world where people from different caste, culture and religion.

Role of ‘Human Rights” throughout a country like India is quiet complicated because it’s huge country within the world where people from different caste, culture and religion live together.

There are some other issues like population, poverty and lack of education which affect the proper implementation of human rights in India. The true beginning of “Human Rights” can be noticed on 10^th December 1948 at Paris. It is a year when United Nation’s General Assembly accepted and implemented the proposal of ‘Human Rights’ for world. But in India, it has been taken into consideration and implemented on 2^nd October 1993. An aim of ‘Human Rights Commission of India’ is to stop manipulation of Indians by the bureaucracy and safeguard the rights of common people.

As we know, India is multicultural and multilingual country in which people belongs to different caste, culture, community and creed still they live together. Above discussion makes it cleared that India is multi-lingual and multi-culture country. Due to these multi-culture and multi-lingual societies in India there is a chance and possibility to discriminate among the people of high caste and low caste. It has been noticed and observed from the past references that Indian society (in the context of Hinduism) had been divided into class / caste system (Vernas). The people were categorized into four classes / castes (vernas) such as: 1. Brahmin, 2. Kshatriyas, 3. Vaishyas, 4. Shudras. This class or verna system has at less or maximum level been continued in pre and post- independence India which we can notice in society and even in Indian writing as well. The incidents of ‘Human Rights violation in society’ are truly presented in the literary works of Mulk Raj Anand and Arunthati Roy. Number of words and sentences in “Untouchable” and “The God of Small Things” shows it in a cleared manner. For example, the words “Bhangis (Anand, p. 123), Chamars (Anand, p. 132), Harijans (Anand, p. 131) were used in contemporary period for deprived people of society to humiliate them by calling them with the use of their castes. To prove this point we can go through the novel “Untouchable” in which one can find number of examples of such discrimination among the people by the so called upper class society in Indian history from beginning to the present era by reading Indian literature. Indian literature is a mirror of society which reflects and represents Indian society, specially marginalized communities. In this context, the novel “Untouchable” and “The God of Small Things” are appropriate examples of deprived people. These writers shade lights on human rights’ violation in society through their respective novels. The characters sketch of the “Bakha” in ‘Untouchable’ and “Velutha” in ‘The God of Small Things’ are real depiction of underprivileged class in India. The themes of these novels move around these characters only. As we go through the reading of these novels it’s noticed that there is no life, freedom, peace and choice to lower class people in society as every incident in the novels present exploitation and humiliation of characters. Both ‘Bakha and Velutha’ are victims of caste system. Mulk Raj Anand and Arundhati Roy aim to reflect caste system and violation of human rights of these people in India in contemporary periods through the character sketches ‘Bakha and Velutha’. Mahatma Gandhi insisted and asked Mulk Raj Anand to give exposures to the plight of lower class communities in pre-independent India during 1930s. Casteism was a kind of disease in India. Even today, it has been continued in more or less amount directly or indirectly. Lower class people were suppressed by upper class not only by mental torture but also physically and socially. In this regard C.J. George says, “Casteism is a social practice and no Hindu religious leader of any merit and significance would admit it as part of his religion. Giving a place to casteism in Hindu religion is done by certain wolves in sheep’s skin for certain privileges and advantages” (p.40).

Human Rights and Literature (The novels under consideration):

Human rights and literature both are concerned to the human being and play crucial role in society. Progress and development of mankind is the common agenda of human rights and literature. Literature and human rights are age old concepts. The purpose of both of them is to shade light on human life and bring illiterate downtrodden people in to the flow. Thus, we can state that literature and human rights are two different things with same motto. Both try to develop and correlate to mankind. These two are the sources of the study and solutions to human challenges and issues of lower class such as exploitation and manipulation. Human rights and literature are the terms which harmonizing to one other. Therefore, it is necessary to discuss these terms simultaneously. Indian English literature has a tradition of raising issues of contemporary eras. Hereby, an attempt to study human rights perspective through the novels ‘Untouchable’ and ‘The God of Small Things’.

The novel “Untouchable is written by Mulk Raj Anand in 1935. It has been set in pre-independent India. The setting of the novel is of one day episode from morning to evening in which number of events can be observed in the life of low caste communities in colonial period of India. Mulk Raj Anand is one of the pioneers of Indian English Literature who often raised the point of subaltern people through all of his literary work. He is considered a champion of human rights as he depicted the true picture of human psyche in his literary pieces. The very first work of Mulk Raj Anand’s is ‘Untouchable’ where he pointed out the pathetic condition of marginalized people in society who have badly been treated in the Indian community by upper class. The story revolves around the prominent character ‘Bakha’. He is the man who has been fascinated by the upper class people in society. He just tries to imagine and imitate the upper class military officers life for oneself which highly impossible during the colonial India. We can notice the situation of it from the opening lines of the novel which gives us a vivid picture marginalized community and violation of their basic rights in the contemporary period. It can be cleared from the beginning lines of the novel “Untouchable”. The colony of these out caste people was settled in two rows near the cantonment in the town but out of the reach of upper class colony. The upper class people separated their colonies from the marginalised. There lived the scavengers, the grass-cutters and other outcastes from Hindu society” (Anand, p.1). Here, one can get an idea from the quote, how the place of living and the people who have been privileged were differentiated and poorly treated. During the pre-independence period lower class people were not allowed to join or sit with upper class people and it could be the reason of illiteracy and cause of lacking behind in lower class. Because they have never been allow to get an education or join the stream of knowledge which was the only right for upper class society. Education and performing prayers’ to God are the birth rights of upper class only. It was the tendency of upper class people towards lower class. Once Bakha was attracted by the worship “Sri Ram Chandarki Jai” (Long live the Great God Ram) (Anand, p.52). He was fascinated and moved at temple but was caught by the priest who shouted “Polluted, polluted, polluted”(Anand, p. 52). Lower caste people were not allowed to enter in the colonies of upper class. If he had to do so then must announce his arrivals.

“You be sure to shout now, you illegally begotten!” said a shopkeeper from a side, ‘if you have learnt your lesson!’ Bakha hurried away. He felt that everyone was looking at him. He bore the shopkeeper’s abuse silently and went on. A little later he slowed down, and quite automatically he began to shout: ‘Posh keep away, posh, sweeper coming, posh, posh, sweeper coming, posh, posh, sweeper coming!’ (Anand, p.42)

These lines appropriately express the plight and humiliation of Bakha in the novel Untouchable. Mulk Raj Anand in his novel clearly focuses on the treatment of upper class towards untouchables. Each and every page contains number of events that point out violation of human rights. In the novel ‘Untouchable’, it is noticed that even simple touch of untouchable impure the upper class man. “You’ve touched me, he had heard the Lalla say to Bakha, ‘I will have to bathe now and purify myself anyhow. Well, take this for your damned irresponsibility, you son of a swine!” (Anand, p.41). These lines show the mentality of so called upper class during colonized India. Untouchables were supposed to do all the menial work for upper class that is the only thing. In this way, Anand not only tries to sheds light on the upper class people’s attitude towards the lower class but also it is the violation of human rights of untouchables. On the other hand, though Arunthati Roy is a writer of post-independence era but reflection of downtrodden still observed in her novel “The God of Small Things”. The novel has been written in 1997 after the four years of establishment of ‘Human Rights Commission in India”. As we understand the background and professional life of Arundhati Roy it seems quite different to the way she has deal with the theme of “The God of Small Things”. The novel first published in the month of April of 1997 and received “Booker Prize” in the month of October of the same year. Within a short period of six months’ time she got an award for her novel. This is a rarest case in Indian history. It shows the prominence of the theme and her writing. By profession she is architecture and worked as a production designer. The theme and issues of Arundhati Roy’s novel are quite different from the other Indian writers in English. She began her writing carrier after getting separated from her husband after the four years married life. The novel “The God of Small things has its own place in Indian English literature. In the novel, she shades light on the current social issues of marginalized people. Through this novel, she provides exposure to these people and gives a platform to such people. She often tries to bring them in main stream of society as it has been noticed in the novel “The God of Small Things”. The plot of the novel begins with oppressive system of the society. There are two prominent issues we can notice here: one is caste exploitation in the contemporary period after the post-independent India and the second is the love story of a woman of upper caste who fallen in love with untouchable man. The setting of the novel is of Ayemenem, a small city in Kerala. The aim of the writer is to fight for equality and dignity of lower castes and classes in the society. Number of issues of human rights been discussed by her in the novel such as: children’s right, rights of women, rights of Dalit, right to select life partner for marriage and domestic violence.

Conclusion:

To sum up, the present paper is an attempt to sheds light on ‘Human rights and Literature’. Both the elements play crucial role in the life of people and society as well. “Human Rights and Literature” are interconnected and effective elements to understand psychology and traditionally biased mind set human being. At the one side, ‘Human rights’ is the study and guideline for people of society to live their life happily. On the other hand, ‘Literature’ can be strongly considered the manifesto of people in society. Apart from this, one can study, read and observe these novels for the better understanding of human rights and its violation. One can consider these novels as documents of human rights study and also the mirror which shows the real picture of upper class society and their tendency towards lower class. Reading of both the novels helps us to know ‘human rights and violation of it’ through literature as an outcome of society. Thus, it is noticed that the aim of Mulk Raj Anand and Arundhati Roy’s writing is to bring awareness among people of the society about the violation of human rights in real life situations.

REFERENCES:

Agnihotriet al. Trends in Indian English: A Sociolinguistic Perspective. New Delhi: Bahari Publications Pvt. Ltd., 1988.
Anand, Mulk Raj. Untouchable. New Delhi: Penguin Books, 2001.
Basu, Tapan, Translating Caste. New Delhi: Katha 2002.
Baxi, Upendra. The Future of Human Rights.Third Edition. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2008.
Baxi, U.Voices of suffering and the future of human rights.Transnat’l L. & Contemp. Probs., 125, 1998.
Benedek, W..Understanding Human Rights: Manual on Human Rights Education.BWV, Berliner Wiss.-Verlag, 2013.
Boggards, P. Dictionaries for Learners of English.International Journal of Lexicography, Vol.9, No.4. 1996.
.Chakrabarty, Koyel and Beniwal, Anup.“Human Rights and Literature: A Complementary Study in Indian Fiction in English.”International Journal of the Arts in Society.Vol.3. No.5. Common Ground Publishing Ltd. Melbourne: 2009:23-33.
Chakrabarty, Koyel. The Problematics of Human Rights in Indian Fiction in English.Unpublished Ph. D. Thesis. New Delhi: Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University, 2011.
Choondawat, P. S. “Untouchability and Untouchable Youth: A Study in Urban Context” in Singh R. (ed.) The Expressed Classes of India: Problems and prospects. New Delhi: B.R., 1986.
George, C. J. Mulk Raj Anand: His Art and Concerns. New Delhi: Atlantic, 2000.
Hudson, R. Socio-linguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007.
Iyengar, K. R. S. Indian Writing in English. Bombay: Asia Publishing House, 1962.
Roy, Arundhati.The God of Small Things. New Delhi: Penguin Books, 2002.

Semantic Analysis of the Determinologization of Coroneologisms in the Uzbek Language

Daily writing prompt

Have you ever unintentionally broken the law?

View all responses

Citation

Shuhratovna, O. I., & Fernando, R. S. (2026). Semantic Analysis of the Determinologization of Coroneologisms in the Uzbek Language. International Journal of Research, 13(2), 118–124. https://doi.org/10.26643/ijr/2026/37

Ortiqova Iroda Shuhratovna

Uzbekistan State World Languages University

Rosell Sulla Fernando

University of exact and social sciences

ABSTRACT

The 2020–2023 COVID-19 pandemic functioned as a global natural experiment in lexical innovation, rapidly generating emergency-driven terms—coroneologisms—such as lockdown (lokdaun), immunity (immunitet), and remote education (masofaviy ta’lim). Bypassing traditional lexicographic channels, these initially specialized terms quickly spread into everyday discourse, humor, and social media, exemplifying determinologization—the loss of technical specificity as terms enter common usage. Drawing on determinologization theory, Ullmann’s (1962) semantic-change taxonomy, and cognitive semantics within a corpus-assisted framework, this study analyzes the semantic evolution of coroneologisms in Uzbek. It identifies four key mechanisms—broadening, narrowing, metaphorization, and evaluative coloring—and outlines a five-step trajectory from media emergence to institutional codification. The findings show that the pandemic compressed decades of lexical change into just three years, transforming emergency terminology into stable, stylistically versatile elements of the Uzbek lexicon.

Key words: determinologization, coroneologisms, COVID-19, semantic change, Uzbek language, corpus linguistics, broadening, narrowing, metaphorization, evaluative coloring, lexical innovation, crisis communication, lockdown, immunity, remote education, pandemic discourse

The COVID-19 pandemic, which unfolded between 2020 and 2023, is widely recognized not only as a global public health crisis but also as a significant natural experiment in the development of language. In various societies around the world, the overwhelming urgency to name and describe new phenomena – such as lockdowns, PCR testing, remote education, and social-distancing measures – triggered a remarkable wave of ad-hoc lexical formations. These formations often circumvented the conventional processes of approval associated with traditional lexicography. In the context of the Uzbek language, this surge resulted in a cluster of emergency-driven coinages that scholars and journalists have referred to as “coroneologisms” [4], a term that represents a hybrid of “coronavirus” and “neologism.” Many of these newly minted terms began their lives as highly specialized medical or administrative jargon – terms like “ventilator,” “antigen test,” “lockdown,” and “immunity.” However, within a remarkably short span of time, they began to diffuse widely across social media platforms, appearing in hashtags, memes, humorous posts, and even informal conversations among the general public. This rapid transition of specialized terminology into popular discourse serves as a clear example of determinologization—the gradual erosion of a technical term’s limited meaning once it becomes integrated into the fabric of national language [2],[5]. This article seeks to explore the semantic pathways of determinologized coroneologisms in the Uzbek language. It specifically investigates (a) the primary modes of meaning shift – namely broadening, narrowing, metaphorization, and evaluative coloring – that accompanied these terms, and (b) the communicative and social processes that catalyzed or accelerated these transitions. Our analysis is grounded in corpus-assisted evidence derived from media and online discourse, allowing us to describe how a three-year emergency compressed decades of lexical development into a condensed historical timeframe.

Determinologization—a concept originally defined in the field of terminology [2] and further elucidated by L’Homme [3] – describes the process by which a technical or scientific term migrates out of its specialized context and into ordinary language. This movement is rarely neutral; as a term transitions “outside of its domain,” it often loses its precise denotation, acquires additional affective or ideological weight, and undergoes stylistic shifts across both formal and informal registers. To effectively characterize these semantic pathways, this paper employs Ullmann’s [6] framework for classifying semantic change, which is augmented by contemporary research insights regarding cognitive semantic evolution. Four mechanisms of semantic change emerged as particularly salient in this context:

Broadening (Widening): This mechanism refers to the expansion of a technical term’s referential scope, extending far beyond its original definition. For example, the medical term immunitet (biological resistance to disease) developed metaphorical uses signifying any kind of protection or resilience, as in iqtisodiy immunitet “economic immunity” or “institutional immunity to corruption”.

Narrowing (Specialization): This mechanism occurs when a term’s meaning contracts to a more limited subset of its earlier referents. For instance, the English loan lokdaun (< lockdown) originally denoted a range of industrial or security-related shutdowns, but in Uzbek pandemic usage it came to mean only “legally imposed stay-at-home order.” The term ventilator, widely used in headlines as ventilyatsiya qilmoq “to ventilate”, narrowed to refer exclusively to “connecting a patient to artificial lung ventilation.”

Metaphorical Transfer and Re-conceptualization: This mechanism involves projecting concrete imagery from one domain onto other, often more abstract, targets. A notable example is the everyday noun to‘lqin (“wave of water”) was repurposed to describe successive “waves of infection”, producing widely used expressions such as 1-to‘lqin, 2-to‘lqin.

Evaluative Coloring: In this mechanism, terms acquire positive or negative attitudinal elements, often imbued with humor or irony. Combinations such as “Kovidiot” (a blend of “covid” and “idiot”) and the compound antiniqobchi (anti + niqob + -chi) designated “anti-mask activists”, marking not only behaviour but also an ideological position.

These mechanisms collectively illustrate that the transition from specialized phrases to common vocabulary is not a linear process; rather, meanings may expand or contract, take on metaphorical nuances, or become evaluative in response to communicative needs and societal contexts.

The methodology employed in this research is rooted in a corpus-driven descriptive model [1], which emphasizes the analysis of real speech as the primary source of evidence for semantic change. To this end, we constructed a custom corpus comprising a diverse range of Uzbek language news sources, official announcements, online forums, and prominent social media platforms spanning from March 2020 to December 2023. This methodological approach facilitated the investigation of the following dimensions:

– The chronological diffusion of newly coined words across the three-year span of the pandemic;

– The distinguishing differences in register among official media, informal posts, and colloquial speech patterns;

– The profiles of collocations that unveiled new senses and figurative applications of emerging terms;

– Pragmatic signals that indicated humor, stance, or judgment, further elucidating instances of semantic change.

By liberating the analysis from an overreliance on prescriptive dictionary definitions – which have proven inadequate in capturing the dynamism of language evolution – the study aims to articulate what vocabulary has come to signify in public communication, contrasting this with the more static definitions prescribed by traditional dictionaries.

An in-depth analysis of the Uzbek linguistic data reveals that a significant number of high-frequency coroneologisms underwent a five-stage lexical evolution, a process that was notably expedited during the pandemic due to the prevailing sociolinguistic conditions:

Stage 1 – Media Seeding: In the initial shock phase of the pandemic (March–May 2020), the urgent need for communication led to the borrowing of English terms such as “lockdown,” “PCR test,” “ventilator,” and “mask regime.” These terms were rapidly integrated into Uzbek headlines, hashtags, and memes, where the immediacy of communication took precedence over adherence to orthographic or morphological consistency.

Stage 2 – Morpho-Phonemic Adaptation: As the usage of these borrowed terms began to stabilize, a process of nativization ensued. This involved alterations to stress patterns to conform to Uzbek linguistic standards, the simplification of consonant clusters, and the adoption of Latin script conventions in spelling. For instance, “RT-PCR” became simplified to “PZR,” and “lockdown” was adapted to “lokdaun.”

Stage 3 – Semantic Dilution and Metaphorization: During this stage, common words began to expand or mutate either metaphorically or in terms of their general application to biomedical contexts. The term “to’lqin,” for example, began appearing in headlines describing “a wave of layoffs,” while “karantin” evolved into shorthand for any form of restrictive regulation.

Stage 4 – Lexicographic Recognition: From 2021 to 2022, several key terms, including “lockdown,” “distance learning,” “PCR test,” and “immunity,” were officially recognized and included in the COVID-19 Explanatory Dictionary.

Stage 5 – Pedagogical / Institutional Stabilization: Ultimately, these terms found their way into educational materials such as school textbooks, teachers’ guides, and civil-service style manuals, as well as journalistic glossaries. This integration reflected a full incorporation of these expressions into the Uzbek lexical system. A key finding of this research is that the shift from impromptu borrowing to institutionally codified lexis was accomplished within a mere three-year timeframe. This indicates that the exigencies of crisis-driven speech have the potential to accelerate lexical development that would typically unfold over decades. The pathway also highlights that determinologization is not only structural but also emergent, influenced by local communicative urgency, institutional acceptance, and societal prominence.

Beyond merely structuring the semantic transformations discussed, the Uzbek coroneologisms exhibited four reiterative communicative and pragmatic roles that account for their swift proliferation within the language:

Economy of Expression: The newly introduced forms, which were predominantly borrowed, provided concise and readily comprehensible labels for concepts that may have been unfamiliar to the general public. Terms that required longer descriptive phrases, such as “online schooling” and “PCR diagnostic test,” were efficiently replaced with these shorter alternatives, thereby facilitating effective public communication within both media narratives and healthcare discussions.

Stance-Marking and Evaluation: Several terms adopted pejorative or ironic connotations during the politically charged periods of the crisis. For example, “covidiot” (a fusion of “covid” and “idiot”) became associated with individuals who disregarded safety protocols. Additionally, the slang term “remotka” (meaning “remote work”) emerged with a mildly humorous or dismissive tone, while “anti-niqobchi” explicitly indexed ideological opposition to mask mandates.

Group Identity and Solidarity: Some terms evolved into in-group codes that reflected the collective experiences of lockdown, distance learning, and online communication. The productive phrase “meeting up on Zoom” transformed into a rallying cry among social groups, encapsulated in expressions like “zumlashmoq” This development fostered conversation and unity among individuals navigating the challenges of isolation.

Humor and Coping: Lexical blends such as “quarantini” (a combination of “quarantine” and “martini”) and the incorporation of slang terms like “doomscrolling” provided a playful linguistic outlet for navigating anxiety and boredom. These terms thus served as coping mechanisms, contributing to stress-relief strategies in an otherwise challenging context.

These pragmatic functions underscore that the determinologized pandemic vocabulary was not merely a referential identity but also a valuable resource for stance-taking, community-building, and coping mechanisms amidst the crisis.

Table 1

№	*Term*	*Expansion on the meaning*
	Pandemiya	Shifted from strictly medical to any globally spreading phenomenon (“infodemic”, “pandemic of fear”).
	Koronavirus	Became a generic label for any contagious trouble; often used metaphorically (“a coronavirus of bad habits”).
	COVID-19	Extended to denote cause, blame, or time-marker (“because of covid”, “covid generation”).
	Vaksina	Metaphorised into “silver-bullet solution” for non-medical crises (“education vaccine”, “economic vaccine”).
	Imunitet	Broadened to any system’s defensive capacity (“tax immunity”, “bank immunity”).
	Karantin	Re-semanticised to mean any restrictive measure or even punitive isolation.
	Izolyatsiya	Moved from clinical isolation to everyday social distancing and on-line modes (“isolation lessons”).
	Lockdaun	Imported as-is; now also describes total shutdowns in business or mental states (“mental lockdown”).
	Antitela	Used figuratively for ideological or emotional resistance (“antibodies to negativity”).
	Epidemiya	Generalised to any rapidly spreading trend (“epidemic of errors”, “epidemic of selfies”).
	Masofani saqlash	Physical distance became a metaphor for emotional coolness in relationships.
	Gigiyena	Hygiene concept expanded to information & mental spheres (“info-hygiene”, “sleep hygiene”).
	Dezinfektsiya	Disinfection now covers cleansing of fake news or toxic content.
	Simptom	Clinical sign → any visible indicator of systemic problems (“symptoms of economic crisis”).
	Test	Narrow lab procedure turned into generic verb “to test” and synonym for any quick check.
	Immunitet pasayishi	Immunological drop re-interpreted as weakening resilience in economics or organisations.
	PCR	Acronym became a household verb meaning “to swab-test” regardless of method.
	Antigen	Technical term now stands metonymically for rapid-test devices themselves.
	Ventilyator	Life-support machine → metaphor for any critical external support (“financial ventilator”).
	Post-pandemiya	Temporal phase converted into a cultural label for “new normal” behaviours and policies.
	To‘lqin	Originally “wave” of water; pandemic discourse turned it into numbered surges (“third wave”) and now any periodic spike (“price wave”, “jobless wave”).
	Zumlashmoq	Pure Uzbek verb “to accelerate”; during the crisis it shifted from physical speeding-up to rapid scaling of remote work, vaccination drives, or digital services (“business zumlandi”).

The findings derived from the Uzbek data demonstrate that the process of lexical borrowing, catalyzed by a crisis, can significantly accelerate the phenomenon of semantic and pragmatic diversification. This process enables the transformation of technical medical terminology into broadly stylistic and affectively expressive components of everyday vocabulary. The outlined five-step trajectory, which encompasses the initial seeding of terms in media and their subsequent institutional codification, illustrates the complex nature of this social mediation process. It becomes evident that determinologization is not merely a function of lexical evolution but is socially mediated through communicative urgency, varying attitudes, and policy decisions. By combining determinologization theory, Ullmann’s semantic-change taxonomy, and a corpus-assisted methodology, this study presents a condensed lifecycle of lexical evolution that would typically require decades to develop. The results underscore the necessity for dynamic lexicographic practices and language-planning methods that are capable of responding swiftly to future public health or technological emergencies. An organized record of rapid lexical evolution, such as the analysis presented here, contributes to our understanding of how and why national languages maintain their flexibility and functional resilience in the face of global crises.

References

Baker, M. (2011). In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation (2nd ed.). Routledge. 353 p.
Felber, H. (1984). Terminology Manual. UNESCO. 457 p.
L’Homme, M.-C. (2020). Lexical Semantics for Terminology: An Introduction (3rd ed.). John Benjamins / De Boeck.
Nasirova, M. F. (2023). COVID 19 pandemiyasi davrida vujudga kelgan neologizmlar Oriental Renaissance: Innovative, educational, natural and social sciences . Volume 3. Issue11.
Sager, J. C. (1990). A Practical Course in Terminology Processing. John Benjamins.
Ullmann, S. (1962). Semantics: An Introduction to the Science of Meaning. Blackwell.

Analysing the Perception of Violence in Walker’s Short Story Collection In Love and Trouble: Stories of Black Women

Daily writing prompt

Have you ever unintentionally broken the law?

View all responses

Dr. Ireshadsaheb Usmansaheb Shaikh

U. P. Arts and Science College, Dahiwel, Dhule (M.S.) Dec. 2025

ireshad.shaikh11@gmail.com

Abstract: Alice Walker is a renowned African American novelist, poet, short-story writer, and social activist.She became known worldwide with the publication of her seminal work, The Colour Purple. She is regarded as a radical black feminist author. She propagated her theory of womanism in her stories. Violence is a recurring theme in her stories. Walker’s narratives demonstrate the hardships, tribulations, and dilemmas faced by African American immigrants in the United States. Alice Walker’s short story collections explore the theme of violence, particularly as it relates to women of color during the era of chattel slavery in the United States. Women of colour have historically been subjected to violence by both white and black men. While violence against black women is dehumanising, their resistance offers the possibility of a new identity. Walker exposes the traumatic lives of black women resisting oppression and violence in her short story collections in various forms, such as physical, mental, self-inflicted, and societal violence.

Keywords: Violence, Oppression, Resistance, Resilience, Mammies, Emotional abuse, Sexual harassment.

Alice Walker is a versatile and globally recognised American author, best known for her Pulitzer Prize-winning novel The Color Purple (1982). She is regarded as a radical feminist writer and is known for formulating Womanism, also known as Black Feminism. Walker believed that the feminist movement was primarily owned by white women, leaving little room for women of colour, as white feminists often failed to acknowledge or relate to the experiences of Black women. Along with other Black feminist critics, she helped develop a feminist theory that includes the issues and problems of women of colour. For Black feminists, race and class are as vital as gender is for white feminists. Racial and gender discrimination have equally contributed to the dehumanisation of women of colour, prompting efforts to dismantle racist structures.

A recurring theme in Alice Walker’s short story collection In Love and Trouble: Stories of Black Women(1973) is the testament of the exercise of verbal and physical violence against women of colour in the public and domestic spheres. She lays bare the truth of crafting an image of a Black woman as subhuman, unworthy of empathy, asexual, servile, angry, and bestial. Despite being labelled as inhuman, these women persist in asserting their voices and expressing pride in their cultural heritage. Walker’s narratives demonstrate the hardships, tribulations, and dilemmas faced by African American immigrants in the United States. Through these experiences, Walker’s Black female characters endure racism and ultimately gain the strength to challenge and dismantle oppressive patriarchal structures within American society.

Alice Walker’s short story collections explore the theme of violence, particularly as it relates to women of colour during the era of chattel slavery in the United States. Enslaved women were often subjected to dehumanising stereotypes, being labelled as breeders, mammies, jezebels, hoochie mamas, and sapphires. In her stories, Walker delineates these negative perceptions. Representations of Black women in art, literature, and popular culture have frequently depicted them as strong, masculine, bulky, boisterous, and angry, which has contributed to the notion that they could endure or were susceptible to violence. In the story ‘Everyday Use,’ a mother describes herself as,

“a large, big-boned woman with rough, man-working hands……. I can kill and clean a hog as mercilessly as a man. My fat keeps me hot in zero weather. I can work outside all day, breaking ice to get water for washing; I can eat pork liver cooked over the open fire minutes after it comes steaming from the hog. One winter I knocked a bull calf straight in the brain between the eyes with a sledgehammer and had the meat hung up to chill before nightfall.” (Walker 46)

A prominent example of colonial and racial exploitation in European history is the case of Sarah Baartman, who was paraded and exhibited half-naked in street shows in London and Paris around 1811. Crowds were invited to observe her body, described as large, uncommon, and erotic, and she was labelled the ‘Hottentot Venus’. After her death, her body parts were preserved in jars and displayed in a museum. This violence was perpetuated by the dissemination of negative images of black women. Baartman’s narrative documents abuse, violence, sexual harassment, and rape. The construction of a false narrative about women of colour was intended to coerce them into inhumane and degrading conditions, thereby normalising violence against them and discouraging resistance. Women of colour have historically been subjected to violence by both white and black men. While violence against black women is dehumanising, their resistance offers the possibility of a new identity. In “Her Sweet Gerome”, the black female protagonist is described as a “big awkward woman, with big bones and hard rubbery flesh” (Walker 26) and endures domestic violence. Her husband physically abuses her and fails to recognise her as an equal partner. She gives him all her money and attempts to conceal the visible marks of abuse with makeup. She married him for his perceived gentlemanly behaviour towards other women and initially felt proud to be his wife, but his actions ultimately contradict this image. Although he is a civil rights activist, he beats her “black and blue” (Walker 27), yet the community continues to regard him as a gentleman.

Walker exposes the harshness of black men even as they fight for their own rights, highlighting the violation of the protagonist’s rights. He never treats her as a wife; when she seeks affection, he responds with violence. He also inherits her father’s money. Despite enduring his violent and abusive behaviour and spending all her resources, she becomes distraught upon discovering his affairs with other women. In her search for the truth, she realises his obsession with the Civil Rights Movement and the black revolution. In a moment of heartbreak, she destroys his books with a knife and sets fire to the bedroom. “Overwhelming with pain,” she hides her face behind her slightly burned hands and “screamed and screamed” (Walker 34).

“The Child Who Favored Daughter” depicts the severe abuse, crime, and violence experienced by women of colour at the hands of both white masters and black men. The narrative centres on the suffering of three women. The story begins with a black man described as “father, judge and giver of life” (Walker 35) who has a daughter named Daughter. In his youth, his sister, also named Daughter, fell in love with his white master, who treated them inhumanely. She is described as “like honey, tawny, wild and sweet,” and her brother cared for her deeply. Despite his pleas, she left with the white man. She later returned, accompanied by another woman’s husband, appearing hysterical and profoundly changed. She had lost her long hair, “her teeth wobbled in her gums when she ate,” and no longer recognised anyone. She sang continuously and was “tied on the bed as she was at the mercy of everyone.” To keep her silent at night, her father beat her with a belt. Eventually, she was found dead on the compound spikes.

The narrative describes a man who, overwhelmed by his emotions, violently abuses his wife, ultimately causing her death and leaving behind a daughter. This daughter, depicted metaphorically as a flower, mirrors her mother’s fate by falling in love with a white man. Upon discovering this, the father subjects her to prolonged physical abuse, as described: “he beats her for a long time with a harness from the stable, and where the buckles hit, there is a welling of blood that comes to be level with the tawny skin, the spill over and falls” (Walker 43). The violence continues the following morning, culminating in further brutality: “he sees her blouse, wet and slippery from the rain, has slipped completely off her shoulders and her high young breast is bare.” In a frenzied state, he “gathers their fullness in his fingers……. he is suddenly burning with unnamable desire……draws the girl away from him pulling off his own arm and with quick slashes of his knife leaves two bleeding craters the size of grapefruits on her bare bronze chest and flings……to the yelping dogs” (Walker 43). Walker poignantly narrates the girl’s traumatic experience, drawing a comparison to flowers and emphasizing her defiance: “flowers pledge no allegiance to the banners of any man” (Walker 44). The story explores the pervasive violence faced by women of colour, particularly within familial and romantic relationships. Walker’s narratives detail the profound suffering of black women as they navigate relationships with fathers, brothers, husbands, and lovers, striving to survive and find meaning within oppressive circumstances.

“The Welcome Table” exposes the racist and violent actions of white individuals toward a poor, elderly Black woman in the American South. The protagonist attempts to pray at a church, but, due to her age and mental state, she does not realise it is a church designated exclusively for white congregants. Convinced that her devotion to Jesus Christ will protect her, she enters, only to be forcibly removed by members of the congregation. She experiences humiliation and injury and is found dead beside the road the following day. The narrative highlights her deprivation of human rights and the community’s indifference to her suffering and the injustice she endures. Similarly, “Flowers” depicts the realities of violence, lynching, and segregation during the Civil Rights Movement. White individuals would often fabricate accusations of rape against Black men to justify lynching, which served as a tool to degrade and dehumanise Black communities. The story follows Myop, a young girl who discovers the body of a lynched Black man, leading to her loss of innocence as she confronts the brutal realities of racial violence. Her stories are poignant and address themes of physical violence, beatings, fear, threats, the threat of rape, lynching, and death.

The story “The Revenge of Hannah Kemmhuff” explores the theme of physical violence. Here, the protagonist, Hannah, is physically abused by her husband, leading to a dramatic and violent confrontation. “Really, Doesn’t Crime Pay?” is another powerful story in Walker’s collection that deals with emotional abuse. The protagonist, Roselily, is trapped in an oppressive marriage with a man who emotionally manipulates and controls her, while another man in her life destroys her creativity by stealing her manuscript of stories. Stories like “Roselily”, “Everyday Use”, “The Welcome Table”, “Strong Horse Tea”, and “The Diary of an African Nun” demonstrate the societal violence, through systemic racism and sexism, confronted by women of colour, making them prone to violence and oppression. Stories like “Entertaining God’ and “We Drank Wine in France” reveal the theme of self-inflicted violence. Walker’s female characters struggle with internalised oppression, leading to self-destructive behaviours.Walker’s stories expose dark realities of the experiences of women of colour, filled with violence and subordination. Her stories attest to the resistance and resilience of women of colour.

Reference:

Allaham, Ali Ahmad. “The Short Story As a Form of Resistance :A Study of the Short Stories of Ghassan Kanafani, Ngugi Wa Thiong’o, and Alice Walker.” 2009, https://core.ac.uk/download/153778714.pdf.
Bagabas, Riham. “Analyzing “The Welcome Table” by Alice Walker from a WomanistPerspective.” 2022.Christian, Barbara. “The Contrary Women of Alice Walker.” The Black Scholar, 1981, pp. 21–71, doi:117.240.50.232. Accessed 4 Dec. 2025.
Collins, Patricia Hill. “What’s in a Name? Womanism, Black Feminism and Beyond.” The Black Scholar, vol. 26, no. 1, 2001, pp. 9–26.
Harris, Trudier. “Folklore in the Fiction of Alice Walker: A Perpetuation of Historical and Literary Traditions.” Black American Literature Forum, vol. 11, no. 1, 1977, pp. 3–8. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/3041531. Accessed 13 Mar. 2024.
Harrison, Jade M. “The Core Four: An Examination of Contemporary Black Women\U27s Writing in The Norton Anthology of African American Literature.” 2019, https://core.ac.uk/download/635587962.pdf.
Hubbard, Dolan. “Society and Self in Alice Walker’s ‘In Love and Trouble.’” Obsidian II, vol. 6, no. 2, Summer 1991, pp. 50–75. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/44485248. Accessed 4 Dec. 2025.
Mickelson, Anne Z. Reaching Out: Sensitivity and Order in Recent American Fiction by Women. Scarecrow Press, 1979.
Morrison, Toni. Playing in the Dark: Whiteness and the Literary Imagination. Harvard University Press, 1992.
Murugan, Seema. The Fiction of Alice Walker: A Study of Black Images. Authors Press, 2008.
Petry, Alice Hall. “Alice Walker: The Achievement of the Short Fiction.” Modern Language Studies, vol. 19, no. 1, Winter 1989, pp. 12–27. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/3195263. Accessed 4 Dec. 2025.
Ross, Sinclair. “Racism.” Oxford Reference, Oxford University Press, http://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20111012125231893. Accessed 8 Dec. 2025.
Walker, Alice. The Color Purple. 10th ed., Phoenix, 1982.
The Complete Stories. 1994. Phoenix, 2005.
In Search of Our Mothers’ Gardens. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1983.
Weida, Kaz. “Womanism.” Encyclopedia Britannica, 5 Dec. 2023, http://www.britannica.com/topic/womanism.
Winchell, Donna Haisty. Alice Walker. Twayne Publishers, 1992.

Accessed January 6, 2025.

Indian Women’s Historical Role in 21st Century

Daily writing prompt

Share one of the best gifts you’ve ever received.

View all responses

Prof. Dr. Yogesh Jagannath Korde (Associate Professor, Dept.of History)

Uttamrao Patil Arts and Science College, Dahiwel, Tal. Sakri, Dist. Dhule.

Email: kordeyj10@gmail.com Mob. 7588735543 / 9423906366

Introduction:

In Indian culture, women have been considered symbols of respect, honor, and maternal power. From the Vedic period to the modern era, women have been given an important place in the formation of family, society, and culture. However, looking at the actual socio-political reality, women have often been given a secondary position. Although women are respected in the religious and cultural spheres, their participation in the social, economic, and especially political spheres has remained limited, which is a significant contradiction facing Indian democracy.

The contribution of women to the Indian freedom struggle is invaluable and inspiring. Many women like Rani Lakshmibai of Jhansi, Kasturba Gandhi, Sarojini Naidu, Annie Besant, and Vijayalakshmi Pandit actively participated in the freedom movement. They not only participated in movements and satyagrahas but also played a crucial role in the dissemination of national ideology, organization building, and leadership. However, in the post-independence period, especially in parliamentary politics, the representation of women has not increased as expected. A review of Indian politics over the approximately seven decades since independence shows that political power and decision-making processes are still primarily male-dominated. With a few notable exceptions, most women leaders in politics are connected to a family political background. Many women have risen to prominence due to the political legacy of their fathers, husbands, or other influential male leaders in their families. This raises questions about the independent leadership capabilities of women.

Although reservations have been provided for women in local self-governing bodies, in practice, concepts like ‘Sarpanch’s husband’ and ‘Councillor’s husband’ are prevalent in many places. This makes women’s political participation merely formal, and men continue to dominate the actual decision-making process. This situation is alarming from the perspective of gender equality in Indian democracy. Men and women are considered two equal wheels of the chariot of society. To achieve the all-round development of the nation, it is essential to provide equal opportunities, equal rights, and equal responsibilities to both these components. However, even today, women do not receive political representation proportionate to their population. Therefore, the subject of ‘women and politics’ becomes a crucial research topic, not only socially but also politically, constitutionally, and in relation to democratic values. Against this backdrop, this research attempts to study the position, participation, contribution, and current status of women in Indian politics. The main objective of this study is to underscore the importance of women’s political participation in making Indian democracy more inclusive, egalitarian, and robust.

Research Goal:

The main objective of this research is to conduct an in-depth and critical study of the status, participation, leadership opportunities, and role of women in the decision-making process within Indian politics. By analyzing the contributions of Indian women to the political field since independence, the opportunities they have received, and the patriarchal mindset that still exists, this research aims to clarify the current state of women’s political empowerment.

Research Objectives:

1) To review the historical contributions of women in Indian politics and analyze their participation from the freedom movement to the present day.

2) To study the representation of women in Parliament, state legislatures, the cabinet, and top constitutional positions (President, Prime Minister, Chief Minister, etc.).

3) To examine the influence of family political legacy and patriarchal power structures on women’s entry into and progress in politics.

4) To review the work and leadership qualities of prominent women political leaders in Maharashtra and India.

Research Methodology:

Historical Method: The historical method has been used to trace the journey, contributions, and changing roles of women in Indian politics from the pre-independence era to the present day.

Data Collection Tools:

For this research, data has been collected based on primary and secondary sources. Primary sources: Constitutional provisions, parliamentary proceedings, and government reports. Secondary sources: Books on political science and sociology, research papers, journals and magazines, newspapers, articles, and reliable websites.

Importance of the Subject:

Equal participation of men and women is crucial for the robustness of the Indian democratic system. Despite women constituting nearly half of the Indian population, their participation in the political decision-making process is disproportionately low. Therefore, the subject of “Women and Politics” is not merely limited to academic study but is of paramount importance from the perspective of social, political, and democratic values. Men and women are the two inseparable wheels of the chariot of society, and if one wheel is neglected, the nation’s journey becomes unbalanced. Increased active participation of women in politics can lead to greater sensitivity in policy-making, giving more priority to social justice, education, health, women and child welfare, environment, and grassroots issues. This helps in making democracy more inclusive, representative, and effective. The contributions of women in the freedom struggle, as well as the leadership demonstrated by women like Indira Gandhi, Pratibha Patil, Jayalalithaa, Mamata Banerjee, and Mayawati in high positions after independence, clearly show that women’s capabilities are in no way inferior to those of men. Yet, the fact that women are still given a secondary role in Indian politics is a matter of concern. Studying this inconsistency and investigating the underlying social, cultural, and political reasons is essential. Although the reservation system in local self-governing bodies has increased women’s participation, in many places, the indirect dominance of men in actual power is still evident. Therefore, this research underscores the need for not just quantitative representation, but also meaningful and independent political empowerment of women. The main objective of this research is to present the current situation of women in Indian politics from a realistic perspective, to highlight the inequalities based on data, and to stimulate positive policy discussions for increasing women’s political participation in the future. Therefore, this research proves useful in creating social awareness and encouraging policymakers, scholars, and political parties to introspect.

Overall, women’s participation in politics is not merely a matter of women’s rights, but a fundamental basis for the quality of democracy, national progress, and social balance. Hence, the topic of women and politics is of paramount importance and remains highly relevant and necessary in the context of contemporary Indian society.

Despite women’s valuable contributions at the political, social, and national levels from the freedom movement to modern times, their participation in decision-making processes appears to be limited. The reality that women’s representation is extremely low at all levels of the highest positions in Indian democracy—President, Prime Minister, Vice President, Deputy Prime Minister, Speaker of the Lok Sabha, Chief Minister—cannot be denied. With a few notable exceptions, it is observed that the majority of women leaders have emerged based on their family’s political background. This highlights the patriarchal mindset and structural obstacles in Indian politics.

Although reservations have been provided for women in local self-governing bodies, in reality, women’s representation remains formal in many places, and their independent participation in decision-making is limited. Social customs, lack of education, economic dependence, and lack of political training are important reasons behind this.

However, women leaders like Indira Gandhi, Pratibha Patil, Jayalalithaa, Mamata Banerjee, Mayawati, Nirmala Sitharaman, and Sushma Swaraj have proven through their efficiency, leadership qualities, and decisive roles that Indian women can capably handle the highest responsibilities. Their work has helped dispel misconceptions about women’s leadership abilities. Overall, this research clearly shows that despite women’s undeniable contribution to Indian politics, they do not receive representation proportionate to their population. If we want to improve the quality of democracy and achieve the all-round development of the nation, it is essential to give women equal participation in the decision-making process, rather than limiting them merely to reservations. Providing women with political education, leadership training, and independent opportunities will make Indian politics more balanced, sensitive, and inclusive. Therefore, considering women and men as two equal wheels of the chariot of society, implementing concrete policy measures for the political empowerment of women is the need of the hour. Only then will it be possible to build a truly egalitarian and robust democracy.

References:

1) Diwan, Mohan; Devdhar, Jayant; Diwani, Vivek (2004), Politics of States in India.

Nagpur: Vidya Prakashan,

2) Government of Maharashtra (2017), Maharashtra Yearbook. Produced by Directorate General of Information and Public Relations, Mumbai–32,

3) Palshikar, Suhas; Birmal, Nitin, Politics of Maharashtra: Local Context. Pune: Pratima Prakashan,

4) Shinde, Sahadev; Chogule, Sahadev Patheya (Part–3). Kolhapur: Diksha Publication,

5) Mehendale, Vishwas, Yashwantrao Chavan to Prithviraj Chavan. Anubandh Prakashan,

6) Patil, Amritrao, Khandesh Lok Sabha. Jalgaon: Prashant Publication,

7) Women and Political Issues Jaipur: ABD Publication,

Myth and Folklore in Naga-Mandala by Girish Karnad

Daily writing prompt

Who are your favorite people to be around?

View all responses

Vijay Tulshiram Jadhav

Department of English

Mahatma Gandhi Vidya Mandir, Karamveer Bhausaheb Hiray Arts, Science and Commerce College, Nimgaon, Tal–Malegaon, Dist.–Nashik

Email: vjadhav8390@gmail.com

Abstract

Girish Karnad is a major figure in modern Indian English theatre, known for his effective use of Indian myths, history, and folklore to examine contemporary social issues. Rather than merely retelling traditional stories, Karnad reshapes them to address problems related to marriage, gender relations, and individual identity. His play Naga-Mandala (1988), which is based on two Kannada folktales, is a clear example of this creative method.

This paper examines how myth and folklore function as important narrative devices in Naga-Mandala. Through symbols such as the serpent (Naga), magic roots, the anthill, and the Raat-Rani flower, Karnad brings attention to the suppressed emotional and sexual experiences of women within a patriarchal social system. These symbolic elements expose the emotional distance, moral weakness, and hypocrisy that often exist within male-dominated institutions, especially marriage. The contrast between the socially respected but emotionally indifferent husband and the caring mythical lover highlights the failure of patriarchal masculinity to provide emotional fulfilment.

The paper argues that Naga-Mandala uses folklore as a means of feminist expression by giving space to women’s inner experiences and desires. At the same time, it also reveals the limitations of traditional belief systems, as women’s acceptance depends on social and ritual approval. By combining oral folk traditions with modern theatrical form, Karnad shows that myth continues to be a meaningful and effective medium in contemporary Indian English drama.

Keywords: Girish Karnad, myth, folklore, patriarchy.

Introduction

After India’s independence, Indian English drama gradually moved away from Western dramatic models and began to draw inspiration from indigenous cultural sources. Playwrights started using myths, history, and folklore to express social tensions, psychological conflicts, and postcolonial concerns. Among these playwrights, Girish Karnad holds an important place because of his ability to reinterpret traditional stories in a modern and critical manner.

Karnad does not simply retell myths; he questions them. His plays examine the power structures and social values hidden within traditional narratives. Naga-Mandala (1988) is a strong example of this approach. The play is based on oral folktales that are usually told by women within domestic spaces. By transforming these stories into a modern play, Karnad explores issues of patriarchy, marriage, and female desire. Unlike classical myths that focus on male heroes, the folktales used in Naga-Mandala arise from marginal voices, especially those of women, and therefore challenge dominant cultural traditions.

Research Objectives and Methodology

Research Objectives

The objectives of this paper are:

To examine how myth and folklore operate as narrative tools in Naga-Mandala.
To study the symbolic meaning of elements such as the serpent, magic roots, anthill, and the Raat-Rani flower.
To explore how Karnad uses women-centred folktales to question patriarchal marriage systems.
To establish Naga-Mandala as a feminist reinterpretation of folklore in modern Indian English drama.

Methodology

This study follows a qualitative method of textual analysis. It makes use of:

Myth criticism, especially Northrop Frye’s ideas about archetypes,
Feminist literary criticism focusing on gender, power, and sexuality, and
Folklore studies, particularly the oral traditions discussed by A. K. Ramanujan.

The primary text for analysis is Naga-Mandala. Secondary sources include critical writings on Karnad, Indian theatre, mythology, and feminist theory.

Girish Karnad and the Use of Myth and Folklore

Girish Karnad’s plays regularly use myths, legends, and folktales to explore modern human problems. In Tughlaq, he presents the conflict between political idealism and failure. In Hayavadana, myth becomes a means to explore questions of identity and completeness. In Naga-Mandala, however, Karnad shifts his attention from classical myths to folktales that come from women’s oral traditions.

These folktales are often seen as simple or insignificant, but they express deep emotional truths about women’s lives. By presenting them on the modern stage, Karnad gives importance to voices that are usually ignored. Folklore thus becomes a medium through which suppressed experiences are expressed and social norms are questioned.

Literature Review

Many critics have discussed Karnad’s use of myth and folklore. Aparna Dharwadker explains that Karnad’s plays create a balance between tradition and modernity, using myth as a space for social and ideological debate rather than mere cultural revival. Meenakshi Mukherjee points out that Indian English writers often adapt traditional narratives to address contemporary social issues.

K. Ramanujan’s work on Indian folktales is particularly important for understanding Naga-Mandala. He observes that folktales often preserve women’s suppressed emotions and experiences, especially in relation to marriage and sexuality. While earlier studies recognize the role of folklore in Naga-Mandala, they pay limited attention to how women’s desire and agency are expressed through symbols. This paper attempts to focus on this aspect.

The Serpent (Naga) Myth and Patriarchal Masculinity

In Indian mythology, the serpent or Naga is commonly associated with fertility, renewal, and masculine power. Karnad reshapes this symbol to question traditional ideas of masculinity. The Naga, who takes the form of Appanna at night, shows affection, care, and sexual sensitivity—qualities missing in the real Appanna.

Appanna enjoys respect in society but lacks emotional depth. His cold behaviour towards Rani reveals the emptiness of patriarchal authority, which values control over emotional connection. The Naga’s presence brings emotional and physical fulfillment into Rani’s life, showing how patriarchal systems deny women genuine intimacy.

Magic Roots, Anthill, and Transformation

Magic roots are common in Indian myths and usually symbolize fertility and change. In Naga-Mandala, the blind woman Kurudavva gives Rani a magic root to awaken Appanna’s desire. When it fails, it exposes Appanna’s emotional weakness. Rani throws the root into an anthill, which leads to the awakening of the Naga.

The anthill acts as a symbol of birth and transformation. Rani’s accidental action leads to a major change in her life. This suggests that nature and folklore offer possibilities of change that rigid social rules do not allow.

Marriage and Patriarchy: A Critical Reading

Marriage in Naga-Mandala is shown not as a sacred relationship but as a social system that supports male dominance. Appanna’s good reputation in society hides his cruel behaviour at home. Rani’s silence in the beginning reflects how women often accept oppression as normal.

The Naga’s role challenges the belief that marriage alone ensures happiness. By presenting an alternative emotional relationship, Karnad exposes the emotional emptiness of patriarchal masculinity.

Folklore as Feminist Resistance

Rani does not openly rebel against her situation, yet folklore works as a silent force that empowers her. At the end of the play, her transformation into a goddess shows how myth validates women’s experiences even when logic and reality fail to do so.

At the same time, Karnad remains critical. Rani’s acceptance by society depends on a test of purity, showing that folklore can support patriarchal values as well. This double nature of folklore makes the play complex and realistic rather than idealistic

Conclusion

Naga-Mandala clearly shows Girish Karnad’s skill in using myth and folklore to examine social realities. By focusing on women’s oral narratives, the play highlights the emotional suffering caused by patriarchy and the neglect of women’s desires. Myth becomes both a means of resistance and a reflection of social contradictions.

Karnad neither blindly supports tradition nor completely rejects it. Instead, he questions its values and power structures. Through Naga-Mandala, he connects the past with the present and confirms the importance of myth in modern Indian theatre. The play establishes Karnad as a major voice in Indian English drama who successfully combines tradition with critical insight.

References

Karnad, Girish. Naga-Mandala: Play with a Cobra. Oxford University Press, 1990.

Dharwadker, Aparna. Theatres of Independence: Drama, Theory, and Urban Performance in India since 1947. Oxford University Press, 2005.

Mukherjee, Meenakshi. The Twice Born Fiction. Heinemann, 1971.

Ramanujan, A. K. Folktales from India. Pantheon Books, 1991.

Frye, Northrop. Anatomy of Criticism. Princeton University Press, 1957.

Beauvoir, Simone de. The Second Sex. Vintage, 1989.

Diasporic Consciousness in Bharati Mukherjee’s Wife

Daily writing prompt

Are you patriotic? What does being patriotic mean to you?

View all responses

Dr. Dinesh P. Patil and Miss. Shiba Akhtar Khan

Appasaheb R. B. Garud Arts, Commerce, and Science College, Shendurni. Tal. Jamner.

Email ID: dinesh.p.patil@gmail.com, shibakhan0290@gmail.com

Abstract

This research paper explores diasporic consciousness through Bharati Mukherjee’s novel Wife, which follows Dimple Dasgupta, a young Indian woman navigating the complex realities of immigration in the United States. It discusses how migration heightens issues of identity crisis, cultural displacement, alienation, and gendered oppression. The novel depicts the emotional and cultural confusions faced by immigrants, balancing inherited traditions with assimilation pressures in a foreign land. The analysis shows Mukherjee’s portrayal of diasporic consciousness as a fragmented state characterized by alienation, identity struggles, and cultural disturbance. Dimple’s attempt to reconcile her expectations of marriage, self-identity, and freedom with patriarchal constraints and racial marginalization reveals gendered aspects of the diaspora. The paper argues that Mukherjee depicts diasporic consciousness as a traumatic, dissonant process rather than a seamless cultural blend. Ultimately, the novel highlights the psychological pain of migration and questions the idealized notion of the American Dream for immigrant women.

Keywords:Immigration, Hyphenated Identity, Cultural Displacement, Expatriation, Alienation, Identity Crises.

Introduction

The term for the sense of alienation, nostalgia, and displacement among immigrants is diaspora, derived from the Latin word ‘diasperian’, meaning dispersion. Originally, it refers to the dispersion of Jews outside Israel. The Jews were forced to leave Jerusalem, their homeland, and thus they scattered across the world. This exodus led to the loss of their identity. Sunil Amrith, in his critical work, Migration and Diaspora in South Asia, explains that the term diaspora is “the dispersion or spread of any people from their original homeland” (pg. 57). James Clifford, in his work, Routes: Travel and Translation in the Late Twentieth Century, uses the phrase, “dwellings in displacement” (pg. 310). Since dwelling is a key aspect of defining diaspora, the ideas of home and homemaking are essential in diasporic spaces.

Today, the term now encompasses ideas beyond its initial links to hostility, tragedy, alienation, loss, exile, and the aspiration to return. It also signifies a shared homeland—whether through voluntary or forced migration—and involves feelings of estrangement and marginalization within the host country. Vijay Agnew, a Social Science professor, describes diaspora in his book _Diaspora, Memory, and Identitynot just as the dispersal of people from a particular place but also as involving “the collective memory and trauma involved in such dispersion” (p. 193).

Even though the term ‘Diaspora’ has evolved in meaning over time, it still retains certain characteristics such as rootlessness, homelessness, alienation, and love for the homeland. Salman Rushdie, in his critical work, Imaginary Homeland, shares his personal experience as an expatriate, stating that:

“Exiles or emigrants or expatriates are haunted by some sense of loss, some urge to reclaim, to look back, even at the risk of being mutated into pillars of salt. If we do look back, we must also do so in the knowledge – which gives rise to profound uncertainties – that our physical alienation from India almost inevitably means that we will not be capable of reclaiming precisely the thing that was lost; that we will in short, create fictions, not actual cities or villages, but invisible ones, imaginary homelands, Indias of the mind” (pg.10).

In simple terms, when people leave their homes, they often feel lonely and are surprised by how much they miss the comfort of a real home. Connecting with a new culture can be naturally difficult. Differences in cultural and religious backgrounds often make it hard for individuals to find their identity. During the process of settling into a new environment, many diasporic communities experience psychological trauma. Even after adjusting, these communities often face discrimination, alienation, and identity struggles. Common themes in diasporic literature include feelings of displacement, loneliness, societal alienation, and longing.

P. Malikarjuna Rao states that “the lives of immigrants do not follow straight lines or smooth paths, as they are compelled to confront centuries of history within their lifetime, thereby having to endure the experiences of multiple lives and roles.”

Homi K. Bhabha, in his book The Location of Culture, explores the idea of hyphenated identity. He affirms that “I am both a mixture of my home country and host country”. Through this critical work, Bhabha has discussed the concept of hybridity, which emerges when individuals from different cultural backgrounds come into contact. Bhabha emphasized that diaspora communities often inhabit a space of cultural interaction and negotiation, leading to hybrid identities that challenge fixed notions of belonging. He highlights the idea of ‘Third Space’, where new cultural meanings and identities are formed. Moreover, several other diasporic writers have penned down the plight of diasporic communities who suffered a lot to create their identity and adjust to their newfound world.

Diasporic Consciousness

Immigration

Immigration is frequently regarded as the best option for a better life, despite the challenges and difficulties that come with it. For most Asian immigrants, the United States was a “paradise on earth.” C.L. Chua states that “Discovery of the American passage was a dream of fame and failure of egregious identity and material wealth”. (pg. 54). This land of golden opportunities lent a Midas touch for people entering this ‘Promised Land’. In the New Standard Encyclopaedia, the United States is referred to as “a Melting Pot” and “a nation of nations” (pg. 41). All immigrants must, however, go through the process of becoming adopted, Americanized, and integrated into the country’s social and economic structure.

Dimple’s joy is beyond words when Amit reveals that they will be moving to the United States. She gets ready nicely and realizes that everything she needs for a new life is there. Over the phone, Dimple informs her closest friend, Dixie, that she will not be taking any of her old saris with her to America. Relics from Dimple’s past are something she does not want to keep around. Dimple finds being a mother to be a burden. In self-induced abortion, Dimple appears to use abortion as a means of venting her wrath against the Basu family while also assuming control over her body, signifying her mastery over it. She dislikes being directed by her husband and being subject to Basus’ authority. Dimple is excited to move to a place where she won’t have to deal with the demands of domesticity, where she won’t have to live under Basu’s rule or domestication, and where she can be herself.

Dimple might look for ways to escape the role that her community assigns to a wife in America. Her goal is to investigate ways to deviate from the pattern created for middle-class Indian women. She makes friends with Ina Mullick, who she believes broke the traditional expectations of an Indian bride and embraced American culture.

Identity Crisis

Dimple had dreamed since she was a young girl that marriage would give her all the luxuries in the world, but she is now unhappy and disgusted with the circumstances she has found herself in after getting married. To be considered a proper wife by societal standards, she first had to give up her name and then change her way of life. Because of her dark complexion and Bengali name, Dimple finds Amit’s mother, Mrs. Basu, and his older sister, Mrs. Ghosh, repulsive at their first meeting. Mrs. Basu then changes Dimple’s name to Nandini because she doesn’t like it. Dimple was hesitant but did not oppose, and she couldn’t say anything because she wanted to build a strong relationship with her mother-in-law.

Earlier, Dimple was so excited to go to America and start a new journey. Still, after moving to America, it became tough for her to establish her own identity there. Fakrul Alam states that, ‘It is quite obvious, then, that Dimple has come to America, ready to be transformed and willing to seek out an identity that would take her away from her South Asian Community or connect with mainstream American society’ (pg.41). Dimple is helplessly caught in her quest for a female identity as an immigrant. She wants to be like Ina Mullick, who has made her own identity as ‘more American than Americans’. Dimple is so fascinated by Ina and her American ways. But it was tough for her to fully become an American because of the language barrier. She was also unable to operate the elevators. To gain a new American identity, she indulges in an affair with an American, Milt.

Hyphenated Identity

When Dimple goes to the party in Manhattan, she meets various immigrants from all over the world. They show her different ways that being Indian and being American are connected. She hears about Ina Mullick, a Bengali wife whose careless husband allowed her to become “more American than the Americans” (pg. 10). Bharati Mukherjee illustrates the influence of American ways through the character of Ina Mullick, who represents assimilation. Ina has accepted American ways and attitudes, adapting to American culture, food, clothing, and language.

Cultural Displacement.

Cultural displacement refers to the feeling of dislocation that people experience when their cultural identity is challenged or undermined, especially due to migration, globalization, or societal changes. Shyam M. Asani, in his critical work ‘Identity Crises in The Nowhere Man and Wife,’ states that ‘Dimple is entrapped in a dilemma of tensions between American culture society and the traditional constraints surrounding an Indian wife, between a feminist desire to be assertive and independent and the Indian need to be submissive and self-effacing’ (pg. 42). Because she partially accepts both American and Indian cultures, she becomes frustrated and develops neurosis, which leads her to commit destructive acts such as sin, murder, or suicide. The root of her mental disorder is that she was uprooted from her family and homeland. Amit wants Dimple to be a good Bengali wife who takes care of her home and husband and learns how to live in America without becoming too Americanized, which makes her all the more frustrated.

Expatriation

Expatriation is the process of leaving one’s home country to live in another, often for a long time or permanently. It happens for many reasons, such as work, education, personal relationships, or a desire for a different lifestyle. Expatriation is common in developed countries. Christine Gomez, in her work, ‘The Ongoing Quest of Bharati Mukherjee from Expatriation to Immigration,’ provides a clear definition of the term expatriation.

“Expatriation is a complex state of mind and emotion, which includes wistful longing for the past, often symbolized by the ancestral home, the pain of exile and homelessness, the struggle to maintain the difference between oneself and the new, unfriendly surroundings, an assumption of moral and cultural superiority over the host country and a refusal to accept the identity forced one by the environment. The expatriate builds a cocoon around herself/himself as a refuge from the cultural dilemmas and the experienced hostility or unfriendliness in the new country. (pg. 72)

Through the characters of Jyoti and Meena Sen, Bharati Mukherjee illustrates expatriation. Because America is a land of opportunities, the couple travelled to America to earn money. For Jyoti, America was solely a place of wealth. He aimed to make a lot of money, then return to his hometown and build a home, which would have cost him about five lakhs, and thus become the ‘Maharaj of Lower Circular Road’ (pg.9).

When Dimple and Amit arrived in America, they were received by the Sen family. Dimple was very excited to explore America and embark on a new journey, and thus she is very eager to see the Sen’s house. As they reached their house, Dimple was very astonished to see it, which was a typical Indian house. It is exactly like a common Indian house in Calcutta.Jyoti’s American house is very Indian-like, with no chairs in the room, but only a mat and a rug are served to guests. Jyoti’s house makes Amit comfortable because he feels no difference between his house in Calcutta and Jyoti’s house. This indicates that the Sen couple is living abroad in America and aspires to return home once they have saved enough money.

Alienation

Accordingto the Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy, the concept of alienation identifies a distinct kind of psychological or social ill, namely, one involving a problematic separation between a self and others that belong together. Cetin et al. have explained that alienation expresses that the individual has a decreased adaptation to the social, cultural, and natural environment, loses her/his control over the environment, and becomes isolated by getting gradually helpless.

Dimple and her community of expatriates experience alienation in a country whose ways they cannot understand. Before Dimpled had ever set foot in America, she had friends remark that even though it’s a place to have a lot of fun, one must endure being a foreigner forever.

Before going to America Dimple has been invited in a farewell party sponsored by her friend, Dixie, in that party one of the guests has apprise that, “You may think of it as immigration, my dear…but what you are is a resident alien” (pg.46). When Dimple arrived in New York, she has been informed by Meena Sen that, she feels as an outsider because it was tough to understand American humors and the American language. Earlier, Dimple felt that she was now free from all the clutches of Indian traditions, and she was not obliged to follow the role of a traditional Indian wife. But gradually she feels alienated as it becomes difficult for her to learn American ways and living standards, language becomes one of the obstacles for her to interact with the people around her, and thus she becomes frustrated with not knowing English. When Amit got a job, the couple shifted to an apartment, where she feels alienated, as most of the time she has to be alone in the apartment. She has to spend her time watching television, soap operas, and murder mysteries. Meanwhile, she indulges in an affair with a white man named Milt, with whom she feels safe and protected. Once, after returning from a function with Milt, Dimple feels, “the inhuman maze of New York became as safe and simple as Ballygunge” (pg. 196). When they were together at her apartment, he promised Dimple to protect her, but as he left, she again felt lonelierthan ever.

Conclusion

In Wife, Bharati Mukherjee presents diaspora not as a simple story of migration and opportunity, but as a deeply unsettling psychological rupture. Through Dimple Dasgupta’s experiences, the novel exposes the emotional dislocation, cultural alienation, and identity fragmentation faced by immigrants caught between inherited traditions and an unfamiliar host culture. Dimple’s inability to reconcile her expectations of marriage, freedom, and selfhood with the realities of diasporic life reveals how migration can intensify inner conflicts rather than resolve them. The American dream, instead of offering liberation, becomes a site of isolation and despair. Ultimately, Wife suggests that diaspora, when marked by silence, patriarchal constraints, and cultural dissonance, can erode the self. Mukherjee thus critiques the romanticized notion of migration and highlights the urgent need for emotional anchoring and self-definition within the diasporic experience.

References

Primary Sources

Novel

Mukherjee, Bharti. Wife, Houghton Mifflin Press, New York. 1975. Print

Secondary Sources

Chua, C.L. Passage from India: Migrating to America in the Fiction of V.S.Naipaul and Bharati Mukherjee. Reworlding – The Literature of the Indian Diaspora. Ed. Emmanuel S. Nelson. Westport: Greenwood Press, 1992. Print.
Himandri, Lahiri. Diaspora Theory and Transnationalism. Orient Black Swan. 2019. Print.

Alam, Fakrul. Migration and Settlement in North America in Bharati Mukherjee’s Fiction Asian American Writing: Vol 2. Fiction.Ed. Somdatta Mandel. New Delhi: Prestige Books. Print
Asnani, Shyam, and Rajpal Deepika. Identity Crises in The Nowhere Man and Wife: Quest for Identity in Indian English Writing Part I: Fiction. Ed. Shyam M. Asnani and Deepika Rajpal. New Delhi. Baheri Publication. 1992. Print.
Clifford, James. Diasporas: Cultural Anthropology, vol. 9, no. 3, 1994, pp. 302-338. Print

E-Sources

Bhabha, Homi K. The Location of Culture. Kindle ed. Stephen Fay & Liam Haydon, 2017.

Amrith, Sunil S. Migration and Diaspora in Modern Asia. Kindle ed. Cambridge University Press, 2011.

Agnew, Vijay. Diaspora, Memory, and Identity. Kindle ed. University of Toronto Press, 2005.

Glissant, Édouard. Poetics of Relation. Translated by Betsy Wing, University of Michigan Press, 1997. Kindle ed.

Clifford, James. Routes: Travel and Translation in the Late Twentieth Century. Kindle ed., Harvard University Press, 1997.
Rushdie, Salman. Imaginary Homelands: Essays and Criticism. Kindle ed., Granta, 1991.

Webliography

Theses

Thakur, Shikha. “Human Migration and Uprooted Identities: A Post-Colonial Reading of Selected Works of Adib Khan and Monica Ali,” Phagwara. 2022.
Chandrasekharan, M. “Immigrant experience, multiculturalism and the foreignness of self in the works of Bharati Mukherjee”. Tirunelveli. 2016.
J. Zamuel Karbhari. “Immigration, cross-cultural encounter, and diasporic elements in the works of Bharati Mukherjee”. Tirunelveli. 2015.
Patil. Y.B. “Identity Crises in the Novels of Bharati Mukherjee”. Shimoga. 2008.
Yadav. S.K. “Cultural Clash and Identity Crises in the Works of Monica Ali and Bharati Mukherjee: A Comparative Study. Gwalior. 2021.

Rate this:

Public

Strategy Before Tactics

Traffic That Actually Converts

Content, Automation, and Retention

Branding and Digital Infrastructure

Rate this:

Public

Citation

Rate this:

Public

Rate this:

Public

Rate this:

Public

Citation

Rate this:

Public

Rate this:

Public

Rate this:

Public

Rate this:

Public

Rate this:

Public