¹Adekemi Felicia OPATUNDE         

&

²Afolakemi O. OREDEIN

orcid.org/0000-0003-2051-4730

^1&2Department of Educational Management                                                                                                          Faculty of Arts & Education, Lead City University, Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria

Abstract

Public secondary school principals in Oyo State, Nigeria, seem to have been chastised for their ineffectiveness, as indicated by low teacher engagement, poor record-keeping and low student academic attainment. This study looked into the impact of these characteristics on the administrative performance of public senior high school principals in Oyo State. The study employed a survey research approach, and the population included all 14,402 teachers and 629 principals in public secondary schools in Oyo State. A multi-stage sampling procedure was used to select 4,204 teachers and all principals in the sampled schools. Teachers Questionnaire (TEQ) (α = 0.951) and Principal Interview (PI) were used for data collection. Descriptive and inferential statistics were used to answer research questions and test hypotheses at a 0.05 level of significance. The results showed a significant combined influence of leadership styles, decision-making skills, and communication forms on the administrative effectiveness of public secondary school principals in Oyo State (F (3,3917)) = (21723.35);  (Adj. R² = 0.923, p < 0.05). There was a significant relative influence of these factors on the administrative effectiveness of principals. There were significant differences in communication forms (t = 2.318, p < 0.05), decision-making skills (t = 5.048, p < 0.05), and administrative effectiveness (t = 5.435, p < 0.05) between male and female principals in secondary schools, Oyo State. Public secondary school principals in Oyo State should focus on developing effective leadership styles, decision-making skills, and communication forms to enhance their administrative effectiveness. 

Keywords: Principal Leadership Styles, Decision-making skills, Communication Forms, 

                    Administrative Effectiveness

Introduction

The effectiveness of a leader within an organization can be measured by their success. This success is an indication of their ability to utilise the available resources, both material and human, in order to achieve the goals of the organisation (Pandey 2017). Administrative effectiveness follows certain principles and is not solely about achieving results; it also involves efficiency, which means accomplishing goals while minimising costs (Akinfolarin, 2017). The concept of administrative effectiveness can be understood in terms of the outcomes produced by the leader. In the context of schools, the principal plays a crucial role in administration and is responsible for overseeing instruction and carrying out administrative functions that contribute to administrative effectiveness (Onyali & Akinfolarin, 2017). Effective planning, coordination, supervision, organisation, and direction are necessary to achieve administrative effectiveness. Therefore, this study will specifically focus on planning, coordinating, and supervising.

Planning is a dynamic process that determines the course of future events. It is characterised by flexibility and involves forward-thinking, often requiring scenario planning. According to Pandey (2017), planning encompasses various managerial processes such as perception, analysis, conceptual thinking, communication, decision-making, and taking action. Also, the ability of principals to coordinate effectively stems from their role in management. Principals bear a significant and serious responsibility for internally coordinating and managing schools. Furthermore, the concept of supervision, like other ideas within the arts and humanities, is subject to varying definitions by different scholars and professionals. Supervision involves a process wherein a more experienced professional engages in a friendly and cooperative manner with a less experienced professional, aiming to enhance the successful accomplishment of a given task. 

There are several challenges that hinder the effectiveness of public secondary school principals in Nigeria. These challenges encompass insufficient funding, inadequate infrastructure, a deficient capacity-building programme, a shortage of qualified teachers, inadequate ICT infrastructure, a lack of instructional resources, inadequate supervision and security concerns, weak leadership, ineffective decision-making skills, and inadequate communication methods, among others. These issues may impact the performance of both students and teachers in the classroom. The subsequent paragraphs will delve into the leadership style, decision-making skills, and communication forms relevant to this study.

Leadership holds great importance in all human organisations and is widely recognised as a crucial element for effective administrative processes. Within the educational context, the school principal serves as the primary leader and bears responsibility for managing and organising the school. In the educational system, the principal’s knowledge, leadership style, experience, expertise, capability, and problem-solving abilities are vital factors in achieving desired outcomes. It is important to note that the concept of leadership style can vary from person to person and situation to situation. Therefore, this study will examine the following leadership styles: autocratic, democratic, laissez-faire, and digital.

Autocratic leadership style do not involve others in the decision-making process and instead exert control with a strict approach (Siddique & Siddique, 2019; Akparep, Jengre, & Mogre, 2019; Lundmark, Richter, & Tafvelin, 2022). All decisions are made without seeking the input or approval of the staff. Typically, these leaders do not provide explanations for their actions and remain uncompromising in their stance (Du, Li, & Luo, 2020; Dai & Spires, 2018). According to Hensellek (2020), the democratic leadership style involves the active participation of all group members in the decision-making process. Kokot, Kokotec, and Calopa (2021) state that a democratic leader seeks input from the team while making decisions and addressing issues while maintaining ultimate control over the final solution. Laissez-faire signifies a “hands-off, let things ride” approach to influencing people in the workplace, as noted by Wasono and Furinto (2018). It is defined as the absence of leadership and the avoidance of intervention in a study. Laissez-faire leaders, according to Westerman, Bonnet, and McAfee (2014), often behave as if they have relinquished their responsibilities and obligations. Also, an effective digital leader possesses a clear understanding of the organisatioanal’s goals and comprehends how their responsibilities contribute to the achievement of those goals. According to Sheninger (2014), an organisation that effectively leverages its digital assets to establish and sustain a competitive advantage can be regarded as a digital leader at the organisational level.

Decision-making can be defined as the process of choosing one option from several alternatives with the aim of achieving a desired outcome. The main purpose of decision-making is to guide human behaviour and dedication towards a future objective (Temelkova, 2018). If there are no other options available or no need to make a choice, decision-making becomes unnecessary. Decision-making encompasses a range of skills, including time management, emotional intelligence, problem-solving ability, confidence, adaptability, creative thinking, risk assessment, weighing pros and cons, analytical and critical thinking, as well as information gathering and analysis, among others. However, this study will specifically focus on problem-solving, time management, and emotional intelligence. 

Making decisions and fixing problems go hand in hand. Decision-making has its roots in economics and research into business operations, while problem solving was initially characterised by psychologists in a study of how people think(AchmetliSchukajlow & Rakoczy, 2019). Time management skills are essential abilities that individuals must regularly employ. They involve effectively and efficiently utilising time (Harris & Jones, 2020). These skills enable individuals to allocate adequate time for all necessary tasks and activities. According to Harris and Jones (2020), “emotional intelligence” refers to an individual’s ability to recognise and identify emotions, generate and regulate emotions, and consequently achieve a state of reflection. Emotional intelligence encompasses a range of non-cognitive abilities, competencies, and skills that enable individuals to effectively handle and navigate environmental demands and pressures.

Effective communication plays a crucial role in efficient management. Communication is essential for every organisation and serves as a managerial tool that executives utilise to influence operations through interpersonal relationships. An administrator’s ability to communicate effectively with their team, peers, and stakeholders can significantly impact the success or failure of an organisation. Communication encompasses diverse methods through which individuals and groups convey information, ideas, and opinions; these are referred to as communication forms. Communication can be categorised in various ways, such as verbal/oral, written, and non-verbal.

Oral communication encompasses the exchange of information using spoken language and is commonly employed in direct conversations, telephone discussions, presentations, speeches, and discussions. It serves as a means of immediate and interactive interaction, facilitating temporary communication requirements. Non-verbal communication, as defined by Bonaccio, O’Reilly, O’Sullivan, and Chiocchio (2016), refers to the exchange and interpretation of information using methods other than language. Hall, Horgan, and Murphy (2019) propose that non-verbal communication occurs more frequently than verbal communication, accounting for more than half of human communication. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to investigate principals’ leadership styles, decision-making skills and communication forms as determinants of public senior secondary schools administrative effectiveness in Oyo State, Nigeria. 

Statement of the Problem

In recent years, there seems to have been widespread dissatisfaction with the administrative effectiveness of many public secondary school principals in Nigeria, particularly in Oyo State. Evidence of this ineffectiveness includes low levels of teacher engagement, teachers’ lack of responsiveness to the teaching profession, disciplinary issues among students and staff, inadequate record keeping, improper coordination of admission and examination procedures, low academic achievement and performance among students, as well as low levels of teacher dedication and job satisfaction. These irregularities may be attributed to the ineffective administration of public secondary school principals in Oyo State, Nigeria. It is likely that schools led by incompetent principals who lack digital knowledge and appropriate leadership styles and communication forms for administrative effectiveness will struggle to achieve educational goals. Studies have identified various factors that contribute to the problems faced by principals in effectively administering secondary schools, including poor working environments, a lack of digitalization among principals, inadequate decision-making skills, ineffective communication forms, unfavourable government policies, a lack of teacher cooperation, insufficient staff, and inadequate funding (Friedländer, Röber, & Schaefer, 2021). However, there seems to be a gap in research regarding the impact of digital leadership styles and communication forms on the administrative effectiveness of public secondary school principals in Oyo State, Nigeria. Therefore, this study aims to investigate on leadership styles, decision-making skills, and communication forms as determinants of administrative effectiveness of principals in public senior secondary schools in Oyo State, Nigeria.

Aim and Objectives of Study

The aim of the study is to investigate the influence of principal leadership styles, decision-making skills and communication forms on public senior secondary school administrative effectiveness in Oyo State. The objectives are to:

1. identify the level of administrative effectiveness (planning, coordinating and supervision) of public secondary school principals in Oyo State, Nigeria.
2. identify the prevalent leadership styles (autocratic, democratic, laissez-faire, and digital leadership) that is being adopted by public secondary school administrators in Oyo State, Nigeria. 
3. identify the prominent decision-making skills (problem-solving skills, time management skills, and emotional intelligence) that is being used among principals in public secondary schools in Oyo State, Nigeria .
4. determine the prominent communication forms (oral and non-oral) that is being used by secondary school principals in Oyo State, Nigeria.
5. examine the combined influence of leadership styles (autocratic, democratic, laissez-faire, and digital), communication forms (oral and non-oral), and decision-making skills (problem solving, time management, and emotional intelligence) on administrative effectiveness in public secondary schools in Oyo State, Nigeria.
6. examine the relative influence of leadership styles (autocratic, democratic, laissez-faire, and digital), communication forms (oral and non-oral), and decision-making skills (problem-solving, time management, and emotional intelligence) on administrative effectiveness in public secondary schools in Oyo State, Nigeria.

Research Questions

For the purpose of this study, the following research questions are posed to be answered.

1.         What is the level of administrative effectiveness (planning, coordinating and supervision) among public secondary school principals in Oyo state, Nigeria?

2          What is the most prevalent leadership styles (autocratic, democratic, laissez-faire, and digital) among public secondary school principals in Oyo State, Nigeria?

3.         What is the level of decision-making skills (problem-solving, time management, and emotional intelligence) among principals in public secondary schools in Oyo state, Nigeria? 

4.         What is the prominent communication forms (oral and non-oral) used by public secondary school principals in Oyo State, Nigeria?

Hypotheses 

H₀1:     There will be no significant combined influence of leadership styles (autocratic, democratic, laissez-faire, and digital), decision-making skills (problem solving skills, time management skills, and emotional intelligence) and communication forms (oral and non-oral) on administrative effectiveness of public secondary school principals in Oyo state, Nigeria.

H₀2:     There will be no significant relative influence of leadership styles (autocratic, democratic, laissez-faire, and digital), decision-making skills (problem solving skills, time management skills, and emotional intelligence) and communication forms (oral and non-oral) on administrative effectiveness of public secondary school principals in public secondary schools in Oyo state, Nigeria.

Methodology

Research Design 

The study utilized a survey-type descriptive research design, which was deemed appropriate because the variables under investigation were already established and outside the researcher’s control. This design allowed for an accurate depiction of the decision-making abilities and administrative effectiveness of principals.

Selection of participants

To ensure a representative sample of the study’s population, a multistage sampling procedure was employed using both stratified and simple random sampling techniques. Initially, the state of Oyo was divided into three strata using the existing senatorial districts: Oyo Central, North, and South. Next, local governments with the highest and lowest number of schools in each stratum were selected, with preference given to those with more teachers in cases where multiple local governments had the same number of schools. The Yamane formula was then applied in the third stage to determine the appropriate sample size of teachers from each selected local government, with Simple Random Sampling used to select the teachers. The local government with the lowest number of teachers served as the baseline for the selection process, ultimately resulting in a total of 4,204 teacher respondents and 629 principals from the selected schools.

Ethical Consideration

Ethical guideline relating to data collection, analysis and interpretation on research as specified by Lead City University was followed.

Analysis of Data

Data collected from the field were analyzed using inferential and descriptive statistics. The descriptive statistics of frequency, percentage and mean and standard deviation were used for research questions while inferential statistics of multiple regression analysis (ANOVA), was used for the hypotheses at a 0.05 level of significance.

Results

Research Question 1: What is the level of administrative effectiveness (planning, coordinating and supervision) among public secondary school principals in Oyo state, Nigeria?

Table 1: Level of administrative effectiveness (planning, coordinating and supervision) among public secondary school principals in Oyo state, Nigeria.

		Always	Often	Rarely	Never
S/N	Items	FreqPer(%)	FreqPer(%)	FreqPer(%)	FreqPer(%)	Mean	SD
1	Planningensures academic activities are planned early before the commencement of the term.	3227(82.6%)	557(14.3%)	114(2.9%)	10(0.3%)	3.79	.489
2	ensures provision of human resources needed for smooth operation in the school	2254(57.5%)	1422(36.3%)	236(6.0%)	6(0.2%)	3.51	.616
3	ensures provision of materials resources needed for smooth operation in the school	2254(57.5%)	1294(33.0%)	360(9.2%)	10(0.3%)	3.48	.670
4	calls stakeholders meeting when planning school activities	2059(52.6%)	1399(35.7%)	324(8.3%)	136(3.5%)	3.37	.780
5	plans for maintenance of school infrastructural facilities	1994(50.9%)	1540(39.3%)	322(8.2%)	62(1.6%)	3.40	.706
6	plans for co-curricular activities	2317(59.1%)	1268(32.4%)	307(7.8%)	26(0.7%)	3.50	.668
7	sets discipline policy at this school	2613(66.7%)	949(24.2%)	336(8.6%)	20(0.5%)	3.57	.669
8	decide how school budget will be spent	1916(48.9%)	1218(31.1%)	506(12.9%)	278(7.1%)	3.22	.924
	Weighted Mean					3.48
Coordination
1	create and implement shared school vision	1616(41.2%)	1752(44.7%)	466(11.9%)	81(2.1%)	3.26	.759
2	nurture and sustain a culture and instructional program conducive to learning and staff development	1648(42.1%)	1791(45.7%)	416(10.6%)	63(1.6%)	3.28	.715
3	ensures management of school operations to produce a safe and effective learning environment	2263(57.8%)	1301(33.2%)	331(8.4%)	23(0.6%)	3.48	.674
4	collaborates with families and the diverse communities that schools serve	1524(38.9%)	1730(44.2%)	487(12.4%)	177(4.5%)	3.17	.815
5	promotes integrity, fairness, and ethical behaviour	2561(65.4%)	987(25.2)	308(7.9%)	62(1.6%)	3.54	.707
6	interacts with government agencies on school matters	1928(49.2%)	1334(34.0%)	556(14.2%)	100(2.6%)	3.30	.804
7	coordinates all units or departments in the school to achieve synergy	2396(61.3%)	1123(28.7%)	288(7.4%)	101(2.6%)	3.49	.743
8	encourages team spirit among teachers and other school staff	2560(65.3%)	1066(27.2%)	239(6.1%)	53(1.4%)	3.57	.670
	Weighted Mean					3.39
Supervision
1	ensures teachers write lesson plan/note	2823(72.1%)	839(21.4%)	186(4.7%)	70(1.8%)	3.64	.658
2	visits teachers in the classroom	1900(48.5%)	1429(36.5%)	523(13.3%)	66(1.7%)	3.32	.765
3	ensures resources in the school are used for the right purpose	2146(54.8%)	1465(37.4%)	301(7.7%)	6(0.2%)	3.47	.642
4	monitors teachers and other staffs punctuality	2658(67.8%)	968(24.7%)	226(5.8%)	66(1.7%)	3.59	.677
5	ensures teaching is in accordance with the curriculum	2674(68.2%)	1024(26.1%)	195(5.0%)	25(0.6%)	3.62	.611
6	ensures standard of examination in the school	2557(65.3%)	1145(29.2%)	198(5.1%)	18(0.5%)	3.59	.608
7	maintains student/staff discipline	2625(67.0%)	1000(25.5%)	254(6.5%)	39(1.0%)	3.59	.657
	Weighted Mean					3.54
	Overall Weighted Mean					3.47

Source: Fieldwork, 2023

Decision Rule: 0 – 1.49= Very Low, 1.50 – 2.49= Low, 2.5 – 3.49 = High, 3.50 – 4.0 = Very High

The study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of public secondary school principals in Oyo State by assessing their skills in planning, coordinating, and supervising. Data from a survey completed by principals was analysed, revealing various findings. In terms of planning, the principals showed proficiency in planning school activities, with 82.6% of respondents consistently engaging in early planning of academic activities before each term. However, their ability to provide necessary human and material resources for smooth school operation received lower ratings, with 57.5% of respondents ensuring the provision of human resources and 57.5% ensuring the provision of material resources. Regarding coordination, the principals were reported to be effective in promoting integrity, fairness, and ethical behaviour (65.4%). They also demonstrated effectiveness in coordinating all school units or departments to achieve synergy (61.3%). However, areas that required improvement were identified, including creating and implementing a shared school vision (41.2%) and fostering a culture and instructional programme conducive to learning and staff development (42.1%).

Research Question Two: What is the most prevalent leadership style (Autocratic, Democratic, Laissez-faire, and Digital) among public secondary school principals in Oyo state?

Table 2: The most prevalent leadership styles (autocratic, democratic, laissez-faire, and digital) among public secondary school principals in Oyo state

	Most of the Time	Some of the Times	Seldom	Never
Items	FreqPer(%)	FreqPer(%)	FreqPer(%)	FreqPer(%)	Mean
Autocratic	1746.25(44.575)	1507.75(38.475)	434.5(11.1)	229.5(5.85)	3.22
Digital	1350.5(34.45)	1568.5(40.05)	645.75(16.5)	353.25(9.025)	3.00
Democratic	1216.5(31.05)	1474(37.625)	479(12.2)	748.5(19.1)	2.81
Laissez-faire	767(19.575)	1543(39.375)	578(14.775)	1030(26.275)	2.52

Source: Fieldwork, 2023

The study examined the dominant leadership styles among public secondary school principals in Oyo State. The findings, presented in Table 2, indicate that the prevailing leadership style varies among the principals. Autocratic leadership emerged as the most common style, with 44.575% of respondents reporting its frequent use. Digital leadership was the second most prevalent style, employed by 34.45% of respondents most of the time, followed by democratic leadership, utilized frequently by 31.05% of respondents. In contrast, laissez-faire leadership was the least prevalent, with only 19.575% of respondents regularly implementing it. It is noteworthy that while autocratic leadership is dominant, a significant number of respondents reported utilising democratic and digital leadership styles to some extent, indicating flexibility in their leadership approaches. These findings provide valuable insights into the prevailing leadership styles among public secondary school principals in Oyo State, informing efforts to improve educational leadership and management in the region.

Research Question Three: What is the level of decision-making skills (problem-solving, time management, emotional intelligence) among public secondary school principals in Oyo state?

Table 3: Level of decision-making skills (Problem-solving, Time Management, Emotional Intelligence) among public secondary school principals in Oyo state

Problem-solving		At All Times	Sometime	Rarely	Never
S/N	Items	FreqPer(%)	FreqPer(%)	FreqPer(%)	FreqPer(%)	Mean	SD
1	identify and define the school’s problem	2708(69.3%)	1048(26.8%)	111(2.8%)	41(1.0%)	3.64	.591
2	come up with possible solutions to school’s problem	2429(62.2%)	1273(32.6%)	156(4.0%)	50(1.3%)	3.56	.635
3	evaluate the different options before making decisions	2193(56.1%)	1308(33.5%)	372(9.5%)	35(0.9%)	3.45	.701
4	implement solutions	2279(58.3%)	1290(33.0%)	212(5.4%)	127(3.2%)	3.46	.743
5	evaluate outcome of solutions	2158(55.3%)	1412(36.2%)	285(7.3%)	45(1.2%)	3.46	.681
	Weighted Mean					3.51
Time Management
1	do a time audit	1473(37.7%)	1943(49.7%)	416(10.6%)	76(1.9%)	3.23	.713
2	make schedule and abide strictly	2030(51.9%)	1471(37.6%)	335(8.6%)	72(1.8%)	3.40	.722
3	avoid multitasking	1215(31.1%)	1719(44.1%)	663(17.0%)	304(7.8%)	2.99	.891
4	delegate and outsource tasks	1644(42.1%)	1820(46.7%)	333(8.5%)	104(2.7%)	3.28	.730
5	inculcate time management among staff	2322(59.4%)	1312(33.6%)	243(6.2%)	31(0.8%)	3.52	.649
	Weighted Mean					3.28
Emotional Intelligence
1	creates awareness of him or herself	1720(44.0%)	1504(38.5%)	595(15.2%)	86(2.2%)	3.24	.788
2	controls his or her emotions	1888(48.3%)	1555(39.8%)	340(8.7%)	125(3.2%)	3.33	.767
3	is an achievement orientated individual	2298(58.8%)	1310(33.5%)	255(6.5%)	42(1.1%)	3.50	.667
4	listens actively to staff comments or reactions	2091(53.5%)	1493(38.2%)	263(6.7%)	61(1.6%)	3.44	.689
5	manage, and understand emotions staff’s emotions	1891(48.4%)	1509(38.6%)	347(8.9%)	161(4.1%)	3.31	.800
	Weighted Mean					3.37
	Overall Weighted Mean					3.39

Source: Fieldwork, 2023

Decision Rule: 0 – 1.49= Very Low, 1.50 – 2.49= Low, 2.5 – 3.49 = High, 3.50 – 4.0 = Very High

The table presents data on the proficiency of decision-making skills among principals in public secondary schools in Oyo State. The data was collected in 2023 through fieldwork. The weighted mean scores indicate high proficiency levels for problem-solving skills (3.51), time management skills (3.28), and emotional intelligence skills (3.37). Overall, the weighted mean score for decision-making skills was 3.39, suggesting a high proficiency level among the principals. These findings indicate that the principals possess strong decision-making skills, which are crucial for effective leadership. They demonstrate the ability to identify and define problems, generate solutions, assess alternatives, implement chosen solutions, and evaluate outcomes. Furthermore, the principals exhibit high levels of time management skills, enabling them to effectively manage resources and activities. They also demonstrate high levels of emotional intelligence skills, which are important for communication, relationship building, and team management.

Research Question four: What is the prominent communication forms (oral and non-oral) used by public secondary school principals in Oyo State, Nigeria?

Table 4.4a: Non-oral Communication
		Always	Sometimes	Rarely	Never
S/N	Items	FreqPer(%)	FreqPer(%)	FreqPer(%)	FreqPer(%)	Mean	SD
1	Reports	2144(54.9%)	1211(31.0%)	410(10.5%)	143(3.7%)	3.37	.814
2	Manuals	1195(30.6%)	1812(46.4%)	571(14.6%)	330(8.4%)	2.99	.889
3	Memorandum	1250(32.1%)	1703(43.7%)	716(18.4%)	224(5.8%)	3.02	.857
4	Correspondence	1092(27.9%)	1563(40.0%)	893(22.9%)	360(9.2%)	2.87	.927
5	Suggestion boxes	863(22.1%)	1050(26.9%)	963(24.6%)	1032(26.4%)	2.45	1.103
	Weighted Mean					2.94

Source: Fieldwork, 2023

Decision Rule: 0 – 1.49= Very Low, 1.50 – 2.49= Low, 2.5 – 3.49 = High, 3.50 – 4.0 = Very High

Table 4.4a provides information about the frequency of non-verbal communication. The table includes five categories of non-verbal communication: reports, manuals, memoranda, correspondence, and suggestion boxes. It presents the percentage of respondents who always, sometimes, rarely, or never use each type of communication. Regarding reports, the majority of respondents (54.9%) reported always using this form of communication. 31.0% said they sometimes use it, 10.5% rarely use it, and 3.7% never use it. On average, reports were used with a frequency of 3.37, and the standard deviation was 0.814.As for manuals, 30.6% of respondents reported always using them, 46.4% sometimes used them, 14.6% rarely used them, and 8.4% never used them. The mean frequency of use for manuals was 2.99, with a standard deviation of 0.889. In the case of memoranda, 32.1% of respondents reported always using them, 43.7% sometimes used them, 18.4% rarely used them, and 5.8% never used them. The mean frequency of use for memoranda was 3.02, with a standard deviation of 0.857. Concerning correspondence, 27.9% of respondents reported always using it, 40.0% sometimes using it, 22.9% rarely using it, and 9.2% never using it. The mean frequency of use for correspondence was 2.87, with a standard deviation of 0.927. As for suggestion boxes, 22.1% of respondents reported always using them, 26.9% sometimes used them, 24.6% rarely used them, and 26.4% never used them. The mean frequency of use for suggestion boxes was 2.45, with a standard deviation of 1.103. The overall weighted mean frequency of use for all types of non-verbal communication was 2.94. This suggests that there is a low level of non-verbal communication among public secondary school principals in Oyo State.

Table 4.4b: Oral Communication
		Always	Sometimes	Rarely	Never
S/N	Items	FreqPer(%)	FreqPer(%)	FreqPer(%)	FreqPer(%)	Mean	SD
1	Staff meetings	2495(63.8%)	1244(31.8%)	155(4.0%)	14(0.4%)	3.59	.585
2	One-one communication	1787(45.7%)	1628(41.7%)	381(9.7%)	112(2.9%)	3.30	.760
	Weighted Mean					3.45

Source: Fieldwork, 2023

Decision Rule: 0 – 1.49= Very Low, 1.50 – 2.49= Low, 2.5 – 3.49 = High, 3.50 – 4.0 = Very High

Table 4.4b provides information on the occurrence of oral communication among public secondary school principals in Oyo State. The table focuses on two scenarios: staff meetings and one-on-one interactions. For staff meetings, the majority of respondents (63.8%) reported always engaging in oral communication, while 31.8% said they do so sometimes. A smaller proportion indicated rare (4.0%) or no (0.4%) oral communication in these meetings. The mean value for staff meetings was 3.59, indicating a generally high level of oral communication in this context. In one-on-one communication, the most common response was sometimes (41.7%), followed by always (45.7%). A smaller percentage reported rare (9.7%) or no (2.9%) oral communication. The mean value for one-on-one communication was 3.30, suggesting a generally prevalent use of oral communication in this scenario as well. The weighted mean for both categories combined was 3.45, indicating a high level of oral communication among the principals.

Figure 1

Figure 13: Prominent Communication Form used by Public Secondary School Principals in Oyo State (Oral and Non-Oral)

Source: Fieldwork, 2023

Figure 1 highlights that oral communication is highly prevalent among principals in public secondary schools in Oyo State. This suggests that these principals heavily rely on face-to-face or verbal forms of communication, such as meetings and discussions, rather than written or non-verbal methods like memos, emails, or other written materials. This preference for oral communication can have implications for the communication channels used within school administration and may affect the effectiveness of communication and decision-making processes. The prominence of oral communication among principals in Oyo State’s public schools indicates a potential need for additional training or support in developing effective written or non-verbal communication skills. This would ensure that communication remains clear, accurate, and consistent. Moreover, cultural and contextual factors specific to Oyo State may contribute to the preference for oral communication. Nigeria, where Oyo State is located, has distinct cultural norms, values, and communication styles. Oral communication might be deeply ingrained in the local culture and perceived as more effective or appropriate in certain situations, such as interpersonal interactions or negotiations. This cultural influence could impact the administrative effectiveness of secondary school principals, as they may need to align their communication approach with local cultural norms to effectively engage with staff, students, and other stakeholders.

 Testing of Hypotheses

H₀1: There will be no significant combined influence of leadership styles (autocratic, democratic, laissez-faire, and digital), decision-making skills (problem solving skills, time management skills, and emotional intelligence) and communication forms (oral and non-oral) on administrative effectiveness of public secondary schools principals in Oyo state.

Table 4.5: Summary of Regression Model Showing combined influence of leadership styles (autocratic, democratic, laissez-faire, and digital), decision-making skills (problem solving skills, time management skills, and emotional intelligence) and communication forms (oral and non-oral) on administrative effectiveness of public secondary schools principals in Oyo state.

Model Summary
Model		R		R Square		Adjusted R Square	Std. Error of the Estimate
1		.971a		.924		.943	2.58209
a. Predictors: (Constant), Communication strategies, Decision-making Skills, Leadership Styles
ANOVAa
Model			Sum of Squares		Df			Mean Square	F		Sig.
1	Regression		434501.180		3			144833.727	21723.355		.000b
	Residual		26095.380		3914			6.667
	Total		460596.559		3917
a. Dependent Variable: Administrative effectiveness
b. Predictors: (Constant), Communication strategies, Decision-making Skills, Leadership Styles

Source: Fieldwork, 2023

The table summarizes a regression analysis conducted on the combined impact of leadership styles, decision-making skills, and communication forms on the administrative effectiveness of principals in public secondary schools in Oyo State, Nigeria. The analysis reveals that the R-squared value of 0.924 indicates that 92.4% of the variation in administrative effectiveness can be explained by the independent variables included in the model. The Adjusted R-squared value of 0.943 suggests that the model fits the data well. The model’s F-statistic is 21723.355, and its associated p-value is less than 0.05, indicating that the model is statistically significant. The ANOVA table confirms that the regression model significantly explains the variation in administrative effectiveness. The coefficients of the independent variables are not provided in the table, but the ‘a’ superscript indicates that they are statistically significant. The standard error of the estimate is 2.58209, indicating that the model’s predictions are reasonably accurate. The regression analysis demonstrates that communication strategies, decision-making skills, and leadership styles have a significant influence on the administrative effectiveness of principals in public secondary schools in Oyo State. Overall, the analysis suggests that these factors play a crucial role in determining the effectiveness of principals in their administrative roles in public secondary schools in Oyo State.

H₀2:    There will be no significant relative influence of leadership styles (autocratic, democratic, laissez-faire, and digital), decision-making skills (problem solving skills, time management skills, and emotional intelligence) and communication forms (oral and non-oral) on administrative effectiveness of public secondary schools principals in public secondary schools in Oyo state.

Table 4.6: Summary of Relative Influence of leadership styles (autocratic, democratic, laissez-faire, and digital), decision-making skills (problem solving skills, time management skills, and emotional intelligence) and communication forms (oral and non-oral) on administrative effectiveness of public secondary schools principals in public secondary schools in Oyo state

Coefficientsa
Model		Unstandardized Coefficients				Standardized Coefficients		T		Sig.
		B		Std. Error		Beta
(Constant)	18.735		.450				41.622		0.000
Autocratic	1.431		.094		.378		15.172		.000
Democratic	-.042		.039		-.012		-1.067		.286
Laissez-faire	1.473		.106		.300		13.850		.000
Digital	-1.511		.107		-.403		-14.068		.000
Problem-solving	-.268		.080		-.085		-3.356		.001
Time Management	-.098		.110		-.028		-.894		.371
Emotional Intelligence	-.333		.120		-.104		-2.778		.005
Oral Communication	.120		.095		.048		1.260		.208
Non-oral Communication	-.223		.136		-.030		-1.639		.101
Leadership Styles	.388		.040		.341		9.808		.000
Decision-making Skills	1.010		.048		.852		21.013		.000
Communication strategies	-.528		.089		-.272		-5.930		.000
a. Dependent Variable: Administrative effectiveness

Source: Fieldwork, 2023

The table presents the coefficients for each predictor variable in the regression model, along with their standard errors, standardized coefficients, t-values, and associated p-values. The “Constant” coefficient indicates the expected value of the dependent variable (administrative effectiveness) when all predictor variables are zero. In this case, it is 18.735 with a standard error of 0.450. The t-value of 41.622 suggests that the constant term is statistically significant (p < 0.001). The coefficients for each predictor variable represent the expected change in the dependent variable for a one-unit increase in the predictor, while holding other predictors constant. The standardized coefficients (Beta) allow for a comparison of the relative importance of each predictor. The predictor variables “Autocratic,” “Laissez-faire,” “Digital,” “Problem-solving,” “Emotional Intelligence,” “Leadership Styles,” “Decision-making Skills,” and “Communication strategies” all have statistically significant coefficients (p < 0.05). The predictor variable “Democratic” does not appear to have a significant effect on administrative effectiveness, as its coefficient has a p-value of 0.286, which is greater than 0.05. The coefficients for “Oral Communication” and “Non-oral Communication” suggest that these variables have a relatively weak or negligible effect on administrative effectiveness, as their p-values are not statistically significant (greater than 0.05). Overall, the coefficients indicate that variables related to leadership styles (autocratic, laissez-faire, digital), decision-making skills (problem-solving, emotional intelligence), and communication strategies significantly influence administrative effectiveness. These results can help understand the specific impact of each predictor on the outcome variable and provide insights for improving administrative effectiveness in the context studied.

 Discussion of Findings

The findings of the study aim to assess the level of administrative effectiveness among principals in public secondary schools in Oyo State. The table presents the results of the study, focusing on three aspects: planning, coordination, and supervision. According to the study conducted by Pardosi and Utari (2022), effective planning positively influences student achievement. The current study aligns with this finding, as the majority of respondents (82.6%) recognise the importance of early planning in academic activities. This suggests that educators understand the role of proactive planning in achieving successful academic outcomes. Coordination is identified as a crucial aspect of school management in the present study. Approximately 41.2% of the participants acknowledged the significance of establishing and implementing a shared school vision. This finding supports the research done by Zina (2017), emphasising the importance of a shared vision in promoting collaboration and alignment of goals among school stakeholders. However, the moderate level of agreement (mean score: 3.26) indicates that there is room for improvement in fostering a stronger shared vision among participants. Integrity, fairness, and ethical behaviour within the school community are also highlighted in the current study as important aspects of coordination. This finding aligns with the research by Neal, Justice, and Barron (2019), which suggests that promoting ethical behaviour has a positive impact on the school climate and student engagement. The relatively high agreement (65.4%) and mean score (3.54) indicate the significance placed on ethical values in school management. Regarding supervision, the study emphasises the importance of teachers writing lesson plans and notes (72.1%) and maintaining punctuality among school staff (67.8%). These findings are consistent with the research conducted by Pardosi and Utari (2022), which highlights the positive impact of effective supervision practices on teacher performance and student achievement. The high agreement percentages and mean scores for these items further emphasise their importance in creating conducive learning environment.

Research question two aimed to examine the prevalent leadership styles among public secondary school principals in Oyo State. The study focused on four leadership styles: Autocratic, Digital, Democratic, and Laissez-faire. The findings revealed that the Autocratic leadership style was the most commonly reported, with a frequency of 44.575%. This finding is consistent with previous research highlighting the prevalence of autocratic leadership in educational settings (Daniëls, Hondeghem, & Dochy, 2019). Autocratic leadership is characterised by centralised decision-making and limited input from subordinates, with the leader making decisions unilaterally. While autocratic leadership can offer quick decision-making and clarity, it may restrict participation, creativity, and ownership among staff members (Abdullatef, 2019). The digital leadership style, with a frequency of 34.45%, was reported to be somewhat prevalent. Digital leadership refers to leadership practises that embrace technology and digital tools to enhance communication, collaboration, and instructional practises (Gedifew, 2022). The emergence of digital leadership reflects the changing landscape of education and the need for leaders to effectively leverage technology. Digital leadership can facilitate connectivity, knowledge sharing, and innovation among staff and students, leading to enhanced learning experiences (Elrehail, 2018). The findings also indicated a moderate prevalence of the Democratic leadership style, with a frequency of 31.05%. Democratic leadership emphasises shared decision-making and the involvement of stakeholders in the decision-making processes (Mburuki & Thinguri, 2022). This finding aligns with previous research highlighting the positive impact of democratic leadership on school climate, teacher motivation, and student engagement (Wina Novita, Sulaiman, & Muhyani Rizalie, 2022). By involving teachers, staff, and other stakeholders in decision-making, democratic leadership fosters a sense of ownership, empowerment, and commitment to the school’s goals. Lastly, the laissez-faire leadership style, with a frequency of 19.575%, was reported to be relatively less prevalent. Laissez-faire leadership is characterised by a hands-off approach where leaders provide minimal guidance or direction to subordinates (Zhang, Wang, & Gao, 2023). This leadership style can result in ambiguity, a lack of accountability, and reduced organisational effectiveness (Mburuki & Thinguri, 2022). However, in contexts where there is a high level of expertise and self-motivation among staff members, a laissez-faire approach can foster autonomy and innovation (Zhang, 2023).

Research question three aimed to assess the decision-making skills (problem-solving, time management, emotional intelligence) of public secondary school principals in Oyo State. The study examined three specific skills: problem-solving, time management, and emotional intelligence. The findings revealed that school administrators generally utilize problem-solving skills, although the frequency of use varied across different stages. Most respondents reported consistently identifying and defining problems (69.3%), generating possible solutions (62.2%), evaluating options (56.1%), implementing solutions (58.3%), and assessing the outcomes (55.3%). These findings indicate active engagement in problem-solving processes by administrators. However, a small percentage of respondents reported infrequently (9.5%) or never (0.9%) evaluating different options, suggesting areas for improvement in decision-making. The weighted mean for problem-solving was 3.51, indicating a moderate level of engagement overall. A similar study by Özgenel (2018) on educational administrators’ problem-solving skills identified comparable patterns, where administrators generally engaged in problem-solving processes, with a majority actively identifying and defining problems. However, the current study reported a higher percentage of administrators involved in problem identification and definition (69.3%) compared to Özgenel’s findings, suggesting a relatively stronger emphasis on problem-solving in the current sample. Regarding time management, the results demonstrated that school administrators employ various strategies to effectively manage their time. The most commonly reported practice was creating and adhering strictly to a schedule (51.9%), followed by conducting time audits (37.7%), avoiding multitasking (31.1%), delegating and outsourcing tasks (42.1%), and promoting time management among staff (59.4%). However, a significant percentage of respondents reported engaging in multitasking (17.0%), which can potentially hinder effective time management. The weighted mean for time management was 3.28, indicating a moderate level of implementation overall. The current study aligns with research conducted by Manga (2019) in terms of the strategies employed by administrators. Creating and adhering strictly to a schedule was the most frequently reported practice in both studies. However, the current study reported a higher percentage of administrators engaging in this practice (51.9%) compared to Manga’s findings. Conversely, the current study found a higher percentage of administrators involved in multitasking (17.0%) compared to Manga’s study. This difference highlights the need for further investigation into the factors influencing multitasking behaviors among administrators. Regarding emotional intelligence, the findings suggested that school administrators generally exhibit self-awareness and emotional control. Over 40% of respondents reported creating self-awareness and controlling their emotions. Additionally, a substantial percentage agreed that they actively listen to staff comments or reactions (53.5%) and manage and understand staff’s emotions (48.4%). However, the achievement orientation aspect of emotional intelligence received relatively lower scores, with only 58.8% of respondents identifying as achievement-oriented individuals. The overall weighted mean for emotional intelligence was 3.37, indicating a moderate level of emotional intelligence among school administrators. The current study’s findings align with the research by Özgenel (2018) and Manga (2019) regarding self-awareness and emotional control. Similar proportions of administrators in all three studies reported creating self-awareness and controlling their emotions. However, the current study reported a relatively lower percentage of administrators identifying as achievement-oriented individuals (58.8%) compared to Özgenel’s findings. This difference suggests potential variations in achievement orientation across different samples of administrators. When considering the overall weighted mean across problem-solving, time management, and emotional intelligence, the study indicates a moderate level of proficiency in these areas among school administrators, with an overall weighted mean of 3.39. This suggests that while administrators generally demonstrate competence in these domains, there is room for improvement in certain aspects, such as evaluating different options before making decisions and multitasking avoidance. It is significant to acknowledge that this research has certain constraints, which involve depending on self-reported data and the possibility of response bias. To gain a more extensive comprehension of administrators’ problem-solving, time management, and emotional intelligence abilities, future studies could incorporate supplementary approaches like observations or objective performance assessments. Moreover, examining how these skills relate to organisational outcomes, such as school performance or staff satisfaction, could yield valuable insights into the influence of administrators’ competencies on the overall functioning of schools.

Research question four assesses the prominent communication forms (oral and non-oral) used among public secondary school principals in Oyo state. Table 4.4a presents the findings related to non-oral communication methods, while Table 4.4b focuses on oral communication methods. Table 4.4a presents the results of the non-oral communication frequency among the participants. The table includes various items of non-oral communication, along with the corresponding frequencies and percentages indicating how often each form of communication was used. The most frequently used form of non-oral communication reported by the participants was “Reports,” with a frequency of 2144 (54.9%) participants indicating that they always used this method. Additionally, 1211 participants (31.0%) reported using reports sometimes, 410 participants (10.5%) reported using it rarely, and 143 participants (3.7%) reported never using reports. The mean score for reports was 3.37, indicating a relatively high level of usage. “Manuals” were also frequently used, with 1195 participants (30.6%) indicating that they always used manuals. However, the usage of manuals varied more compared to reports, with 1812 participants (46.4%) using them sometimes, 571 participants (14.6%) using them rarely, and 330 participants (8.4%) never using manuals. The mean score for manuals was 2.99. “Memorandum” usage was reported by 1250 participants (32.1%) as always, with 1703 participants (43.7%) using them sometimes, 716 participants (18.4%) using them rarely, and 224 participants (5.8%) never using memorandums. The mean score for memorandums was 3.02. “Correspondence” had a similar pattern, with 1092 participants (27.9%) reporting always using it, 1563 participants (40.0%) sometimes using it, 893 participants (22.9%) using it rarely, and 360 participants (9.2%) never using correspondence. The mean score for correspondence was 2.87. Lastly, “Suggestion boxes” were used less frequently compared to the other non-oral communication methods. Only 863 participants (22.1%) reported always using suggestion boxes, while 1050 participants (26.9%) used them sometimes, 963 participants (24.6%) used them rarely, and 1032 participants (26.4%) never used suggestion boxes. The mean score for suggestion boxes was 2.45. The weighted mean for non-oral communication was calculated as 2.94, indicating that overall, the participants reported a moderate level of usage for non-oral communication methods. Moving on to Table 4.4b, which presents the findings for oral communication, the participants reported higher levels of usage compared to non-oral communication methods. The table includes items of oral communication, along with the corresponding frequencies and percentages. “Staff meetings” were the most frequently used form of oral communication, with 2495 participants (63.8%) reporting always participating in staff meetings. Additionally, 1244 participants (31.8%) reported participating sometimes, 155 participants (4.0%) reported participating rarely, and only 14 participants (0.4%) reported never participating in staff meetings. The mean score for staff meetings was 3.59, indicating a high level of usage. “One-on-one communication” was also commonly reported, with 1787 participants (45.7%) indicating always engaging in this form of communication. Furthermore, 1628 participants (41.7%) engaged in one-on-one communication sometimes, 381 participants (9.7%) engaged in it rarely, and 112 participants (2.9%) reported never engaging in one-on-one communication. The mean score for one-on-one communication was 3.30. The weighted mean for oral communication was calculated as 3.45, indicating that overall, the participants reported a relatively high level of usage for oral communication methods. In conclusion, the findings from Tables 4.4a and 4.4b suggest that the participants in the study reported using both non-oral and oral communication methods in their work. Non-oral communication methods, such as reports and manuals, were used moderately, while oral communication methods, such as staff meetings and one-on-one communication, were used more frequently. These findings highlight the importance of both non-oral and oral communication in the workplace and provide insights into the communication preferences and practices of the participants. The current study aligns with the research conducted by Anya and Ezekie (2019) in terms of the communication forms employed by administrators. Making use of oral and non-oral was mostly used in both studies. However, the current study reported a higher percentage of administrators engaging in the use of oral communication compared to the findings of Anya and Ezekie, (2019). On the other hand, some contrast was observed in the findings of Guffey and Loewy, (2018). This difference highlights the need for further investigation into the forms of communication used among administrators.

Test of hypothesis one showed a significant combined influence of leadership styles (autocratic, democratic, laissez-faire, and digital), decision-making skills (problem solving skills, time management skills, and emotional intelligence) and communication forms (oral and non-oral) on administrative effectiveness of public secondary schools principals in Oyo state. The result showed that there was a significant combined influence of leadership styles (autocratic, democratic, laissez-faire, and digital), decision-making skills (problem-solving skills, time management skills, and emotional intelligence), and communication forms (oral and non-oral) on administrative effectiveness of public secondary school principals, and can be compared and contrasted with findings from related studies in the field of educational administration and leadership. When comparing with related studies, similarities were found in the findings of different scholars. One of the scholars found out that leadership styles had a significant impact on administrative effectiveness, which aligns with the current study’s results (Khajeh, 2018). Similarly, it revealed that decision-making skills were positively correlated with leadership effectiveness, consistent with the current study’s findings (Schalk, Engen & Assen, 2018). On the other hand, some contrasts were observed in the findings of different scholars. A scholar found a negative correlation between autocratic leadership and administrative effectiveness, which contrasts with the current study’s result (Surucu & Sagbas, 2021). Also, another scholar did not find significant correlations between problem-solving skills, time management skills, and leadership effectiveness, in contrast to the current study’s findings (Gravili, Manuti & Meririnhos, 2022).

Test of hypothesis two revealed significant relative influence of leadership styles (autocratic, democratic, laissez-faire, and digital), decision-making skills (problem solving skills, time management skills, and emotional intelligence) and communication forms (oral and non-oral) on administrative effectiveness of public secondary schools principals in public secondary schools in Oyo state. Based on the test of hypothesis, the findings indicated that leadership styles, decision-making skills, and communication forms significantly influenced the administrative effectiveness of public secondary school principals in Oyo state. . Specifically, the study identified four leadership styles, namely autocratic, democratic, laissez-faire, and digital, that were found to have relative influence on administrative effectiveness. This result is consistent with previous related studies in the field. For example, a study conducted in a different state or country may have found similar results, indicating that leadership styles, decision-making skills, and communication forms are important factors influencing the administrative effectiveness of school principals. This consistency in findings suggests that these factors are likely to have a universal impact on administrative effectiveness in the context of public secondary schools. However, it’s also possible that there may be some differences in the findings when compared to related studies. For instance, some previous studies may have focused on specific leadership styles or decision-making skills, whereas the current study included a broader range of leadership styles and decision-making skills. Additionally, the context and setting of the current study, which is Oyo state in this case, may differ from that of related studies, which could result in variations in the findings.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the study concluded that leadership styles, communication forms, and decision-making skills are significant determinants of administrative effectiveness in public secondary schools in Oyo State, Nigeria. It was also concluded that leadership styles as explains a significant amount of the variance in administrative effectiveness, indicating a strong positive relationship between leadership styles and administrative effectiveness. The findings of the study on the level of decision-making skills (problem-solving, time management, emotional intelligence) show that the principals rated themselves high in problem-solving skills, followed by emotional intelligence and time management. Also, the findings highlight the importance of both non-oral and oral communication in the workplace and provide insights into the communication preferences and practices of the participants.

Recommendations

Based on the findings of the study, it is recommended that 

1. Public secondary school principals in Oyo State, Nigeria should focus on developing effective leadership styles, decision-making skills, and communication strategies to enhance their administrative effectiveness. This may include providing leadership training programs, fostering problem-solving and time-management skills, and promoting effective oral and non-oral communication within the school environment.
2. Public secondary school principals should prioritize developing and promoting effective leadership styles, invest in training and development program for improving leadership skills, and create a positive leadership culture to enhance administrative effectiveness. 
3. Decision-making skills should be recognized and prioritized as an important factor in enhancing administrative effectiveness of public secondary school principals in Oyo State, Nigeria. This should be incorporated into trainings and seminars and should form major criteria for appointing secondary school principals.
4. Public secondary schools should prioritize and invest in training principals in effective communication forms to enhance their administrative effectiveness. This may include developing clear and efficient communication channels, improving communication their skills, fostering open and transparent communication culture, and using various communication tools and techniques. By doing so, public schools are likely to see improvements in their administrative effectiveness, leading to more efficient and effective operations. It is important to keep in mind that effective communication is a continuous process and should be regularly monitored and evaluated for optimal results.

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J.O. Obielumani¹ S.C. Okotume¹ & I.I.Onyeuku²

¹Department of Chemistry Education Federal college of Education (Tech.), Asaba, Delta State, Nigeria

²Department of Integrated Science Education, Federal college of Education (Tech.), Asaba, Delta State, Nigeria

Abstract 

This study aimed to evaluate the efficacy of zinc oxide/plantain peelings nanoparticles for oil spill contaminated surface water remediation within Ogoni creek of Niger Delta, Nigeria. The nanoparticles were characterized using scanning electron microscope (SEM) and X-ray Powder diffraction (XRD), taking in cognizance of the physicochemical parameters prior and after analysis so as to ascertain efficacy of the remediation method. SEM revealed the image of an irregular morphology and a porous surface which can enable oil entrance into the internal parts of the nano materials for easy sorption purposes. The XRD revealed a hexagonal wurtzite structure with a particle size of 22nm. The synthesized nanoparticles exhibited adsorption properties when used on the surface water samples showing percentage remediation ranging between 2.38 – 8.56% (SWa); 2.16 – 8.83% (SWb); and 53.33-77.62% (SWc). The results showed that the plantain peelings/ZnONPs had good efficacy for oil spill removal in the contaminated surface water samples. Kinetics of remediation gave a linear graph and took a pseudo-first order reaction with R² values close to 1. (R² = 0.978, 0.985 and 0.963). ANOVA revealed that there is a significant difference (p<0.05) at 95% confidence limit in the diminishing trend of the surface water contaminated samples. It is therefore recommended that nano materials harnessed from biomass materials in conjunction with other green synthesis should be employed for water remediation.

Keywords: Adsorption, Nanoparticles, Physicochemical, Remediation, Surface water 

            Graphical Abstract 1

  Plantain peels (b) Dried and ground plantain peels powder (c) Filtrate of plantain peel extract (d) Filtrate + Zinc acetate (e) Centrifuge and oven dry (f) SEM (g) XRD (h) Oil spill contaminated water site

1.0 Introduction. 

            Extensive oil spill contamination and degradation of surface water and its resulting detriment to green environmental actualization has remained a challenge since the discovery and exploration of crude oil in Niger-Delta, Nigeria. Oil spills often resulting from unforeseen disasters [1], accidental leakages [2] and youth restiveness [3] have been recorded over the years in the Niger Delta zone of Nigeria. Spill experts have estimated about 30-50% of oil spills to be caused either directly or indirectly by human error while 20-40% is caused by equipment failure or malfunction [4]. Natural conditions for degradation of petroleum and its related products are favourable with high temperatures and high rainfall, the recovery of contaminated areas proves difficult due to nature and extent of contamination [5].

 Serious global health impacts ranging from physical and mental disorders, organ dysfunction, neurological disorder, respiratory problem cancer, reduced life expectancy, weakening of the body’s immune system, respiratory problems and death have often resulted from oil spill and related issues [6]; [7];[8] while other health related issues emanating from oil pollution  may involve high levels of emotional stress and psychological distress resulting from living under such environmental adversity[9].

            Remediation of oil spills is a serious issue due to contaminants adverse effects on the biosphere. Oil spreads on the top surface of water and form a horizontal smooth and slippery surface known as slick. This forms a thin coating on bird’s feathers and as such causes it to lose its insulating properties and subsequently results in its freezing and death. It may also reduce the amount of dissolved oxygen in water necessary for marine life sustainability. Oil spill has toxic impact on aquatic animals and damages their food resources and habitats. It may also result in devastation of land and vegetation and subsequently leads to poor yield in agricultural productivity Therefore, proper remediation must be done after oil spillage [10]. 

Methods employed in remediating water differs and often depends on factors such as adequate procedure, type of contaminants involved and nature of contaminated site. An eco-friendly and sustainable approach towards the environment has introduced many low-cost, non-toxic and biodegradable materials along with different biomasses to make  micro-to nano-sized materials, membranes and aerogels for the sole purpose of  oil contaminated water treatment and oil recovery [11].

 Contaminated water may involve the use of economical and environmentally – friendly sorbent materials in oil spill treatment and may allow the recovery of the oil and reuse of these sorbents [12]. While conventional methods often applied for water clean-up may include physical, chemical, thermal and biological methods [13,14], these conventionalmethods have moved oil experts a step forward in remediation advancement, since they are not adequate enough to solve the problem of massive oil spills as most often, technical difficulties are encountered in the process [15].

The synthesis of Kapok fiber using Polybutylmethacrylate silica nanoparticles [16]; cotton/SiO₂ nanoparticle modified with Octadecyltrichlorosilane [17] and Kapok fibre based on Fe₃O₄ nanoparticles with Dopamine modification [18] for oil sorption in water medium has been reported.

The sorption capacity of Plantain peels as low cost agricultural wastes is a promising need for oil spill remediation and agricultural waste management. 

. Therefore the necessity to enhance the applicability of nanomaterials in remediating oil spilled surface water in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria is of paramount importance.

1.1 Statement of Problem

The Niger Delta region of Nigeria has faced unprecedented negative environmental impacts in recent times due to the menace caused by oil spill. This region which is situated on the Gulf of Guinea on the Atlantic Ocean in Nigeria [19], is made up of Abia, Akwa Ibom, Bayesa, Cross River, Delta, Edo, Imo, Ondo and Rivers State. The region consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, fresh water swamps, rain forest and is the largest wetland in Africa and has been among the ten most important wetland and marine ecosystems in the world [9].  The Niger Delta region is noted with a remarkable history of oil and gas exploration dated back from 1956 but as a result of frequent oil spillage in both terrestrial and aquatic environment, poor vegetation, surface and ground water contamination, and land degradation has rendered the region a complete devastated wasteland. These have caused a substantial retrogression in agricultural activities off the coastal waters and vegetation. There is acute food shortage, malnutrition and death which has devastated the Nigerian economy. 

2.0. Materials and Methods

2.1. Collection and preparation of plantain peel extract

Plantain peel extract, Musa Paradisiaca was obtained from Ogbogono market in Asaba metropolis. The peel was removed and washed with clean water and chopped into smaller sizes. This was air dried for two weeks, mascerated into fine powder with a high speed multipurpose blender.

2.2. Biosynthesis of Zinc oxide Nanoparticles (ZnNPs) using Plantain peel extracts

2.2.1 Synthesis of ZnO Nanoparticles

The synthesis was carried out according the method described by [21]. 1:1 ratio of the zinc oxide and the plantain extracts were mixed in a separate 250 ml Erlymeyer flask. The solution was subjected to continuous stirring and heating at 100 rpm for 4 hours. The resultant nanoparticle solution was purified by centrifugation at 10,000 g for 20 minutes. The supernatants were discarded and the nanoparticles pellets collected, washed with distilled water dried and stored at -80^oC

2. 3. Sampling

            Sampling was carried out strategically in collaboration with local inhabitants within the aquatic environment of Ogoni coastal creek in Niger Delta region of Delta State. Surface water samples were collected using the composite sampling method on 2 hour intervals for a 24 hour duration for analysis.

2.4. Analysis of Physicochemical parameters

Physicochemical parameters such as pH, dissolved oxygen, BOD5, COD etc., of the water samples were evaluated to ascertain the extent of contamination prior to and after remediation. The composite water samples were kept in transparent plastic bottles, and thereafter, sent to the laboratory for physicochemical analyses maintaining all laboratory conditions. The pH of the water samples was determined using a pH meter of model, pHS-25; Turbidity of water samples were determined using Waz-B model turbidimeter after initial calibration of the instrument using the manufacturer’s certified reference materials (<0.1, 10, 100, 500 and 1000 Nephelogical Turbidity Unit (NTU), following the procedures lay down in the manufacturers’ manual guide and the instrument was turned to zero. Dissolved oxygen of the water sample was determined using a Dissolved Oxygen Analyzer, model JPB – 607 Portable meter after initial calibration following the procedures provided in the manufacturers’ manual. This was carried out by employing the method of [20]. The Electrical Conductivity of the water sample was measured using a conductivity meter. The instrument was switched on to stabilize and allowed for 10 minutes. The instrument was initially calibrated using the manufacturer’s standard.  The probe was immersed into the water sample while completely submerging the holes of the sleeve. Air bubbles trapped in the sleeve were removed by gently tapping the bottom of the cup with a probe.

2.5. Characterization of synthesized ZnO nanoparticles

The dried P-ZnNPs were characterized using PAN analytical Xpert Pro θ-2θ powder X-ray diffractometer. The instrument used a Cu Kα radiation of wavelength = 0.1541nm at 45 kV with a monochromatic filter of ^o2 in a scan range of 20-80^o with a scanning speed of 6o/min.  Estimation of  particle sizes was performed by Debye-Scherrer’s formula. The functional group present in the ZnO/plantain peel extract nanoparticles were confirmed using FT-IR spectrometer vector 22, Bruker, Germany. The pellets were scanned at 4 cm^-1 resolution in the spectra range of 400-400 cm^-1 at room temperature. The morphological properties were determined prior to analysis. The synthesized ZnO nanoparticles were mounted on aluminium studs and coated with gold film. Visualization of ZnO morphology was performed using a SEM. The size of particles was then analyzed using the ImageJ Program according to the method of [22].

2.6. Application of plantain-MNPs for Oil Spill Contaminated Water Samples

2 g was put in a 500 ml beaker and then 250 ml of distilled water was added. Various ratios of Plantain-MNPs to contaminated oil spilled soil samples, ranging from 1:1 to 1:50, were added and mixed using a glass rod. A permanent Nd-Fe-B magnet (4300 Gauss) was used to collect the dispersed oil spill after every 10 minutes. The remaining oil was extracted from the medium, using ethyl ether. The efficiency of the Plantain-MNPs on the sample was calculated using the equation below:

                        XE (%) =  X 100

where V₀ and V₁ are the volume of the removed and original oil, respectively. The used MNPs are collected by an external magnetic field, washed severally with ethyl ether and then recycled. 

2.7. Kinetics of Nano-remediation of the Water samples

The remediation experiment was carried out according to the methods of [23].

The kinetics of nano-remediation of the surface water samples was monitored at hourly intervals. This is to observe the dynamics and ascertain the efficacy of the method. This was achieved by monitoring the changes in the physicochemical parameters of the samples adsorbent rate of solute.

2.7.1Adsorption Kinetics

In order to determine the potential steps which control the adsorption rate in terms of chemical stoichiometry, mass transport process, pseudo-first order pseudo-second order, Elovich and intraparticle diffusion models [24] were used to test the experimental data. As shown in the following equations:

       .     qt = -exp(-k₁t) qe + qe…………………   1

                    qt = k₂ * qe²                   ………………2

                           1 + k₂ * qe * t

                    qt = 1 ln (1 + α *β *             ……………………3

                           β

                    qt = K_ID  +1…………………………4

where t is the contact time in hour; k1 is the first order rate constant (h-1); k2 is the rate constant of the second order (h/l); qt is the amount of adsorbate in the adsorbentat time t (mg/g); + α is the initial adsorption rate of the Elovich model (mg/g/min) and + β is the adsorption constant of the model (g.mg-1); KID is the intraparticle diffusion rate constant; t is the time of contact (min) and I is the intra-particle diffusion kinetic model intercept. 

            Statistical treatment was achieved by preparing samples in triplicates. Statistical tool used was Standard Deviation (SD), Coefficient of Variation (CV) and Analysis of Variance (ANOVA). 

3.0. Results and Discussion

3.1. Physicochemical parameters of surface water samples

Table 1: 

Data for the physicochemical parameters of the surface water samples for the Go khana and Bodo city

Sampling sites	pH	Temp OC	EC (µS/cm)	TDS mg/l	COD(mg/l)	Nitrate(mg/l)	Phosphate(mg/l)
SWa1	7.30 ±0.06	27.40 ± 1.50	356 ± 1.10	142 ± 2.00	235.40 ± 2.50	7.22 ± 0.06	15.50 ± 1.75
SWb1	7.62 ±0.05	27.80 ± 2.20	366 ± 1.20	210 ± 3.20	232.20 ± 1.00	4.46 ± 0.60	10.80 ± 1.65
SWa2	7.20 ±0.15	26.50 ± 2.10	385 ± 1.60	115 ± 300	263.50 ± 4.00	3.30 ± 0.05	9.20 ± 2.40
SWb2	7.28 ±0.02	27.00 ± 1.80	420 ± 1.00	167 ± 4.00	244.20 ± 2.50	4.70 ± 1.30	8.50 ± 0.70
SWc1	7.50 ±0.03	26.60 ± 1.70	300 ± 1.00	125 ± 2.00	30.70 ± 4.40	2.60 ± 1.50	6.45 ± 1.55
SWc2	7.10±0.07	25.30 ± 2.40	269 ± 1.40	232 ± 3.50	22.80 ± 2.70	1.85 ± 0.80	6.00 ± 1.35
WHO (2011)	6-5 – 8.5	–	1000	600	200	50	˂5

SWa₁: Surface water samples from Eleme SWa₂: Surface water samples from Bodo City

SWb₁: Surface water samples from Tai; SWb₂: Surface water Sample from Gokana

SWc₁: Surface water nanoremediated (Eleme and Bodo City)  

SWc₂: Surface water nanoremediated (Tai and Gokana).

Data for the physicochemical parameters of the surface water samples for the Eleme, Bodo city, Tai and Gokana are recorded in table 4. pH values ranged between 7.10± 0.06 – 7.62± 0.05 in all the samples with SWb₂ recording a high pH of 7.62 probably as a result of high concentration of oil spillage and anthropogenic activities emanating from dumping of wastes   within that region [25]; [26] had reported that very low or very high pH may be detrimental to aquatic life in general. pH values recorded in this study were within WHO limits of   6.5 – 8.5 and also within the values of 8.60±0.02 reported by [27] in a related research.

Temperature values recorded in this study ranged between 25.30± 2.20 – 27.80± 1.50 across all the samples analyzed. Slight temperature elevation of 27.80 recorded for SWa₁ may be accorded to the extent of oil solubility and dispersants within the water body. A percentage decrease in temperature (8.9%) observed for SWc₁ and SWc₂ could be as a result of effective nanoremediation.

Electrical conductivity which is the ability of solution to conduct electricity is related to ions concentration and total dissolved solids within the water body [28]. EC observed to be 356.00± 1.10, 366.00 ± 1.20, 385.00 ±1.60 and 420.00 ± 1.00 µS/cm for SWa₁, SWb₁, SWa₂ and SWb₂ respectively were obviously higher than those of the nanoremediated samples (300 ± 1.00 and 269±1.40 µS/cm for SWc₁ and SWc₂ respectively) indicating effective remediation.

The chemical oxygen demand (COD) values recorded in this study ranged from 232.80 ± 2.70 to 263.5 0 ± 1.40 mg/l for SWa₁, SWb₁, SWa₂ and SWb₂.These were higher than WHO tolerance limit of 200 mg/L. After nanoremediation, the samples recorded a lower COD values of 30.70 ± 4.40 and 22.80 ± 2.70 mg/L which was lower than WHO permissible limits Chemical oxygen demand is a measure of organic contamination in water. It is the amount of dissolved oxygen required to cause chemical oxidation of the organic material in water and is a key indicator of the environmental health of surface water. Chemical oxygen demand is a measure of both organic and inorganic agents competing for DO in water.

 Mean nitrate values in this study ranged from 1.85 ± 0.80-7.22 ± 0.06, which was far below the WHO tolerance limits of 50 mg/L after remediation. These values were below that reported by [26] Olayinka et al., (2020) who worked on water samples around Atlas cove, Lagos, Nigeria. Phosphate values ranged from 5.35 ± 0.67 to 12.03 ± 0.08 mg/L. 

The phosphate values obtained in this study varied between the sampling sites and were higher than the WHO permissible limit of < 5 mg/l and could probably be due to anthropogenic activities.

Scan Electron Microscope (SEM) of Synthesized Nanomaterials

Figure 2a and 2b shows the images of unripe plantain peels and the modified ZnO nanomaterials. The figure shows that it has an irregular morphology and a porous surface which can enable a large contact area between the absorbent surface for sorption purposes and oil droplets and as well give room for oil retention [29].

Fig 2: (a) Raw plantain peelings                  (b) Modified plantain peelings with ZnO       

X-ray Diffractogram of synthesized zinc oxide nanoparticles

The X-ray diffratogram (XRD) is  shown in figure 3. This is recorded at the range of 2θ with values at  120^O, 175^O, 185^O, 190^O. These peaks are indexed at the Zinc oxide wurtzite structure crystallizing in two main forms as cubic zinc  blend and hexagonal wurtzite. Other peaks are indexed at 100^O, 140^O, 85^O and 90^O for the PPE. All peaks recorded reveals that the synthesized nanopowder was free of interfering impurities devoid of any other characteristic XRD peaks other than that of zinc oxide and plantain peel extract peaks. 

                  Fig 3: XRD diffractogram of Synthesized ZnO nanoparticles

Fourier transforms infrared spectroscopy (FTIR)

Figure 4 shows the FTIR of the PPE and the ZnONPs samples reveals bands at different ranges. The peaks for PPE are at 3,350, 2,890, 2,430, 1620, 1,362 and 1,011 cm^-1.  The peaks for ZnONPS are at 3330, 2,942, 1594, 1,366 and 1,030 cm^-1. The band stretching below 500 cm-1 (432 cm-1) correspond to the Zn-O stretching mode, The band at 1,594 cm-1 correspond to the C-O stretching for esters and alcohols recorded within a range of 1000 cm^-1-1300 cm^-1. The absorption peak at 2,942 is ascribed to the C-H stretch/bending vibrations in alkanes and the peak at 1594 is the C=C stretch of aromatic rings. These data are in line with the results observed by [30].

             Fig 4: FTIR Spectrum of plantain peel and ZnONPs

Total petroleum hydrocarbon

Fig 5: Progressive diminishing trend in TPH removal of SWa₁, SWa₂, SWb₁, and SWb₂ Samples.

Mean concentration of TPH in the surface water samples ranged between 2,230.25± 6.40 and 6,420.00±6.10 mg/l at the commencement of analysis indicating the level of oil contamination in these sites (Figure 5). However, a progressive trend in the removal of TPH was observed across the samples on application of the green synthesis nanoparticles. SWb₂had the highest mean TPH concentration (6,420.00±6.10 mg/l) from commencement and also retained the highest mean concentration after analysis 1,380. 5±4.50 mg/l. The site is dominated with thick emulsified oil giving total resistance to degradation. The mean levels of TPH observed in this study were slightly higher than those of earlier researchers. [31] reported TPH variations from 90 to 250 µg/L in surface water and sedimments of Qua-Iboe River in Akwa-Ibom.

             Extensive oil contamination in Ogoniland, Nigeria has been carried out by [5] and reported Extractable petroleum hydrocarbon of 17,900 mg kg^-1 in sediments and 8.000 mg kg^-1 in surface waters within the coast and creeks of the contaminated sites.  Department of Petroleum Resources (DPR) (2002) sets its TPH permissible limit in water at 10 mg/L. TPH limit for both drinking water and wastewater discharge is 0.5 mg/L [32] while the EPA has the TPH limit as 0.5 mg/L in water. The concentrations obtained in this study were higher than the limits. This may be because of the nature of the aromatic and aliphatic hydrocarbon present in the water.

The reaction pathways of the contact between the oil samples and plantain peelings synthesized ZnO nanoparticles took a pseudo-first order which is based on the assumption that the rate limiting step is a chemical sorption. The adsorption rate is dependent on the adsorption capacity and not on the concentration of the adsorbate as symbolized in the following linear equations

The expression given by Lagergren kinetic model for the Pseudo- first order is given as:

Log10qe-qt = log10qe-kt/2.303…………………………………(1)

lnqe/qt = ln (qe – qt)…………………………………………….(2)

ln (qe – qt) = ln (qe – k1t)……………………………………….(3)

Where qe and qt (mg/kg) are oil spill retention capacity at equilibrium and time t (min), k1 (min^-1) is the constant rate parameters of the Lagergren pseudo-first order model based on the adsorption that the rate of change of solute uptake with time is directly proportional to the difference in saturation concentration and the amount of solid uptake with time which is generally applicable over the initial stage of adsorption process [33]. The values of k₁ as well as the adsorption capacity (qt) were determined from the slope and intercept of the plotted curves (Figures 7a-d). Correlation coefficient R² were close to 1 in all samples. This observation is constant with findings of [34] who studied the kinetics and thermodynamics for the sorptive removal of crude oil spills using a low-cost chitosan-poly (butyl acrylate) grafted copolymer. 

The Elovich kinetic model employed in their study revealed a linear graph with R² close to 1.

Fig 5a: Pseudo – first order plots for the diminishing trend of TPH in water samples on application of synthesized Plantain peelings extract/ZnO nanoparticles for SWa₁

 Fig 5b: Pseudo – first order plots for the diminishing trend of TPH in water samples on application of synthesized Plantain peelings extract/ZnO nanoparticles for SWb₁

Fig 5c: Pseudo – first order plots for the diminishing trend of TPH in water samples on application of synthesized Plantain peelings extract/ZnO nanoparticles for SWc₁

 Fig 5d: Pseudo – first order plots for the diminishing trend of TPH in water samples on application of synthesized Plantain peelings extract/ZnO nanoparticles for SWc₂

Conclusion

Difficulties and environmental hazards often attained in the attempt to remediate oil contaminated soils and other affected media has kept the remediation industry in a dilemma of recent. In other to overcome this challenge, green synthesis using plantain peelings (Musa Paradisiaca) extract, a cost effective waste material synthesized with ZnO for the remediation of oil spill contaminated water medium has proven to be efficient amongst other remediation technologies. The synthesized plantain peelings/ZnONPs employed in this study exhibited adsorption properties when used on the oil spill contaminated surface water samples. A progressive trend in the removal of TPH was observed across the samples on application of the green synthesis nanoparticles indicating that the synthesized MPE/ZnONPs had good efficacy for oil spill removal in the contaminated surface water samples. SWb₂ had the highest mean TPH concentration (6,420.00±6.10 mg/l) from commencement and also retained the highest mean concentration after analysis 1,380.35±4.50 mg/l as the site is dominated with thick emulsified oil giving total resistance to degradation. (Figure 5).

Recommendation

Based on the findings from this study, it is therefore recommended that for optimum remediation efficacy, most especially in oil saturated water medium where there are increase in oil and emulsion densities low cost effective and environmentally-friendly modified bio-based waste materials, may be employed for optimum degradability of bio recalcitrant pollutants.

 Efforts should also be made by concerned bodies to adopt a collaborative approach which may involve combined remedial techniques as most of the sites under study have been heavily impacted with oil contaminants including the mangroves, creeks and rivers and as such, effective remediation would take some time to be achieved.

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Applications are now open for the inaugural edition of Best Web Series (OTT) Award, which is being introduced starting with the 54^th edition of the International Film Festival of India, to be held in Goa during November 20 – 28, 2023.

Objectives of the Award

The Award is aimed at acknowledging, encouraging and honouring the flourishing OTT content and its creators. It seeks to foster growth and innovation in the Indian OTT industry by encouraging and celebrating web series content produced for and screened on digital platforms. The award also aims to encourage OTT content in Indian languages by promoting regional diversity and creativity in the web content industry, including content produced in regional languages. The Award will recognize and reward exceptional talent that has realized its potential due to the opportunities provided by the OTT space in India. In keeping with India’s growing creative economy, the award will also aim to incentivize and create investment opportunities in India’s OTT sector by providing avenues to content creators and OTT platforms to showcase their work, exchange knowledge, and foster international relationships through the International Film Festival of India (IFFI).

The winner will be announced and honoured at the 54^th edition of IFFI.

Tell the Story of a Rising and Aspirational New India: I&B Minister

It may be recalled that the Award was announced on July 18, 2023, by the Union Minister for Information and Broadcasting (I&B) Shri Anurag Singh Thakur.

Noting that India is filled with exceptional talent, the Shri Thakur has encouraged content creators to “tell the story of a rising and aspirational New India – ready to lead the world, with a billion dreams and a billion untold stories!” He added that beginning this year at the 54^th International Film Festival of India, the award will be presented annually.

Speaking about the intent of the I&B Ministry in introducing the Best Web Series (OTT) Award, the Union Minister had said: “The Indian entertainment industry has seen a tectonic change in the last few years. It is interesting to note that a recent report of FICCI-EnY shows that not only was 3,000 hours of new and original OTT content created in India in 2022, but the viewership on OTT platforms has grown from 13.5 crores to 18 crores in the last few years, whereas the number of cinema hall goers stands at 12.2 crore, 6 crore less than the consumption on OTT. A need was therefore felt to foster and promote the growth of the Indian OTT industry and acknowledge regional talent that India is so rich in.”

Eligibility for the Award

To be eligible for the award, the web series has to be originally created / shot series in any Indian language. It has to be an original piece of work commissioned, produced, co-produced, licensed, or acquired with the purpose of releasing ONLY on the OTT Platform. All episodes of the entry (web series/season) should have been released on an OTT platform between January 1, 2022, and December 31, 2022.

Further, the web series/season under application must have a total runtime of at least 180 minutes, have a minimum of three (3) episodes, have each episode of duration 25 minutes or more and be tied together under the same title or trade name.

How to Apply for the Award

Applicants should submit the entry through the prescribed online entry form, which is available at the Award website: https://bestwebseriesaward.com/. The entries can be submitted online till 6 PM on 25th August, 2023. In addition to the online submission, the stamped and signed hard copy of the submitted online application along with its adjoining material must be received by 31st August, 2023. In the event that 31^st August, 2023 is declared a holiday, the next working day will be considered as the final date for receipt of the application.

Award Components

The award for the Best Web Series will be presented to one web series for its artistic merit, storytelling, technical excellence and overall impact. A cash Prize of Rs. 10 lakhs will be awarded, to be shared equally among the Director(s), Creator(s) and the Producer(s) / Production house(s) / OTT Platform (in case of an original production or coproduction). Certificates too will be awarded to Director(s) / Creator(s) or both, and the Producer(s) / Production House(s) /OTT Platform (in case of original production or co-production) and to the OTT platform streaming the web-series.

There shall be a two-tier system, a Preview Committee and a Jury, for making selections for the award. The jury would comprise eminent film / web series professionals / personalities acclaimed in the field of web-series, cinema, and other allied arts from across India. The preview committee and the jury would be constituted by the Ministry of I&B.

More details on eligibility and other details of the Award are available on the Award website: https://bestwebseriesaward.com/. The rules and regulations of the Award can be found here.

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