Yuanmei Wang

 School of Electronics and Information, Yangtze University, Jingzhou 434023, PR China

Abstract: Ideological and political education is an important part of cultivating innovative talents with firm Ideology Political ideologies for national emerging industries under the background of new engineering. In the previous course teaching of “Digital Image Processing”, the main focus was on explaining the knowledge points of the course without considering the exploration and integration of relevant ideological and political elements contained. According to the above issues, guided by the teaching goal of “trinity” of value shaping, ability cultivation, and knowledge teaching, a preliminary exploration is conducted on the ideological and political aspects of the Digital Image Processing. The paper takes the digital image processing course as an example to elaborate on the ideological and political teaching methods for professional courses. By exploring the ideological and political elements, reconstructing teaching design and changing teaching strategies, the ideological and political education of the course is integrated into the entire process of professional teaching, in order to achieve the education goal of “moistening things silently”. Practice has shown that students’ enthusiasm for learning this course has been significantly increased, and their satisfaction with the ideological and political content of the course is high, achieving the expected teaching effects.

Keywords: Curriculum Ideological and Political Education, Digital Image Processing, Establishing Virtue and Cultivating Talents.

1. Introduction

In December 2016，General Secretary xi jin-ping had an important speech at the National Conference on Ideological and Political Work in Higher Education Institutions, which clearly stated that “ideological and political work should be integrated into the entire process of education and teaching, achieving full and all-round education”, as well as “all types of courses should go hand in hand with ideological and political theory courses, forming a synergistic effect” [1]. Since February 2017, the Ministry of Education actively promoted the construction of new engineering, and had formed the “Fudan Consensus” and “Tianda Action”. The construction of new engineering compared with traditional engineering emphasized more on the practicality, intersectionality and comprehensiveness of disciplines in emerging industries, such as artificial intelligence, intelligent manufacturing, robots, cloud computing, etc [2]. In contrast to the distinctive characteristics of the new engineering major, digital image processing technology is not only an applied technology course in the field of artificial intelligence, but also fully possesses the characteristics of the new engineering major, which is bound to serve China’s emerging industries[3]. In May 2020, the Ministry of Education issued the “Guidelines for the Ideological and Political Construction of Curriculum in Higher Education Institutions”, which pointed out that “engineering courses should focus on strengthening students’ engineering ethics education, cultivating students’ spirit of striving for excellence as a great craftsman, and stimulating students’ patriotism and mission responsibility for serving the country through science and technology” [4].

Integrating ideological and political education into all aspects of curriculum teaching and reform, to achieve the goal of cultivating morality and nurturing people by moistening things silently. Focusing on the curriculum goal of combining knowledge transmission and value guidance, we will construct a comprehensive curriculum education pattern [5], strengthen explicit ideological political education and refine implicit ideological political education. Contemporary youth should establish the lofty ideals and beliefs of communism, possess the ability to distinguish right from wrong, and develop a correct worldview, outlook on life and values. At present, some engineering students do not devote much attention to the  importance of the study of ideological and political courses, and their learning enthusiasm is not very high. Therefore, engineering university education must build a comprehensive ideological and political education system, especially to fully leverage the ideological and political education role of various professional courses. While teaching professional knowledge, it is necessary to combine theory with application and integrate professional and ideological education to achieve the effect of moistening things silently in education.

The rapid development of artificial intelligence and other technologies have driven a new round of technological revolution and industrial transformation. In this context, the construction of new engineering courses has put forward new requirements for the core literacy and creative ability of innovative talents as an important development strategy for higher education in the new era. New engineering talents will must be the backbone of the future engineering technology field. Therefore, the question of which type talent to cultivate for the new engineering discipline has become the primary issue in higher education. Virtue is the foundation of being a person, and ideological and political education is the key link to implementing the fundamental task of cultivating morality and cultivating people in universities. With the arrival of the Personal media era, people can freely publish and spread their own opinions. The information is messy or mixed with all kinds of extreme and wrong information, which also brings higher difficulties and new challenges to the ideological and political education in universities. Therefore, integrating ideological and political elements into science and engineering courses can make ideological and political education more grounded and closely related to students’ future career in the field of technology, more stimulating the interest of young students. Under the background of the construction of the new engineering discipline, the construction of a complete ideological and political curriculum system is an important measure to accelerate the cultivation of composite talents who love the party and patriotism and have solid basic knowledge with strong innovation ability,and they are willing to practice.

II. Problems of Ideological and Political Education in Digital Image Processing Course

In university engineering education, students spend most of their time studying engineering courses. Engineering courses have the characteristics of professionalism, practicality, innovation, and scientificity. Currently most of them focus on theoretical technology and lack the cultivation of scientific spirit and ethics [6]. There are several main problems in the ideological and political education of digital image processing courses.

1) Neglecting the important role of using professional courses to educate students on values, the awareness of using professional courses for ideological and political education is not strong and the ability to cultivate morality is insufficient.

2) The ideological and political education in the curriculum is not deep enough. There is a characteristic of emphasizing the impartation of knowledge and skills in teaching, ideological and political education is superficial and difficult to implement; teachers tend to focus on professional knowledge teaching in specific education and teaching for tight academic schedules and heavy teaching tasks, However, education in terms of emotions, attitudes, and values often becomes mere formality, lacking a distinctive and dynamically adjusting auxiliary ideological and political curriculum system that integrates professional ethics, humanistic literacy, craftsmanship spirit, and model worker spirit education throughout the entire process of cultivation. 

3) The construction of the content system for ideological and political education in the curriculum is incomplete. Currently ideological and political education in courses has become the main theme of teaching reform in universities, but the construction plan and standards of ideological and political education of digital image processing courses are still in the exploratory stage. Teachers can consciously integrate ideological and political elements into course teaching, but there is no relatively mature curriculum system that combining ideological and political education with professional courses.

Therefore, integrating ideological and political elements into science and engineering courses can make ideological and political education more vivid, grounded, and closely related to students’ future career in the field of technology, thus more appealing to young students. Under the background of the construction of the new engineering, a complete ideological and political curriculum system is an important measure to accelerate the cultivation of composite talents who love the party and patriotism, have solid basic knowledge and strong innovation ability, and are willing to practice.

III. Strategies for Integrating Ideological and Political Education into Professional Course Teaching

Professional course teachers are important forces in carrying out ideological and political education for students in universities. Introducing ideological and political education into professional course teaching is currently the primary goal of professional course teaching reform, and is also an important supplement to ideological and political education in universities, to enable students to master knowledge to the maximum extent in the classroom, stimulating their interest in learning, providing ideological and political education to students silently, and cultivating innovative new engineering talents for society.

3.1 Professional teachers have a correct understanding of curriculum ideology and politics

The main body of ideological and political education in curriculum is not only teachers, but also managers and student workers. It should focus on curriculum education, professional education, and subject education. To deeply analyze the ideological and political elements that can be explored in the course knowledge points, establish teaching objectives for emotional attitudes and values, and cultivate students’ sense of professional identity and recognition of excellent chinese traditional culture. Integrating ideological and political education into professional course teaching can promote professional course teachers to devote importance to the role of words and deeds. Integrating ideological and political elements with professional knowledge and skills in teaching design can subtly influence the cultivation of students’ professional literacy and ideological and moral cultivation. Teachers integrate the ideological and political elements into professional courses silently, making students think and feel about what they have learned.

3.2 Enhancing the ability of ideological and political for professional teachers

Curriculum ideological and political education belongs to implicit ideological and political education, so educational activities should be carried out for students at appropriate educational contexts to achieve the goal of influence people [7]. Curriculum ideological and political education is not simply adding some craftsmanship spirit, chinese excellent traditional culture and advanced deeds to the curriculum, but it requires overall design at the beginning, organically integrating ideological and political elements into professional talent training goals, such as traditional art, Chinese wisdom, revolutionary traditions, etc [8], Teachers should grasp the core elements of ideological and political construction in the curriculum, and further strengthen their conscious awareness of cultivating morality and cultivating people [9].

IV. Analysis of Ideological and Political Elements in Curriculum

4.1 Establishing the objectives of ideological and political education in the course of digital image processing

According to the problems reflected in the analysis of academic situation, teachers should combine the knowledge architecture of digital image processing and teaching practice to determine the educational goals of implementing ideological and political education in the course. It is expected that through the knowledge learning and ability cultivation of this course, students’ quality can be improved in the following aspects.

1) Enhance the sense of mission and responsibility, maintain a positive attitude towards life

In recent years, information technology represented by artificial intelligence and Big data has developed rapidly, and many applications closely related to image processing have changed the production and life style of society. The realization of the Chinese Dream of the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation cannot be achieved without the joint efforts of the entire nation. The great struggle to achieve the great dream should strengthen students’ sense of patriotism and national pride, stimulate their motivation to work hard and make them full of confidence in the development of the country, society, and individuals.

2) Advocate the spirit of science, cultivate scientific thinking and attitude

The spirit of science is the most precious spiritual wealth in human civilization, originating from the spirit of seeking knowledge. With the continuous development of scientific practice, its connotation is constantly enriched. Understand the characteristics of interdisciplinary integration, inspire innovative ideas and awareness, and cultivate a scientific attitude to integrating theory with practice, scientific rigor, and seeking truth from facts. The development of digital image processing technology cannot be separated from continuous technological innovation and practical exploration. Many image processing methods embody universal scientific thinking , learning image processing knowledge and its applications is also a process of cultivating scientific thinking methods.

3) Strengthen awareness of rules, cultivate the sense of collaboration and craftsmanship

The study of image processing emphasizes the implementation of various processing algorithms through programming, and correct results can be obtained by strictly following the algorithm principles and programming standards. Comparing with it, following the rules is the premise of maintaining a good social order. We should abide by public policy doctrine and treat people honestly and friendly. Through teaching practice activities in groups, the teamwork ability of student is honed, and continuous improvement of image processing algorithms and processing effects are achieved in a good atmosphere of learning and catching up, cultivating the spirit of craftsmanship.

4.2 Integrate ideological and political elements into course knowledge points

Combined with the specific knowledge of digital image processing, to carry on the teaching design to the digital image processing and excavate the ideological and political elements, through diversified teaching activities to strengthen the value identification of Chinese traditional excellent culture and to cultivate the feelings of home and country, road confidence, theory confidence, system confidence and culture confidence. The ideological and political elements which  can be incorporated into the chapters of the digital image processing course designed by the teachers in Table 1.

Table 1: Combination of knowledge points in digital image processing and ideological and political elements

Knowledge points	Teaching content	Ideological and political “integration elements”
Introduction	The development history of digital image processing, as well as some new scientific research achievements and successful cases,	Enhance students’ national pride and confidence, shape their correct outlook on life, and contribute to the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation.
Basic knowledge of digital image processing	For color model analysis, Chinese knotting images and ceramic images can be used	Promote traditional culture and strengthen the belief of cultural self-confidence and civilization self-confidence.
Image transformation	Parallel transformation in image Geometric transformation, analyze the application of translation parallel transformation in textile industry and hairdressing industry	Students’ social responsibility.
Image enhancement	Sharpening and smoothing, Different smoothing and sharpening methods;frequency domain image processing	Specific analysis of specific problems through philosophical thinking; The patriotism of students and the spirit of a great craftsman.
Image restoration	Introduction applications of image restoration technology such as Chang’e’s exploration of the moon, has expanded to include the application of students’ patriotism and mission,	A sense of home and mission, social responsibility and craftsmanship
Image compression coding	Introducing digital watermarking technology, effectively ensure intellectual property rights and educate legal cconcepts in datatransmission	Legal concept
Image segmentation	Engineering application cases ,the design of recycling garbage classifiers	Effectively recycling and utilization of energy, hands-on ability and scientific and technological innovation awareness, and cultivate a sense of social responsibility and mission.
Image describes	The pixel connectivity, and the eight connection, four connection and m-connection of pixels a	Philosophical thinking of oncontradiction theory.

V. Analysis and Reflection on the Teaching Effect of Ideological and Political Education

The integration of ideological and political elements into digital image processing, as well as the addition of course case has improved students’ participation in the curriculum. In the past three years, the integration of ideological and political cases into professional knowledge and theory has enlivened the class, has significantly increased students’ enthusiasm for answering questions. Students majoring in electronic information engineering have not only gained knowledge and improved their abilities, but also developed a scientific and technological confidence, social responsibility, and a pragmatic and innovative attitude. More students are very enthusiastic about the research work of image processing technology. They have participated in the National Engineering Training Competition, Smart Car, Internet plus, Electronic Design Competition, Undergraduate Innovation Competition, Blue Bridge Cup Competition and other events, have won 11 national awards, 49 provincial awards and issued 18 papers; The satisfaction rate of the comprehensive evaluation of the teaching teachers reached 100%.

During the process of ideological and political construction, the course team teachers reorganized the teaching syllabus and explored the ideological and political elements of knowledge points, which not only improved their professional theoretical level, but also greatly improved their personal ideological and political cultivation and philosophical literacy. As an important guide on the path of students’ growth, teachers should continuously improve their professional standards and also improve their ideological and political qualities, setting a good example for students. Therefore, teachers should consciously strengthen the guidance of ideological and political work on their subjects and majors, should understand society, national conditions, international politics, the development trends of world science and technology, should strengthen their own ideological and moral level and integrate professional knowledge and ideological and political elements through continuous learning and thinking, carry out ideological and political education in teachingand actively participate in the construction of teaching demonstration courses, cultivating innovative talents with strong ideological and political skills, solid professional skills and a combination of morality and talent for new engineering.

VI. Conclusion

Curriculum ideological and political education is an important component of higher education in universities. Guided by the teaching philosophy of “value shaping, ability cultivation, and knowledge impartation”, combining with the characteristics of digital image processing professional, ideological and political education in courses is cleverly integrated. The analysis mainly focuses on the strategies of integrating ideological and political education into professional courses, the integration of ideological and political elements in course knowledge, and the teaching effectiveness of ideological and political education in courses. The construction of the ideological and political system in the curriculum is still in the initial exploration stage, and how to deeply integrate ideological and political elements into professional curriculum teaching still needs to be further deepened, continuously improved, and continuously promoted, so as to achieve a silent educational effect and the fundamental task of moral education.

Acknowledgements

This work were supported in part by a grant from Hubei Provincial Teaching and Research Project: Research and Practice on the Reform of Signal Processing Series Courses for National First Class Undergraduate Majors in the Context of New Engineering (NO.2021277) and the Ministry of Education’s Industry University Collaborative Education Project: Exploration and Practice of Cultivating Innovation and Entrepreneurship Ability of Electronic Information Engineering Talents under the Background of New Engineering (NO.202101287003);

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1. Verda Khan 

Research Scholar, Department of Commerce, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India

• Shahzar Ali Khan 

Research Scholar, Department of Commerce, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India

• S.M Imamul Haque

Professor, Department of Commerce, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India

ABSTRACT

The purpose of the current study is to conceptually highlight the factors that influence the entrepreneurial intention of tourism students. Additionally, this study identified the main theories that are typically applied to forecast the entrepreneurial intentions of these students. This paper is entirely based on a review of available literature related to the entrepreneurial intention of tourism students. Shapero & Sokol’s  Entrepreneurial Event Model and Ajzen’s Theory of Planned Behaviour are found to be the most frequently used theories in these studies to predict tourism students’ entrepreneurial intentions. Entrepreneurship education is found to be one of the most crucial elements in assisting students to understand entrepreneurship and influencing their desire to launch their own enterprises. The entrepreneurial intent of tourism students is also found to be influenced by personality traits (leadership, risk-taking propensity, locus of control, tolerance of ambiguity, need for achievement, innovativeness, and self-efficacy), demographic characteristics (gender, family background), and motivating factors such as professional autonomy, fulfilment of personal visions, achieving personal assets, searching for new challenges, role models, social capital among others. The current study adds to the existing body of knowledge and offers insight into the various factors influencing the entrepreneurial intent of tourism students so that actions could be taken appropriately to translate this intention into behaviour, which in turn would create more job opportunities and produce a positive economic outcome.

INTRODUCTION

In the past twenty years, there has been a notable increase in scholarly investigations pertaining to entrepreneurship and entrepreneurial intentions. This surge in academic research can be attributed to the rise of diverse initiatives and policies aimed at fostering and bolstering entrepreneurial endeavours, the advancements in science and technology (Khan et al., 2023b), and the provision of financial incentives. The concept of entrepreneurship encompasses the process of recognizing and harnessing potential opportunities that ultimately culminate in the creation and development of novel business enterprises (Ahmad et al., 2019). The significance of entrepreneurship in the context of economic development cannot be overstated. This dynamic process plays a pivotal role in stimulating innovation, propelling technological advancements, generating employment opportunities, and fortifying the foundations of economic structures (Soliman, 2011). Policymakers across various nations, encompassing both affluent and developing economies, have dedicated substantial efforts and resources towards fostering entrepreneurial endeavours. This strategic focus stems from the multitude of favourable consequences associated with entrepreneurial activity, particularly its potential to generate employment opportunities and alleviate poverty (Kibuka, 2011).

Tourism is a widely recognized economic activity that holds immense global significance. There are few domains that can boast such widespread engagement, both directly and indirectly, as the one under consideration. The tourism industry plays a pivotal role in stimulating economic growth by facilitating the establishment of new enterprises and supporting the growth of pre-existing ones. Additionally, it serves as a catalyst for infrastructure development and presents numerous avenues for local communities to engage in micro and small-scale entrepreneurial activities. The tourism industry provides entrepreneurs with a conducive and attractive environment for business endeavours (Getz and Petersen, 2005). The tourism industry plays a significant role in fostering regional economic growth. By actively supporting and motivating students pursuing studies in tourism, we can facilitate the transformation of their entrepreneurial aspirations into concrete entrepreneurial actions. This, in turn, can lead to the creation of additional employment opportunities and generate a favourable economic outcome (Zhang et al., 2020). Despite the fact that the covid-19 pandemic had an impact on every part of the tourism and hospitality sector (Khan et al., 2022), including the development of entrepreneurship, it also offered new business opportunities, enabling entrepreneurs to compete in a highly competitive market.

From a psychological standpoint, the level of an individual’s engagement in entrepreneurial endeavours can be most accurately anticipated by their intention, which serves as the primary motivator for establishing a novel business venture. The possession of entrepreneurial intention is a crucial characteristic that individuals must have in order to initiate establishing a new enterprise. The emergence of entrepreneurial intention stems from an individual’s intrinsic inclination to pursue entrepreneurship as a profession. University students are commonly perceived as individuals with the potential to become entrepreneurs (Hou et al., 2019), thus prompting numerous studies exploring their intentions towards entrepreneurship in the academic literature. However, it is worth noting that studies on entrepreneurial intention among students enrolled in tourism courses are few.

This article presents a comprehensive analysis and evaluation of the current body of literature related to the entrepreneurial intentions of tourism students. The key objectives of this research paper are twofold; firstly, it sheds light on the predominant theories that are commonly employed to forecast the entrepreneurial intentions of students pursuing studies in tourism. Secondly, it seeks to offer a comprehensive understanding of the various factors that affects the entrepreneurial intentions of students studying in the field of tourism.

THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

The phenomenon of entrepreneurship is widely regarded as a manifestation of deliberate intention and strategic behaviour. Consequently, the significance of theories and models that forecast and elucidate individuals’ inclination towards engaging in entrepreneurial activities has witnessed a notable surge. The theories most commonly employed in the prediction of entrepreneurial intention among students in the tourism field are the Entrepreneurial Event Model (EEM) by Shapero & Sokol (1982) and the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) by Ajzen (1991).

Entrepreneurial Event Model

The Entrepreneurial Event Model proposed by Shapero and Sokol in 1982 is widely recognized as one of the earliest intention models focusing on entrepreneurship. The underlying principle of this theoretical framework posits that a nascent enterprise can be comprehensively elucidated by examining the intricate interplay of various factors that exert influence on an individual’s behaviour. According to this model, the determination of an individual to initiate a new business venture is influenced by three distinct factors, namely perceived desirability, perceived feasibility, and propensity to act. The concept of perceived desirability pertains to the level of appeal that an individual associates with engaging in a particular behaviour (Ahmad et al., 2019). On the other hand, perceived feasibility encompasses an individual’s perceptions regarding their own ability to successfully carry out a specific behaviour (Ahmad et al., 2019). According to Shapero and Sokol (1982), it has been observed that individuals’ perception of alternative options is significantly influenced by their underlying value system. This value system, in turn, is predominantly shaped by various social as well as cultural variables.

In a study conducted by  Ahmad et al. (2019), it was discovered that there exists a positive correlation between the perceived desirability and perceived feasibility factors and the entrepreneurial intentions of students specializing in the field of tourism. The findings of Esfandiar et al. (2019) further corroborated the presence of a positive relationship between perceived desirability and perceived feasibility and the subsequent impact on the entrepreneurial intentions of students pursuing a career in the tourism industry. This study’s findings also indicated a positive relationship between perceived opportunity and entrepreneurial intentions, which becomes more pronounced when an individual has a strong propensity to act.

Theory of Planned Behaviour

The Theory of Planned Behaviour (Ajzen, 1991) is a well-established psychological framework frequently employed to elucidate and predict human behaviour. This theory offers valuable insights into the factors that influence an individual’s actions and provides a robust framework for understanding and forecasting their behavioural patterns (Khan et al., 2023a). According to the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), the individual’s intention to engage in a particular behaviour is a significant predictor of their subsequent action. This intention is influenced by several factors, including their attitude towards the behaviour, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control (Ajzen, 1991).

According to Ajzen (1991), attitude refers to an individual’s inclination to react either positively or negatively towards a specific object or concept. According to Ajzen (1991), a subjective norm is a construct which is influenced by the opinions of important others, including family and friends. Perceived behavioural control refers to the extent to which an individual contemplates their ability to execute or abstain from a particular behaviour while also perceiving a sense of control over it (Khan et al., 2023a). Based on empirical evidence, it can be posited that an individual’s level of perceived behavioural control is directly proportional to the likelihood of engaging in a particular behaviour. In other words, the stronger one’s belief in their ability to successfully execute a specific behaviour, the greater the probability of them actually demonstrating that behaviour (Engle et al., 2010).

The empirical findings of Phuc et al. (2020) indicated that subjective norms, attitude toward entrepreneurship, and perceived behavioural control exert significant direct effects on the entrepreneurial intention of students specializing in the field of tourism. However, Mei et al. (2016) indicated that variations exist in personal attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control based on distinct personal variables.

FACTORS AFFECTING ENTREPRENEURIAL INTENTIONS OF TOURISM STUDENTS

Studies have been conducted in different countries to investigate the entrepreneurial intention among students pursuing studies in the field of tourism. These studies have identified several factors that exert an influence on the entrepreneurial intention exhibited by students.

Entrepreneurship Education

The importance of entrepreneurship education has been acknowledged as one of the key elements that aid students in properly comprehending what entrepreneurship is (Phuc et al., 2020). Entrepreneurship programmes have been observed to significantly impact students’ self-perception of their capacity to engage in entrepreneurial endeavours and their recognition of areas in which their managerial skills may require enhancement (Ahmed & Kayat, 2019; Bagheri & Pihie, 2011; Zovko et al., 2020). Universities and faculties have been actively adapting to the ever-changing landscape by developing and offering entrepreneurial courses (Zovko et al., 2020). Additionally, they have established entrepreneurial incubators to support and guide aspiring entrepreneurs, and funding associations have also emerged to promote entrepreneurship through various programs and initiatives (Zovko et al., 2020). These concerted efforts aim to foster an environment conducive to entrepreneurial endeavours and ultimately contribute to the overall prosperity of society. The disposition and level of understanding regarding entrepreneurship are anticipated to influence individuals’ propensity to initiate their own business endeavours in the foreseeable future (Wang & Wong, 2004). 

Personality Traits

Previous studies have established a positive correlation between personality traits and entrepreneurial intention, suggesting that specific personality traits play a significant role in determining one’s inclination towards entrepreneurship (Koh, 1996). These studies involved the utilization of distinct personality traits among students to evaluate and determine the levels of entrepreneurial characteristics exhibited by the participants. These attributes include leadership, risk-taking propensity, locus of control, tolerance of ambiguity, need for achievement, innovativeness, and self-efficacy. Gurel et al. (2010) also found that there exists a statistically significant correlation between innovation, propensity to take risks, and entrepreneurial intention of tourism students. In their study, Borges et al. (2021) indicated that students who possess strong leadership qualities, demonstrate creativity, and have a strong desire for achievement are more likely to prioritize entrepreneurship as their initial choice when entering the job market. Altinay et al. (2012) found that the innovativeness and entrepreneurial intentions of hospitality students are positively related; however, no association of tolerance of ambiguity, locus of control, need for achievement, and risk-taking propensity was found with entrepreneurial intention.

Demographic factors

Numerous studies have emphasized the importance of demographic factors in affecting students’ intentions to become entrepreneurs (Butkouskaya et al., 2020; Çelik et al., 2021; Dao et al., 2021; de la Cruz del Río-Rama et al., 2017; Jovicic-Vukovic et al., 2020; Mei et al., 2016; Moreno-Gómez et al., 2022; Muñoz-Fernández et al., 2017). The likelihood of starting a business is influenced by one’s gender. Studies have found that male students are likelier to start their own businesses than female students (Butkouskaya et al., 2020; Muñoz-Fernández et al., 2017). Family background also influences the entrepreneurial intention of students. Working in a family business gives people the knowledge and experience they need to launch their own company or grow it together with their families, particularly in the tourism sector, where family enterprises have always played a significant role (Getz & Carlsen, 2005). Individuals who grow up in an entrepreneurial atmosphere are more inclined to favour entrepreneurship than others (Carr & Sequeira, 2007). Similarly, education level, age, and place of residence are among the demographic factors that also predict tourism students’ entrepreneurial intent.

Motivational Factors

Several additional factors may serve as motivators for students to choose entrepreneurship as their preferred career path. A study conducted by Atef & Al-Balushi (2015) revealed several pull and push factors that affect the entrepreneurial intention of tourism students. The three primary pull factors that have been identified in this study are income, education, and a stable job. Sidorkiewicz (2021), in their study, indicated that the respondents identified several key factors that served as strong motivators for embarking on entrepreneurial endeavours. These factors include professional autonomy, the potential for greater financial gains compared to traditional employment arrangements, and the fulfilment of personal aspirations. Another study by de la Cruz del Río-Rama et al. (2017) revealed that the primary drivers that motivate students pursuing a degree in tourism to establish their own businesses have been identified as follows: the opportunity to cultivate and implement their own innovative concepts, the pursuit of novel and stimulating endeavours, and the desire to establish a venture that is personally fulfilling and financially rewarding. In addition to the factors mentioned above, there are other factors that have an impact on the entrepreneurial intention of tourism students. These factors include role models (Ân, 2019), parents’ attitudes (Liu & Zhao, 2021), and social capital (Chia & Liang, 2016).

CONCLUSION

Entrepreneurial activities and innovative changes are the solutions for solving the challenges of the 21st century by providing sustainable development, generating jobs, increasing employment opportunities and economic development. Several institutions and policy-making bodies are working hard to cultivate entrepreneurship spirit among the students. Still, the percentage of students opting for entrepreneurship as a career is found to be less than the expected level.

The tourism industry contributes to the country’s economic development and regional economic development, as the industry includes transportation, catering, shopping, and many others (Hoi et al., 2018). Stimulating the entrepreneurial intention of tourism students can help convert this intention into entrepreneurial behaviour and consequently lead to more job opportunities and the development of the whole economy (Altinay et al., 2012). Therefore, exploring the factors impacting tourism students’ entrepreneurial intention is essential. After thoroughly reviewing the available literature, the researchers found several factors that influence the entrepreneurial intention of tourism students. One of the most important factors that help students understand what entrepreneurship is and influences students’ inclination to start their own businesses is entrepreneurship education. Additionally, personality traits (leadership, risk-taking propensity, locus of control, tolerance of ambiguity, need for achievement, innovativeness, and self-efficacy) are also important in predicting one’s propensity for entrepreneurship. Demographic characteristics (gender, family background etc.) are also found to have an impact on the entrepreneurial intent of tourism students. It was also found that several factors may motivate students to pursue entrepreneurship as a career, such as professional autonomy, fulfilment of personal visions, achieving personal assets, searching for new challenges, role models, social capital etc.

This study additionally identified the primary theories that are frequently used to predict the entrepreneurial intentions of students studying tourism degrees. The Entrepreneurial Event Model (EEM) by Shapero & Sokol (1982) and the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) by Ajzen (1991) are the two theories that are most frequently used to predict the entrepreneurial intention of tourism students.

This paper provides an overview of the factors that influence the entrepreneurial intention of tourism students and the theories used in these studies. As this paper is entirely based on a review of the allied literature, future research may conduct a bibliometric analysis or systematic analysis to provide a more comprehensive overview.

References

Ahmad, N. H., Ramayah, T., Mahmud, I., Musa, M., & Anika, J. J. (2019). Entrepreneurship as a preferred career option: Modelling tourism students’ entrepreneurial intention. Education + Training, 61(9), 1151–1169. https://doi.org/10.1108/ET-12-2018-0269

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Dr. Krishna Kant Singh

Professor of English

P. G. Dept. of English

Veer Kunwar Singh University, Ara

            Chitra Banerjee’s contribution in the Indian writing English is marvellous and outstanding because of many things altogether. We notice Austen’s characteristics in the novels of Chitra Banerjee in terms of family tales and tangles. Critics often notice her art of characterization and plot construction which are equal to Austen’s flavour. She often deals with women characters in the manner of Jane Austen. Chitra Banerjee is also the champion of feminism and her plea for the emancipation of women. She wants to do many things in the welfare of women and her novels are full of points related to human emotions and passions. In her novel Oleander Girl, Chitra Banerjee would like to deal with the emotions, passions and ambitions of the girl who is the victim of time and space. In The Telegraph, a critic remarks in these words:

Divakaruni deals subtly with questions of class, in a manner that is refreshingly unlike the simplistic, superficial treatment the subject receives in Hindi cinema. The author deftly explores the inherent complications of social class and takes the reader into a difficult layered world of wealth, education and social climbing. Divakaruni’s strengths lie in her attention to detail, and the interest with which she creates even secondary characters. 

            Oleander Girl is a unique novel in which the novelist presents many stories related to Korobi Roy who is the victim of time and space. It is the manifestation of Korobi Roy’s emotions and passions. The novel deals with Korobi Roy’s repercussions and how to cope with human tangles. Critics often appreciate Chitra Banerjee’s unique talent. A critic writes in The Asian Age:

Divakaruni is a master at telling stories within stories and has a knack of transporting the reader to different lands with the sights, smells and enchanting imagery of her prose. 

            Korobi Roy belongs to a high profile family, but she knows that she is an orphan because her mother died when she was born. And according to his grandfather, her father also died before her mother. Korobi Roy tells about her situation in these words in the very beginning of the novel:

I know so little about my mother, only that she died eighteen years ago, giving birth to me – a few months after my father, an ambitious law student, had passed away in a car accident. Perhaps she died of a broken heart. I never know for sure because no one would speak to me of them. My grandparents had to put aside their own broken hearts to care for me, and I am grateful: they did it well. Still, all my years growing up, I longed for a visitation from my mother. 

            Korobi Roy discovers a letter of his dead mother which has been written to her father. In the letter, the mother has described her deepest love for her husband who is also now no more. In the letter, her mother writes:

You are in my thoughts every minute. I cannot believe that only three months have passed since the last time I hold you in my arms to say good – bye I thought I could handle this separation, but I cannot. Each day I ache for your touch. Each night I think of the way I felt complete in your arms. I talk to the baby inside me. I am sure it will be a girl – about you all the time. I want to make sure our child knows how your love surrounds her even though you are so impossibly far away, in a whole different world– 

            After going through the letter of her mother addressed to her father, Korobi becomes full of feelings and her imagination begins to hover here and there with intense feeling for her mother. A rare sense of emotional breakdown one can notice in the character of Korobi who is totally devoid of the shadow, love and affection of her parents although her grandmother and grandfather are highly devoted towards her. But the memory of her mother always produces a rare kind of void in her life. So after reading the letter of her mother, she becomes totally dejected and distressed:

It was beautiful and heart-breaking, this note from my mother to my dead father. It brought them close to me, made them real in a way none of my imaginings had. I could not share it with either of my grandparents, but I memorized every word on the page. I hid the note carefully in the bottom of my trunk – my first, cherished secret – and took it back to boarding school with me. Nights when I could not sleep, I would hold it in my hand and wish that somebody I might find a love like theirs.

            Korobi has been lost in the memory of her mother. Her dreams are often centred round her mother only. It seems that her mother would like to tell something to her. Her mood is full of confusion and contrast. She herself reveals her mother’s presence in these words:

My mother’s frame shivers with efforts as though she longs to speak. She begins to dissolve. I can glimpse the ocean through her tattered body, waves breaking apart on rocks. An urgent sorrow radiates from her disappearing form. Then she is gone, and I am finally awake, blinking in the first rays of the sun entering the room through the bars. 

            Her mother’s letter and her dreams make her full of concerns and she feels an acute sense of void in her heart. She would like to control her emotions and feelings. But she needs someone to explain the invisible presence of her mother. Her longings for her mother is totally uncontrolled and beyond imagination. The novelist writes about her feelings in these words:

I need someone to interpret this dream. It means something, I’m sure of that, coming at this crucial moment in my life. I cannot go to grandfather. When my mother died, he destroyed all her photographs because he could not bear to look at them. When I was six, he told me never to bring her up. It was too painful. 

            The nourishment of Korobi has been done by her grandparents in grand way. The grandparents of Korobi are extremely conscious about her growth and nourishment. But on the other hand, especially the grandmother of Korobi is concerned about her engagement and how she would adjust in her new life. There is always discussion between her grandparents about the life and growth of Korobi. Since Korobi’s grandmother is a typical representative of traditional Bengali family, she is satisfied with her granddaughter’s selection of Rajat who also shows respect for tradition, history and convention. She told Korobi about Rajat’s this characteristic:

“You are lucky to get him for a husband. He cares about history and tradition, about spending time with an old lady.”   

            Korobi is the second girl friend of Rajat. He was also associated with Sonia, a smart girl earlier. Both Korobi and Sonia become upset and feels uncomfortable when they see each – other. Here, Chitra Banerjee seems to be highly realistic in her approach towards writing the jealously of two girlfriends for a single boy. She says about Korobi’s feelings for Sonia in these words:

The venom in her voice had startled me. It was my first experience of being hated because of good fortune. I walked away with what dignity I could muster so Mimi – who had been the closet I’d to a friend – would not see how hurt I was. Not by her words – but also by Rajat’s silence. 

            The sudden demise of Bimal Prasad Roy brings an inevitable misfortune in the lives of Sarojini and Korobi both. Especially, Sarojini finds herself in the condition that is full of dilemma and unexpectations. She has been lost in her own memory for her husband which seems to be totally unbearable for her. The novelist has painfully and compassionately narrated the feelings of an old lady whose husband has also left her to warden in the vast domain of human emotions and feelings:

If Sarojini stands in front of the mirror long enough and unfocuses her eyes the right way, the woman’s image fades. Instead, Bimal appears in front of her. Sometimes he is knobby and querulous, as in recent months, waiting for her to feed him his after – dinner oranges. Sometimes he gives her a lopsided, newly married smile that takes her breath away. Today he is dressed in a cream kurta with an elaborate paisley design whom she sees that, Sarojini begins to shake. That was the kurta he had worn the night that their daughter died. 

            In this novel, Chitra Banerjee throws lights on memories, emotions and passions of Sarojini and Korobi both. After the death of Bimal, Sarojini finds herself in utter distress and tries to unburden her heart by telling her granddaughter the truth which she has been keeping in her heart since her daughter’s death. She tells Korobi

“No Korobi… that is what I am saying … it was a lie, your dear grandfather lied you – and forced me to do the same. Your father is alive. His name is Rob. Yes Rob. He lives in America.” 

            The grandmother of Korobi is too much conscious about her. She would like to tell each and every thing about her daughter Anu and her earlier life. Her memory is enough to calm her body. But she could do nothing. She was lost in her own memories. The novelist narrates about her situation in these words:

The bed is filled with memories of Bimal, of Anu. But it is the memory of Korobi that comes to Sarojini now. Born prematurely, she had been kept in the hospital incubator for weeks. How tiny she was, how frighteningly fragile when Sarojini finally brought her home, her skin like thin proclaim with the blue veins showing through it. Terrified that she would die, Sarojini had sent Bimal off to the guest bedroom and kept the baby in this bed, shored up by pillows. 

            Bimal now tells Korobi each and everything about Anu, the mother of Korobi. How she went to America and grew up into a well – made lady, all these things have been narrated by Bimal to Korobi. She tells her about her life in America:

“Anu settled into the university quickly, doing well in her classes. In Kolkata she had been reclusive, preferring to read or listen to music in her room. In America she grew adventurous. She would tell us in her letters about folk – dance lessons and plays she had seen in San Francisco. She visited the giant redwoods and saw migrating whales. People in California, she said, were kind and friendly and very interesting.” 

            In America, Anu was fallen in love with Rob, an American boy. She reveals her love to her parents and they become totally amazed and surprised. Since Bimal was a man of strong emotions and passion, and he followed the tradition and convention of the family, he did not allow Anu to come to India with Rob. But he became concerned when Anu told him that she is pregnant. The condition of Sarojini became extremely dual and she was not able to decide what she should do at this juncture. Bimal imposed many terms and conditions on her arrival in India. Sarojini says at this point in these words:

“Anu must have missed us more than we guessed. She agreed to your grandfather’s terms. Two weeks later, she flung herself into my arms at the airport, her face thinner, darker with worry lines between her brows that she had not had when she left. Her belly pushed against me – I guessed her to be at least five months along. As I kissed him, I felt your kick.” 

            Sarojini, the grandmother of Korobi is full of affections and love for her daughter, Anu. She is not able to forget her anytime. After the birth of Korobi and the death of her daughter Anu, she became conscious about the nourishment of Korobi. She did everything to make her safe and secure. She provides every comfort to her and her emotions and feelings were fulfilled every time. After healing the story of her mother, Korobi decides to go to America and search her father Rob. She would like to discover some truths about him. She tells Rajat about her plan:

“I need to find him, talk to him. I need to know who he is. And he can finally tell me about my mother – the things that no one else knows. My mother in love… Then I’ll know who I really am, too. But how will I find him? I don’t even have his name. And America is such a big country.” 

The character of Korobi is straight-forward in nature. She does not want to hide anything from her in – laws. She would not like to deceive them that she is the daughter of Rob, an American fellow. She tells Rajat:

“Each time I look into their faces, I’ll think, they love me only because I deceived them. I’ll know I’m living a lie. No Rajat! I have seen how harmful secrets can be. I refused to start my married life with a sword hanging over my head. I’ll meet with your mother tomorrow and tell her myself.”

            On the other hand, her grandmother was not in favour of her adventures in America. She was more concerned towards her engagement. She tells her:

“You told her what? You want to break off the engagement and go to America? Are you crazy? Don’t you understand how lucky you are that Mrs Bose is willing to go through with the marriage even after knowing about your father? You should have accepted her offer of an early wedding.” 

            Chitra Banerjee has created a wonderful character in the shape of Korobi Roy who has her own whims and she is less interested in other’s pleasure. Now she is ready to depart. The novelist writes about her feelings:

I walk into the women’s booth, where a security officer puts me down. Ahead, in the waiting lounge, a gallery of uninterested faces. No one knows me. I know no one. This is my life now.” 

            Sonia was another girl friend of Rajat. After the arrival of Korobi in Rajat’s life, she maintains the required distance. But now she writes a letter to Rajat in which she explains her own position in these words:

But sex was not the only thing that made our relationship special. We could take to each other, express our anger and frustration with the world, or even with our families. W could show each other our dark sides and know that we’d be understood and not shunned. You told me things that you said you’d never shared with anyone. Can you do that with that bland pretty – face you have now? How soon before you get tired of acting the virtuous husband for her? I can help you, too, far better than she can. I know about your family’s financial problems, the failing gallery in New York. Yes, I have made it my business to know. My father would give me the money you need in a moment, if I tell him it’s for the man I love. 

            In the United States, Korobi faces a number of difficulties. Since she is on the mission, she cares less about these troubles which come in her way. Mitra who assists Korobi in her mission in America, tries to become closer to her and shows some kind of inclination towards her. But on the other hand, Korobi is firm in her attitude. Korobi guesses that Mitra’s delays in providing cell phone to her is intentional so she could not talk to Rajat:

Was he trying to keep me from talking freely to Rajat? This much I knew: I needed to become less dependent on him. 

            She meets Desai and tries to make enquiry about her father as soon as possible. She becomes so busy in her mission in America that she hardly finds time to talk to Rajat. On the other hand, Rajat is too much concerned with Korobi and he loves to talk to her much. In America, Korobi meets Rob Evanston because of his first name Rob, but he is not her father because Rob Evanston fails to tell anything about her mother Anu. Rajat was busy in his own pursuits and devoted much time in making his business well and good. Many problems arise in his business because of financial problems and these things are not easy to be resolved at all. On the other hand, in America, Korobi’s desperation was increasing day by day because she was not succeeding in her mission. She began to think about the prospects of human relationship; her relationship with Rajat:

Or was it that even the best of relationship withered if people were separated too soon? Did early love, which grew out of body’s needs, require the body’s presence to nurture it? Without those wordless glances that made the heart race, without the touch of lips that sent electricity through the body, without the touch of lips that sent electricity through the body, without a shoulder to lay the dispirited head on and arms to share us up against the world’s cruelties, even the most affectionate words were not enough. But the cruel words – paradoxically, those gained power as they flew across the miles to stab at a listener’s heart. 

            While Korobi was in America, in India her grandmother discovers many new things about Anu and her husband. Sardarji was an assistant of Bimal, came to meet Sarojini and told many things about Anu’s husband which are amazing and wondered the old lady in devastative manner. He told that Bimal Babu was quite upset about the situations prevailed after the birth of Korobi. He told Sarojini:

“Babu was very careful, a true lawyer. But when he got out of the hotel and into the car, he was really upset. He was cursing Babu’s father, using gutter language, words I did not even think I knew. That shocked me. As you know, babu despised people who could not control their mouths.” 

            Sardarji also told her that the father of Korobi had come to Calcutta in order to see his wife and newly born child. But Bimal had stopped him somewhere else to do so. He tells her these words:

‘‘Soon after you went to the village, Korobi’s baby’s father came to Kolkata. He started asking a lot of uncomfortable questions, about how Anu – missybaba died, and what happened to baby. But Bimal Babu was ready for him. He gave him a fake certificate, stating Baby had also died in childbirth. He had it forged and stamped with court stamps, so that it would look official enough to fool Baby’s father.’’ 

            It was shocking for Sarojini to believe in all these things. But she has to believe because of the co – relation of the situations. It was more shocking for her that Bimal had given an urn of ashes to the husband of Korobi. She began to think:

Whose ashes could they have been? Sarojini wonders distractedly. Not, Anu’s – those had already been offered into Gangasagar by then. 

            The narrative of the novel hovers around India and America and because of this double narrative, there are many twists in the novel for several reasons altogether. In America, Korobi was busy in her mission to find out her father, in India Rajat became too crazy about his relationship with Sonia and Korobi both. He was not able to decide the way to go. So many rumours he heard about Korobi in America, especially about her new hair design. But he has firm belief in her. He ponders:

A voice inside him warns, delete the message without opening it. Remember Korobi, the way she is straight forward through and through. She would not cheat you. But another voice says, people lie, photos do not. 

            The novel is full of balanced remarks on the prospects of human relationships. Korobi understands the fate of such type of relationships in the traditional and conventional Indian society with conflicts and struggle. It is not easy for people to do something beyond the traditional norms. Only few people can imagine to go beyond these norms for several reasons altogether. She thinks about her father and grandfather both. Both were true and could have done nothing at that time. She understands their dilemma. She thinks:

I am angry for my father, but unexpectedly, I feel a jolt of sympathy for Grandfather, too. While my father had been longing for something to connect him to his sweetheart, Grandfather had been desperate to protect the last bit of his daughter that was left to him. 

            Korobi realizes the fact that how the same people begin to behave in different way when they come to know about the identity of her father. All the sudden, their behaviour changes and they try to produce hindrances for several reasons altogether. She told Maman these words:

‘‘I only discovered my father’s identity a few days ago. And the fact that my mother never married him – I learned that from him even later. Please try to imagine how devastating it was for me. My entire notion of who I am was shaken up. I felt betrayed. Unworthy, I did not know how to tell something so big to Rajat over the phone.’’ 

            Being true to her mother, she would like clear each and everything before Rajat also. She does not want to hide anything for good reasons. She is enough bold to react at the appropriate time. She tells Rajat in the mood of remorse:

‘‘Remember what I said when I first told you that my father was American? I said that I refuse to go through life with a secret hanging between us, separating us. Do you think I’d lie to you now about something so huge that the weight of it would crush our love? Because if you do, then it is all been for nothing – my giving up my father and rushing back to be with you.’’ 

            Korobi proves herself too strong and hard in the relationship with Rajat. She does not want to bend herself for many reasons altogether. She is not interested to tolerate anything more. She boldly says these pinching words to Rajat in the mood of anger:

‘‘If you do not trust me, Rajat, if you need proof, then it is over between us.’’ 

            Rajat also realizes the real character of Korobi and he begins to behave in clear – cut way. He appreciates the boldness as well as straight forwardness of Korobi and accept his problem and own fault also. He tells her:

‘‘I want to know that I do trust you. No matter what I blurred out the other day – or said in jealousy over the phone when you were in America – I trust you. I’m sorry that I gave you the impression that you could not trust me to accept the news of your parentage. That it would more than my love for you.’’ 

            Korobi also would like to reply in positive way. She makes thing clear to Rajat. She does not want to create any kind of confusion over anything. She once again tells Rajat in straight manner:

‘‘It is a big thing to accept. Even I feel shocked, from time to time, when I think of who I really am. It’s so different from who I thought I was. Illegitimacy, a mixed-race heritage that might surface in our children. Most Indian families would have a hard time accepting these problems. How could I demand that of you? 

            Now, Rajat realizes the importance of human relationships. He would like to continue his relationship with Korobi at any rate. He sees a perfect companionship with her. He tells her:

‘‘Because of love. Isn’t that what we do for the people we care for? Accept their problems because there are so many other wonderful things we love about them? And in your case, there are not even your problems. They are just the circumstances you were handed.” 

            Finally, Rajat and Korobi were married and all the family members were present in the marriage ceremony. The priest made all the arrangement and poured blessing with their marriage. Korobi would like to spend her life in new style. Korobi says about her delight and pleasure in these words:

Tonight, when we’re finally alone in our flower – filled bedroom, I’ll take out of the book I’ve hidden under our wedding pillow. I’ll read to Rajat the poem my mother has sent to us:

 He who binds no himself a Joy 

Doth the winged life destroy; 

But he who kisses the joy as it flies

 Lives in Eternity’s sunrise. 

            Oleander Girl is certainly a tale of compassion with powerful emotions and passions. The novel is the story of a girl who is too sensitive in the formation of human relationships and tries to understand the importance of the shadow of the parents. Her long journey in America in search of her father Rob Lacey is quite symbolic in many ways. She shows how much she possessive in her attitude and feelings towards her mother and grandmother. The novel is certainly a unique piece of writing of fictional mode in which memory has combined with emotions and passions with certain notions. The novel presents the role of memory and other circumstances in the formation of human relationships in more compassionate manner. Really, the novel is a wonderful piece of fictional writing in which memory and present have been merged together with artistic beauty.

Works Cited:-

1. Chitra Banerjee, Oleander Girl, (Penguin Books, 2013), p. 2.
2. Huffington Post
3. K. R. S. Iyengar, Indian Writing in English, Sterling Publishing Pvt. Ltd., 2013
4. M. K. Naik, History of Indian English Literature, Sahitya Academy, 2011
5. The Asian Age
6. The People
7. The Telegraph

¹Adekemi Felicia OPATUNDE         

&

²Afolakemi O. OREDEIN

orcid.org/0000-0003-2051-4730

^1&2Department of Educational Management                                                                                                          Faculty of Arts & Education, Lead City University, Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria

Abstract

Public secondary school principals in Oyo State, Nigeria, seem to have been chastised for their ineffectiveness, as indicated by low teacher engagement, poor record-keeping and low student academic attainment. This study looked into the impact of these characteristics on the administrative performance of public senior high school principals in Oyo State. The study employed a survey research approach, and the population included all 14,402 teachers and 629 principals in public secondary schools in Oyo State. A multi-stage sampling procedure was used to select 4,204 teachers and all principals in the sampled schools. Teachers Questionnaire (TEQ) (α = 0.951) and Principal Interview (PI) were used for data collection. Descriptive and inferential statistics were used to answer research questions and test hypotheses at a 0.05 level of significance. The results showed a significant combined influence of leadership styles, decision-making skills, and communication forms on the administrative effectiveness of public secondary school principals in Oyo State (F (3,3917)) = (21723.35);  (Adj. R² = 0.923, p < 0.05). There was a significant relative influence of these factors on the administrative effectiveness of principals. There were significant differences in communication forms (t = 2.318, p < 0.05), decision-making skills (t = 5.048, p < 0.05), and administrative effectiveness (t = 5.435, p < 0.05) between male and female principals in secondary schools, Oyo State. Public secondary school principals in Oyo State should focus on developing effective leadership styles, decision-making skills, and communication forms to enhance their administrative effectiveness. 

Keywords: Principal Leadership Styles, Decision-making skills, Communication Forms, 

                    Administrative Effectiveness

Introduction

The effectiveness of a leader within an organization can be measured by their success. This success is an indication of their ability to utilise the available resources, both material and human, in order to achieve the goals of the organisation (Pandey 2017). Administrative effectiveness follows certain principles and is not solely about achieving results; it also involves efficiency, which means accomplishing goals while minimising costs (Akinfolarin, 2017). The concept of administrative effectiveness can be understood in terms of the outcomes produced by the leader. In the context of schools, the principal plays a crucial role in administration and is responsible for overseeing instruction and carrying out administrative functions that contribute to administrative effectiveness (Onyali & Akinfolarin, 2017). Effective planning, coordination, supervision, organisation, and direction are necessary to achieve administrative effectiveness. Therefore, this study will specifically focus on planning, coordinating, and supervising.

Planning is a dynamic process that determines the course of future events. It is characterised by flexibility and involves forward-thinking, often requiring scenario planning. According to Pandey (2017), planning encompasses various managerial processes such as perception, analysis, conceptual thinking, communication, decision-making, and taking action. Also, the ability of principals to coordinate effectively stems from their role in management. Principals bear a significant and serious responsibility for internally coordinating and managing schools. Furthermore, the concept of supervision, like other ideas within the arts and humanities, is subject to varying definitions by different scholars and professionals. Supervision involves a process wherein a more experienced professional engages in a friendly and cooperative manner with a less experienced professional, aiming to enhance the successful accomplishment of a given task. 

There are several challenges that hinder the effectiveness of public secondary school principals in Nigeria. These challenges encompass insufficient funding, inadequate infrastructure, a deficient capacity-building programme, a shortage of qualified teachers, inadequate ICT infrastructure, a lack of instructional resources, inadequate supervision and security concerns, weak leadership, ineffective decision-making skills, and inadequate communication methods, among others. These issues may impact the performance of both students and teachers in the classroom. The subsequent paragraphs will delve into the leadership style, decision-making skills, and communication forms relevant to this study.

Leadership holds great importance in all human organisations and is widely recognised as a crucial element for effective administrative processes. Within the educational context, the school principal serves as the primary leader and bears responsibility for managing and organising the school. In the educational system, the principal’s knowledge, leadership style, experience, expertise, capability, and problem-solving abilities are vital factors in achieving desired outcomes. It is important to note that the concept of leadership style can vary from person to person and situation to situation. Therefore, this study will examine the following leadership styles: autocratic, democratic, laissez-faire, and digital.

Autocratic leadership style do not involve others in the decision-making process and instead exert control with a strict approach (Siddique & Siddique, 2019; Akparep, Jengre, & Mogre, 2019; Lundmark, Richter, & Tafvelin, 2022). All decisions are made without seeking the input or approval of the staff. Typically, these leaders do not provide explanations for their actions and remain uncompromising in their stance (Du, Li, & Luo, 2020; Dai & Spires, 2018). According to Hensellek (2020), the democratic leadership style involves the active participation of all group members in the decision-making process. Kokot, Kokotec, and Calopa (2021) state that a democratic leader seeks input from the team while making decisions and addressing issues while maintaining ultimate control over the final solution. Laissez-faire signifies a “hands-off, let things ride” approach to influencing people in the workplace, as noted by Wasono and Furinto (2018). It is defined as the absence of leadership and the avoidance of intervention in a study. Laissez-faire leaders, according to Westerman, Bonnet, and McAfee (2014), often behave as if they have relinquished their responsibilities and obligations. Also, an effective digital leader possesses a clear understanding of the organisatioanal’s goals and comprehends how their responsibilities contribute to the achievement of those goals. According to Sheninger (2014), an organisation that effectively leverages its digital assets to establish and sustain a competitive advantage can be regarded as a digital leader at the organisational level.

Decision-making can be defined as the process of choosing one option from several alternatives with the aim of achieving a desired outcome. The main purpose of decision-making is to guide human behaviour and dedication towards a future objective (Temelkova, 2018). If there are no other options available or no need to make a choice, decision-making becomes unnecessary. Decision-making encompasses a range of skills, including time management, emotional intelligence, problem-solving ability, confidence, adaptability, creative thinking, risk assessment, weighing pros and cons, analytical and critical thinking, as well as information gathering and analysis, among others. However, this study will specifically focus on problem-solving, time management, and emotional intelligence. 

Making decisions and fixing problems go hand in hand. Decision-making has its roots in economics and research into business operations, while problem solving was initially characterised by psychologists in a study of how people think(AchmetliSchukajlow & Rakoczy, 2019). Time management skills are essential abilities that individuals must regularly employ. They involve effectively and efficiently utilising time (Harris & Jones, 2020). These skills enable individuals to allocate adequate time for all necessary tasks and activities. According to Harris and Jones (2020), “emotional intelligence” refers to an individual’s ability to recognise and identify emotions, generate and regulate emotions, and consequently achieve a state of reflection. Emotional intelligence encompasses a range of non-cognitive abilities, competencies, and skills that enable individuals to effectively handle and navigate environmental demands and pressures.

Effective communication plays a crucial role in efficient management. Communication is essential for every organisation and serves as a managerial tool that executives utilise to influence operations through interpersonal relationships. An administrator’s ability to communicate effectively with their team, peers, and stakeholders can significantly impact the success or failure of an organisation. Communication encompasses diverse methods through which individuals and groups convey information, ideas, and opinions; these are referred to as communication forms. Communication can be categorised in various ways, such as verbal/oral, written, and non-verbal.

Oral communication encompasses the exchange of information using spoken language and is commonly employed in direct conversations, telephone discussions, presentations, speeches, and discussions. It serves as a means of immediate and interactive interaction, facilitating temporary communication requirements. Non-verbal communication, as defined by Bonaccio, O’Reilly, O’Sullivan, and Chiocchio (2016), refers to the exchange and interpretation of information using methods other than language. Hall, Horgan, and Murphy (2019) propose that non-verbal communication occurs more frequently than verbal communication, accounting for more than half of human communication. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to investigate principals’ leadership styles, decision-making skills and communication forms as determinants of public senior secondary schools administrative effectiveness in Oyo State, Nigeria. 

Statement of the Problem

In recent years, there seems to have been widespread dissatisfaction with the administrative effectiveness of many public secondary school principals in Nigeria, particularly in Oyo State. Evidence of this ineffectiveness includes low levels of teacher engagement, teachers’ lack of responsiveness to the teaching profession, disciplinary issues among students and staff, inadequate record keeping, improper coordination of admission and examination procedures, low academic achievement and performance among students, as well as low levels of teacher dedication and job satisfaction. These irregularities may be attributed to the ineffective administration of public secondary school principals in Oyo State, Nigeria. It is likely that schools led by incompetent principals who lack digital knowledge and appropriate leadership styles and communication forms for administrative effectiveness will struggle to achieve educational goals. Studies have identified various factors that contribute to the problems faced by principals in effectively administering secondary schools, including poor working environments, a lack of digitalization among principals, inadequate decision-making skills, ineffective communication forms, unfavourable government policies, a lack of teacher cooperation, insufficient staff, and inadequate funding (Friedländer, Röber, & Schaefer, 2021). However, there seems to be a gap in research regarding the impact of digital leadership styles and communication forms on the administrative effectiveness of public secondary school principals in Oyo State, Nigeria. Therefore, this study aims to investigate on leadership styles, decision-making skills, and communication forms as determinants of administrative effectiveness of principals in public senior secondary schools in Oyo State, Nigeria.

Aim and Objectives of Study

The aim of the study is to investigate the influence of principal leadership styles, decision-making skills and communication forms on public senior secondary school administrative effectiveness in Oyo State. The objectives are to:

1. identify the level of administrative effectiveness (planning, coordinating and supervision) of public secondary school principals in Oyo State, Nigeria.
2. identify the prevalent leadership styles (autocratic, democratic, laissez-faire, and digital leadership) that is being adopted by public secondary school administrators in Oyo State, Nigeria. 
3. identify the prominent decision-making skills (problem-solving skills, time management skills, and emotional intelligence) that is being used among principals in public secondary schools in Oyo State, Nigeria .
4. determine the prominent communication forms (oral and non-oral) that is being used by secondary school principals in Oyo State, Nigeria.
5. examine the combined influence of leadership styles (autocratic, democratic, laissez-faire, and digital), communication forms (oral and non-oral), and decision-making skills (problem solving, time management, and emotional intelligence) on administrative effectiveness in public secondary schools in Oyo State, Nigeria.
6. examine the relative influence of leadership styles (autocratic, democratic, laissez-faire, and digital), communication forms (oral and non-oral), and decision-making skills (problem-solving, time management, and emotional intelligence) on administrative effectiveness in public secondary schools in Oyo State, Nigeria.

Research Questions

For the purpose of this study, the following research questions are posed to be answered.

1.         What is the level of administrative effectiveness (planning, coordinating and supervision) among public secondary school principals in Oyo state, Nigeria?

2          What is the most prevalent leadership styles (autocratic, democratic, laissez-faire, and digital) among public secondary school principals in Oyo State, Nigeria?

3.         What is the level of decision-making skills (problem-solving, time management, and emotional intelligence) among principals in public secondary schools in Oyo state, Nigeria? 

4.         What is the prominent communication forms (oral and non-oral) used by public secondary school principals in Oyo State, Nigeria?

Hypotheses 

H₀1:     There will be no significant combined influence of leadership styles (autocratic, democratic, laissez-faire, and digital), decision-making skills (problem solving skills, time management skills, and emotional intelligence) and communication forms (oral and non-oral) on administrative effectiveness of public secondary school principals in Oyo state, Nigeria.

H₀2:     There will be no significant relative influence of leadership styles (autocratic, democratic, laissez-faire, and digital), decision-making skills (problem solving skills, time management skills, and emotional intelligence) and communication forms (oral and non-oral) on administrative effectiveness of public secondary school principals in public secondary schools in Oyo state, Nigeria.

Methodology

Research Design 

The study utilized a survey-type descriptive research design, which was deemed appropriate because the variables under investigation were already established and outside the researcher’s control. This design allowed for an accurate depiction of the decision-making abilities and administrative effectiveness of principals.

Selection of participants

To ensure a representative sample of the study’s population, a multistage sampling procedure was employed using both stratified and simple random sampling techniques. Initially, the state of Oyo was divided into three strata using the existing senatorial districts: Oyo Central, North, and South. Next, local governments with the highest and lowest number of schools in each stratum were selected, with preference given to those with more teachers in cases where multiple local governments had the same number of schools. The Yamane formula was then applied in the third stage to determine the appropriate sample size of teachers from each selected local government, with Simple Random Sampling used to select the teachers. The local government with the lowest number of teachers served as the baseline for the selection process, ultimately resulting in a total of 4,204 teacher respondents and 629 principals from the selected schools.

Ethical Consideration

Ethical guideline relating to data collection, analysis and interpretation on research as specified by Lead City University was followed.

Analysis of Data

Data collected from the field were analyzed using inferential and descriptive statistics. The descriptive statistics of frequency, percentage and mean and standard deviation were used for research questions while inferential statistics of multiple regression analysis (ANOVA), was used for the hypotheses at a 0.05 level of significance.

Results

Research Question 1: What is the level of administrative effectiveness (planning, coordinating and supervision) among public secondary school principals in Oyo state, Nigeria?

Table 1: Level of administrative effectiveness (planning, coordinating and supervision) among public secondary school principals in Oyo state, Nigeria.

		Always	Often	Rarely	Never
S/N	Items	FreqPer(%)	FreqPer(%)	FreqPer(%)	FreqPer(%)	Mean	SD
1	Planningensures academic activities are planned early before the commencement of the term.	3227(82.6%)	557(14.3%)	114(2.9%)	10(0.3%)	3.79	.489
2	ensures provision of human resources needed for smooth operation in the school	2254(57.5%)	1422(36.3%)	236(6.0%)	6(0.2%)	3.51	.616
3	ensures provision of materials resources needed for smooth operation in the school	2254(57.5%)	1294(33.0%)	360(9.2%)	10(0.3%)	3.48	.670
4	calls stakeholders meeting when planning school activities	2059(52.6%)	1399(35.7%)	324(8.3%)	136(3.5%)	3.37	.780
5	plans for maintenance of school infrastructural facilities	1994(50.9%)	1540(39.3%)	322(8.2%)	62(1.6%)	3.40	.706
6	plans for co-curricular activities	2317(59.1%)	1268(32.4%)	307(7.8%)	26(0.7%)	3.50	.668
7	sets discipline policy at this school	2613(66.7%)	949(24.2%)	336(8.6%)	20(0.5%)	3.57	.669
8	decide how school budget will be spent	1916(48.9%)	1218(31.1%)	506(12.9%)	278(7.1%)	3.22	.924
	Weighted Mean					3.48
Coordination
1	create and implement shared school vision	1616(41.2%)	1752(44.7%)	466(11.9%)	81(2.1%)	3.26	.759
2	nurture and sustain a culture and instructional program conducive to learning and staff development	1648(42.1%)	1791(45.7%)	416(10.6%)	63(1.6%)	3.28	.715
3	ensures management of school operations to produce a safe and effective learning environment	2263(57.8%)	1301(33.2%)	331(8.4%)	23(0.6%)	3.48	.674
4	collaborates with families and the diverse communities that schools serve	1524(38.9%)	1730(44.2%)	487(12.4%)	177(4.5%)	3.17	.815
5	promotes integrity, fairness, and ethical behaviour	2561(65.4%)	987(25.2)	308(7.9%)	62(1.6%)	3.54	.707
6	interacts with government agencies on school matters	1928(49.2%)	1334(34.0%)	556(14.2%)	100(2.6%)	3.30	.804
7	coordinates all units or departments in the school to achieve synergy	2396(61.3%)	1123(28.7%)	288(7.4%)	101(2.6%)	3.49	.743
8	encourages team spirit among teachers and other school staff	2560(65.3%)	1066(27.2%)	239(6.1%)	53(1.4%)	3.57	.670
	Weighted Mean					3.39
Supervision
1	ensures teachers write lesson plan/note	2823(72.1%)	839(21.4%)	186(4.7%)	70(1.8%)	3.64	.658
2	visits teachers in the classroom	1900(48.5%)	1429(36.5%)	523(13.3%)	66(1.7%)	3.32	.765
3	ensures resources in the school are used for the right purpose	2146(54.8%)	1465(37.4%)	301(7.7%)	6(0.2%)	3.47	.642
4	monitors teachers and other staffs punctuality	2658(67.8%)	968(24.7%)	226(5.8%)	66(1.7%)	3.59	.677
5	ensures teaching is in accordance with the curriculum	2674(68.2%)	1024(26.1%)	195(5.0%)	25(0.6%)	3.62	.611
6	ensures standard of examination in the school	2557(65.3%)	1145(29.2%)	198(5.1%)	18(0.5%)	3.59	.608
7	maintains student/staff discipline	2625(67.0%)	1000(25.5%)	254(6.5%)	39(1.0%)	3.59	.657
	Weighted Mean					3.54
	Overall Weighted Mean					3.47

Source: Fieldwork, 2023

Decision Rule: 0 – 1.49= Very Low, 1.50 – 2.49= Low, 2.5 – 3.49 = High, 3.50 – 4.0 = Very High

The study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of public secondary school principals in Oyo State by assessing their skills in planning, coordinating, and supervising. Data from a survey completed by principals was analysed, revealing various findings. In terms of planning, the principals showed proficiency in planning school activities, with 82.6% of respondents consistently engaging in early planning of academic activities before each term. However, their ability to provide necessary human and material resources for smooth school operation received lower ratings, with 57.5% of respondents ensuring the provision of human resources and 57.5% ensuring the provision of material resources. Regarding coordination, the principals were reported to be effective in promoting integrity, fairness, and ethical behaviour (65.4%). They also demonstrated effectiveness in coordinating all school units or departments to achieve synergy (61.3%). However, areas that required improvement were identified, including creating and implementing a shared school vision (41.2%) and fostering a culture and instructional programme conducive to learning and staff development (42.1%).

Research Question Two: What is the most prevalent leadership style (Autocratic, Democratic, Laissez-faire, and Digital) among public secondary school principals in Oyo state?

Table 2: The most prevalent leadership styles (autocratic, democratic, laissez-faire, and digital) among public secondary school principals in Oyo state

	Most of the Time	Some of the Times	Seldom	Never
Items	FreqPer(%)	FreqPer(%)	FreqPer(%)	FreqPer(%)	Mean
Autocratic	1746.25(44.575)	1507.75(38.475)	434.5(11.1)	229.5(5.85)	3.22
Digital	1350.5(34.45)	1568.5(40.05)	645.75(16.5)	353.25(9.025)	3.00
Democratic	1216.5(31.05)	1474(37.625)	479(12.2)	748.5(19.1)	2.81
Laissez-faire	767(19.575)	1543(39.375)	578(14.775)	1030(26.275)	2.52

Source: Fieldwork, 2023

The study examined the dominant leadership styles among public secondary school principals in Oyo State. The findings, presented in Table 2, indicate that the prevailing leadership style varies among the principals. Autocratic leadership emerged as the most common style, with 44.575% of respondents reporting its frequent use. Digital leadership was the second most prevalent style, employed by 34.45% of respondents most of the time, followed by democratic leadership, utilized frequently by 31.05% of respondents. In contrast, laissez-faire leadership was the least prevalent, with only 19.575% of respondents regularly implementing it. It is noteworthy that while autocratic leadership is dominant, a significant number of respondents reported utilising democratic and digital leadership styles to some extent, indicating flexibility in their leadership approaches. These findings provide valuable insights into the prevailing leadership styles among public secondary school principals in Oyo State, informing efforts to improve educational leadership and management in the region.

Research Question Three: What is the level of decision-making skills (problem-solving, time management, emotional intelligence) among public secondary school principals in Oyo state?

Table 3: Level of decision-making skills (Problem-solving, Time Management, Emotional Intelligence) among public secondary school principals in Oyo state

Problem-solving		At All Times	Sometime	Rarely	Never
S/N	Items	FreqPer(%)	FreqPer(%)	FreqPer(%)	FreqPer(%)	Mean	SD
1	identify and define the school’s problem	2708(69.3%)	1048(26.8%)	111(2.8%)	41(1.0%)	3.64	.591
2	come up with possible solutions to school’s problem	2429(62.2%)	1273(32.6%)	156(4.0%)	50(1.3%)	3.56	.635
3	evaluate the different options before making decisions	2193(56.1%)	1308(33.5%)	372(9.5%)	35(0.9%)	3.45	.701
4	implement solutions	2279(58.3%)	1290(33.0%)	212(5.4%)	127(3.2%)	3.46	.743
5	evaluate outcome of solutions	2158(55.3%)	1412(36.2%)	285(7.3%)	45(1.2%)	3.46	.681
	Weighted Mean					3.51
Time Management
1	do a time audit	1473(37.7%)	1943(49.7%)	416(10.6%)	76(1.9%)	3.23	.713
2	make schedule and abide strictly	2030(51.9%)	1471(37.6%)	335(8.6%)	72(1.8%)	3.40	.722
3	avoid multitasking	1215(31.1%)	1719(44.1%)	663(17.0%)	304(7.8%)	2.99	.891
4	delegate and outsource tasks	1644(42.1%)	1820(46.7%)	333(8.5%)	104(2.7%)	3.28	.730
5	inculcate time management among staff	2322(59.4%)	1312(33.6%)	243(6.2%)	31(0.8%)	3.52	.649
	Weighted Mean					3.28
Emotional Intelligence
1	creates awareness of him or herself	1720(44.0%)	1504(38.5%)	595(15.2%)	86(2.2%)	3.24	.788
2	controls his or her emotions	1888(48.3%)	1555(39.8%)	340(8.7%)	125(3.2%)	3.33	.767
3	is an achievement orientated individual	2298(58.8%)	1310(33.5%)	255(6.5%)	42(1.1%)	3.50	.667
4	listens actively to staff comments or reactions	2091(53.5%)	1493(38.2%)	263(6.7%)	61(1.6%)	3.44	.689
5	manage, and understand emotions staff’s emotions	1891(48.4%)	1509(38.6%)	347(8.9%)	161(4.1%)	3.31	.800
	Weighted Mean					3.37
	Overall Weighted Mean					3.39

Source: Fieldwork, 2023

Decision Rule: 0 – 1.49= Very Low, 1.50 – 2.49= Low, 2.5 – 3.49 = High, 3.50 – 4.0 = Very High

The table presents data on the proficiency of decision-making skills among principals in public secondary schools in Oyo State. The data was collected in 2023 through fieldwork. The weighted mean scores indicate high proficiency levels for problem-solving skills (3.51), time management skills (3.28), and emotional intelligence skills (3.37). Overall, the weighted mean score for decision-making skills was 3.39, suggesting a high proficiency level among the principals. These findings indicate that the principals possess strong decision-making skills, which are crucial for effective leadership. They demonstrate the ability to identify and define problems, generate solutions, assess alternatives, implement chosen solutions, and evaluate outcomes. Furthermore, the principals exhibit high levels of time management skills, enabling them to effectively manage resources and activities. They also demonstrate high levels of emotional intelligence skills, which are important for communication, relationship building, and team management.

Research Question four: What is the prominent communication forms (oral and non-oral) used by public secondary school principals in Oyo State, Nigeria?

Table 4.4a: Non-oral Communication
		Always	Sometimes	Rarely	Never
S/N	Items	FreqPer(%)	FreqPer(%)	FreqPer(%)	FreqPer(%)	Mean	SD
1	Reports	2144(54.9%)	1211(31.0%)	410(10.5%)	143(3.7%)	3.37	.814
2	Manuals	1195(30.6%)	1812(46.4%)	571(14.6%)	330(8.4%)	2.99	.889
3	Memorandum	1250(32.1%)	1703(43.7%)	716(18.4%)	224(5.8%)	3.02	.857
4	Correspondence	1092(27.9%)	1563(40.0%)	893(22.9%)	360(9.2%)	2.87	.927
5	Suggestion boxes	863(22.1%)	1050(26.9%)	963(24.6%)	1032(26.4%)	2.45	1.103
	Weighted Mean					2.94

Source: Fieldwork, 2023

Decision Rule: 0 – 1.49= Very Low, 1.50 – 2.49= Low, 2.5 – 3.49 = High, 3.50 – 4.0 = Very High

Table 4.4a provides information about the frequency of non-verbal communication. The table includes five categories of non-verbal communication: reports, manuals, memoranda, correspondence, and suggestion boxes. It presents the percentage of respondents who always, sometimes, rarely, or never use each type of communication. Regarding reports, the majority of respondents (54.9%) reported always using this form of communication. 31.0% said they sometimes use it, 10.5% rarely use it, and 3.7% never use it. On average, reports were used with a frequency of 3.37, and the standard deviation was 0.814.As for manuals, 30.6% of respondents reported always using them, 46.4% sometimes used them, 14.6% rarely used them, and 8.4% never used them. The mean frequency of use for manuals was 2.99, with a standard deviation of 0.889. In the case of memoranda, 32.1% of respondents reported always using them, 43.7% sometimes used them, 18.4% rarely used them, and 5.8% never used them. The mean frequency of use for memoranda was 3.02, with a standard deviation of 0.857. Concerning correspondence, 27.9% of respondents reported always using it, 40.0% sometimes using it, 22.9% rarely using it, and 9.2% never using it. The mean frequency of use for correspondence was 2.87, with a standard deviation of 0.927. As for suggestion boxes, 22.1% of respondents reported always using them, 26.9% sometimes used them, 24.6% rarely used them, and 26.4% never used them. The mean frequency of use for suggestion boxes was 2.45, with a standard deviation of 1.103. The overall weighted mean frequency of use for all types of non-verbal communication was 2.94. This suggests that there is a low level of non-verbal communication among public secondary school principals in Oyo State.

Table 4.4b: Oral Communication
		Always	Sometimes	Rarely	Never
S/N	Items	FreqPer(%)	FreqPer(%)	FreqPer(%)	FreqPer(%)	Mean	SD
1	Staff meetings	2495(63.8%)	1244(31.8%)	155(4.0%)	14(0.4%)	3.59	.585
2	One-one communication	1787(45.7%)	1628(41.7%)	381(9.7%)	112(2.9%)	3.30	.760
	Weighted Mean					3.45

Source: Fieldwork, 2023

Decision Rule: 0 – 1.49= Very Low, 1.50 – 2.49= Low, 2.5 – 3.49 = High, 3.50 – 4.0 = Very High

Table 4.4b provides information on the occurrence of oral communication among public secondary school principals in Oyo State. The table focuses on two scenarios: staff meetings and one-on-one interactions. For staff meetings, the majority of respondents (63.8%) reported always engaging in oral communication, while 31.8% said they do so sometimes. A smaller proportion indicated rare (4.0%) or no (0.4%) oral communication in these meetings. The mean value for staff meetings was 3.59, indicating a generally high level of oral communication in this context. In one-on-one communication, the most common response was sometimes (41.7%), followed by always (45.7%). A smaller percentage reported rare (9.7%) or no (2.9%) oral communication. The mean value for one-on-one communication was 3.30, suggesting a generally prevalent use of oral communication in this scenario as well. The weighted mean for both categories combined was 3.45, indicating a high level of oral communication among the principals.

Figure 1

Figure 13: Prominent Communication Form used by Public Secondary School Principals in Oyo State (Oral and Non-Oral)

Source: Fieldwork, 2023

Figure 1 highlights that oral communication is highly prevalent among principals in public secondary schools in Oyo State. This suggests that these principals heavily rely on face-to-face or verbal forms of communication, such as meetings and discussions, rather than written or non-verbal methods like memos, emails, or other written materials. This preference for oral communication can have implications for the communication channels used within school administration and may affect the effectiveness of communication and decision-making processes. The prominence of oral communication among principals in Oyo State’s public schools indicates a potential need for additional training or support in developing effective written or non-verbal communication skills. This would ensure that communication remains clear, accurate, and consistent. Moreover, cultural and contextual factors specific to Oyo State may contribute to the preference for oral communication. Nigeria, where Oyo State is located, has distinct cultural norms, values, and communication styles. Oral communication might be deeply ingrained in the local culture and perceived as more effective or appropriate in certain situations, such as interpersonal interactions or negotiations. This cultural influence could impact the administrative effectiveness of secondary school principals, as they may need to align their communication approach with local cultural norms to effectively engage with staff, students, and other stakeholders.

 Testing of Hypotheses

H₀1: There will be no significant combined influence of leadership styles (autocratic, democratic, laissez-faire, and digital), decision-making skills (problem solving skills, time management skills, and emotional intelligence) and communication forms (oral and non-oral) on administrative effectiveness of public secondary schools principals in Oyo state.

Table 4.5: Summary of Regression Model Showing combined influence of leadership styles (autocratic, democratic, laissez-faire, and digital), decision-making skills (problem solving skills, time management skills, and emotional intelligence) and communication forms (oral and non-oral) on administrative effectiveness of public secondary schools principals in Oyo state.

Model Summary
Model		R		R Square		Adjusted R Square	Std. Error of the Estimate
1		.971a		.924		.943	2.58209
a. Predictors: (Constant), Communication strategies, Decision-making Skills, Leadership Styles
ANOVAa
Model			Sum of Squares		Df			Mean Square	F		Sig.
1	Regression		434501.180		3			144833.727	21723.355		.000b
	Residual		26095.380		3914			6.667
	Total		460596.559		3917
a. Dependent Variable: Administrative effectiveness
b. Predictors: (Constant), Communication strategies, Decision-making Skills, Leadership Styles

Source: Fieldwork, 2023

The table summarizes a regression analysis conducted on the combined impact of leadership styles, decision-making skills, and communication forms on the administrative effectiveness of principals in public secondary schools in Oyo State, Nigeria. The analysis reveals that the R-squared value of 0.924 indicates that 92.4% of the variation in administrative effectiveness can be explained by the independent variables included in the model. The Adjusted R-squared value of 0.943 suggests that the model fits the data well. The model’s F-statistic is 21723.355, and its associated p-value is less than 0.05, indicating that the model is statistically significant. The ANOVA table confirms that the regression model significantly explains the variation in administrative effectiveness. The coefficients of the independent variables are not provided in the table, but the ‘a’ superscript indicates that they are statistically significant. The standard error of the estimate is 2.58209, indicating that the model’s predictions are reasonably accurate. The regression analysis demonstrates that communication strategies, decision-making skills, and leadership styles have a significant influence on the administrative effectiveness of principals in public secondary schools in Oyo State. Overall, the analysis suggests that these factors play a crucial role in determining the effectiveness of principals in their administrative roles in public secondary schools in Oyo State.

H₀2:    There will be no significant relative influence of leadership styles (autocratic, democratic, laissez-faire, and digital), decision-making skills (problem solving skills, time management skills, and emotional intelligence) and communication forms (oral and non-oral) on administrative effectiveness of public secondary schools principals in public secondary schools in Oyo state.

Table 4.6: Summary of Relative Influence of leadership styles (autocratic, democratic, laissez-faire, and digital), decision-making skills (problem solving skills, time management skills, and emotional intelligence) and communication forms (oral and non-oral) on administrative effectiveness of public secondary schools principals in public secondary schools in Oyo state

Coefficientsa
Model		Unstandardized Coefficients				Standardized Coefficients		T		Sig.
		B		Std. Error		Beta
(Constant)	18.735		.450				41.622		0.000
Autocratic	1.431		.094		.378		15.172		.000
Democratic	-.042		.039		-.012		-1.067		.286
Laissez-faire	1.473		.106		.300		13.850		.000
Digital	-1.511		.107		-.403		-14.068		.000
Problem-solving	-.268		.080		-.085		-3.356		.001
Time Management	-.098		.110		-.028		-.894		.371
Emotional Intelligence	-.333		.120		-.104		-2.778		.005
Oral Communication	.120		.095		.048		1.260		.208
Non-oral Communication	-.223		.136		-.030		-1.639		.101
Leadership Styles	.388		.040		.341		9.808		.000
Decision-making Skills	1.010		.048		.852		21.013		.000
Communication strategies	-.528		.089		-.272		-5.930		.000
a. Dependent Variable: Administrative effectiveness

Source: Fieldwork, 2023

The table presents the coefficients for each predictor variable in the regression model, along with their standard errors, standardized coefficients, t-values, and associated p-values. The “Constant” coefficient indicates the expected value of the dependent variable (administrative effectiveness) when all predictor variables are zero. In this case, it is 18.735 with a standard error of 0.450. The t-value of 41.622 suggests that the constant term is statistically significant (p < 0.001). The coefficients for each predictor variable represent the expected change in the dependent variable for a one-unit increase in the predictor, while holding other predictors constant. The standardized coefficients (Beta) allow for a comparison of the relative importance of each predictor. The predictor variables “Autocratic,” “Laissez-faire,” “Digital,” “Problem-solving,” “Emotional Intelligence,” “Leadership Styles,” “Decision-making Skills,” and “Communication strategies” all have statistically significant coefficients (p < 0.05). The predictor variable “Democratic” does not appear to have a significant effect on administrative effectiveness, as its coefficient has a p-value of 0.286, which is greater than 0.05. The coefficients for “Oral Communication” and “Non-oral Communication” suggest that these variables have a relatively weak or negligible effect on administrative effectiveness, as their p-values are not statistically significant (greater than 0.05). Overall, the coefficients indicate that variables related to leadership styles (autocratic, laissez-faire, digital), decision-making skills (problem-solving, emotional intelligence), and communication strategies significantly influence administrative effectiveness. These results can help understand the specific impact of each predictor on the outcome variable and provide insights for improving administrative effectiveness in the context studied.

 Discussion of Findings

The findings of the study aim to assess the level of administrative effectiveness among principals in public secondary schools in Oyo State. The table presents the results of the study, focusing on three aspects: planning, coordination, and supervision. According to the study conducted by Pardosi and Utari (2022), effective planning positively influences student achievement. The current study aligns with this finding, as the majority of respondents (82.6%) recognise the importance of early planning in academic activities. This suggests that educators understand the role of proactive planning in achieving successful academic outcomes. Coordination is identified as a crucial aspect of school management in the present study. Approximately 41.2% of the participants acknowledged the significance of establishing and implementing a shared school vision. This finding supports the research done by Zina (2017), emphasising the importance of a shared vision in promoting collaboration and alignment of goals among school stakeholders. However, the moderate level of agreement (mean score: 3.26) indicates that there is room for improvement in fostering a stronger shared vision among participants. Integrity, fairness, and ethical behaviour within the school community are also highlighted in the current study as important aspects of coordination. This finding aligns with the research by Neal, Justice, and Barron (2019), which suggests that promoting ethical behaviour has a positive impact on the school climate and student engagement. The relatively high agreement (65.4%) and mean score (3.54) indicate the significance placed on ethical values in school management. Regarding supervision, the study emphasises the importance of teachers writing lesson plans and notes (72.1%) and maintaining punctuality among school staff (67.8%). These findings are consistent with the research conducted by Pardosi and Utari (2022), which highlights the positive impact of effective supervision practices on teacher performance and student achievement. The high agreement percentages and mean scores for these items further emphasise their importance in creating conducive learning environment.

Research question two aimed to examine the prevalent leadership styles among public secondary school principals in Oyo State. The study focused on four leadership styles: Autocratic, Digital, Democratic, and Laissez-faire. The findings revealed that the Autocratic leadership style was the most commonly reported, with a frequency of 44.575%. This finding is consistent with previous research highlighting the prevalence of autocratic leadership in educational settings (Daniëls, Hondeghem, & Dochy, 2019). Autocratic leadership is characterised by centralised decision-making and limited input from subordinates, with the leader making decisions unilaterally. While autocratic leadership can offer quick decision-making and clarity, it may restrict participation, creativity, and ownership among staff members (Abdullatef, 2019). The digital leadership style, with a frequency of 34.45%, was reported to be somewhat prevalent. Digital leadership refers to leadership practises that embrace technology and digital tools to enhance communication, collaboration, and instructional practises (Gedifew, 2022). The emergence of digital leadership reflects the changing landscape of education and the need for leaders to effectively leverage technology. Digital leadership can facilitate connectivity, knowledge sharing, and innovation among staff and students, leading to enhanced learning experiences (Elrehail, 2018). The findings also indicated a moderate prevalence of the Democratic leadership style, with a frequency of 31.05%. Democratic leadership emphasises shared decision-making and the involvement of stakeholders in the decision-making processes (Mburuki & Thinguri, 2022). This finding aligns with previous research highlighting the positive impact of democratic leadership on school climate, teacher motivation, and student engagement (Wina Novita, Sulaiman, & Muhyani Rizalie, 2022). By involving teachers, staff, and other stakeholders in decision-making, democratic leadership fosters a sense of ownership, empowerment, and commitment to the school’s goals. Lastly, the laissez-faire leadership style, with a frequency of 19.575%, was reported to be relatively less prevalent. Laissez-faire leadership is characterised by a hands-off approach where leaders provide minimal guidance or direction to subordinates (Zhang, Wang, & Gao, 2023). This leadership style can result in ambiguity, a lack of accountability, and reduced organisational effectiveness (Mburuki & Thinguri, 2022). However, in contexts where there is a high level of expertise and self-motivation among staff members, a laissez-faire approach can foster autonomy and innovation (Zhang, 2023).

Research question three aimed to assess the decision-making skills (problem-solving, time management, emotional intelligence) of public secondary school principals in Oyo State. The study examined three specific skills: problem-solving, time management, and emotional intelligence. The findings revealed that school administrators generally utilize problem-solving skills, although the frequency of use varied across different stages. Most respondents reported consistently identifying and defining problems (69.3%), generating possible solutions (62.2%), evaluating options (56.1%), implementing solutions (58.3%), and assessing the outcomes (55.3%). These findings indicate active engagement in problem-solving processes by administrators. However, a small percentage of respondents reported infrequently (9.5%) or never (0.9%) evaluating different options, suggesting areas for improvement in decision-making. The weighted mean for problem-solving was 3.51, indicating a moderate level of engagement overall. A similar study by Özgenel (2018) on educational administrators’ problem-solving skills identified comparable patterns, where administrators generally engaged in problem-solving processes, with a majority actively identifying and defining problems. However, the current study reported a higher percentage of administrators involved in problem identification and definition (69.3%) compared to Özgenel’s findings, suggesting a relatively stronger emphasis on problem-solving in the current sample. Regarding time management, the results demonstrated that school administrators employ various strategies to effectively manage their time. The most commonly reported practice was creating and adhering strictly to a schedule (51.9%), followed by conducting time audits (37.7%), avoiding multitasking (31.1%), delegating and outsourcing tasks (42.1%), and promoting time management among staff (59.4%). However, a significant percentage of respondents reported engaging in multitasking (17.0%), which can potentially hinder effective time management. The weighted mean for time management was 3.28, indicating a moderate level of implementation overall. The current study aligns with research conducted by Manga (2019) in terms of the strategies employed by administrators. Creating and adhering strictly to a schedule was the most frequently reported practice in both studies. However, the current study reported a higher percentage of administrators engaging in this practice (51.9%) compared to Manga’s findings. Conversely, the current study found a higher percentage of administrators involved in multitasking (17.0%) compared to Manga’s study. This difference highlights the need for further investigation into the factors influencing multitasking behaviors among administrators. Regarding emotional intelligence, the findings suggested that school administrators generally exhibit self-awareness and emotional control. Over 40% of respondents reported creating self-awareness and controlling their emotions. Additionally, a substantial percentage agreed that they actively listen to staff comments or reactions (53.5%) and manage and understand staff’s emotions (48.4%). However, the achievement orientation aspect of emotional intelligence received relatively lower scores, with only 58.8% of respondents identifying as achievement-oriented individuals. The overall weighted mean for emotional intelligence was 3.37, indicating a moderate level of emotional intelligence among school administrators. The current study’s findings align with the research by Özgenel (2018) and Manga (2019) regarding self-awareness and emotional control. Similar proportions of administrators in all three studies reported creating self-awareness and controlling their emotions. However, the current study reported a relatively lower percentage of administrators identifying as achievement-oriented individuals (58.8%) compared to Özgenel’s findings. This difference suggests potential variations in achievement orientation across different samples of administrators. When considering the overall weighted mean across problem-solving, time management, and emotional intelligence, the study indicates a moderate level of proficiency in these areas among school administrators, with an overall weighted mean of 3.39. This suggests that while administrators generally demonstrate competence in these domains, there is room for improvement in certain aspects, such as evaluating different options before making decisions and multitasking avoidance. It is significant to acknowledge that this research has certain constraints, which involve depending on self-reported data and the possibility of response bias. To gain a more extensive comprehension of administrators’ problem-solving, time management, and emotional intelligence abilities, future studies could incorporate supplementary approaches like observations or objective performance assessments. Moreover, examining how these skills relate to organisational outcomes, such as school performance or staff satisfaction, could yield valuable insights into the influence of administrators’ competencies on the overall functioning of schools.

Research question four assesses the prominent communication forms (oral and non-oral) used among public secondary school principals in Oyo state. Table 4.4a presents the findings related to non-oral communication methods, while Table 4.4b focuses on oral communication methods. Table 4.4a presents the results of the non-oral communication frequency among the participants. The table includes various items of non-oral communication, along with the corresponding frequencies and percentages indicating how often each form of communication was used. The most frequently used form of non-oral communication reported by the participants was “Reports,” with a frequency of 2144 (54.9%) participants indicating that they always used this method. Additionally, 1211 participants (31.0%) reported using reports sometimes, 410 participants (10.5%) reported using it rarely, and 143 participants (3.7%) reported never using reports. The mean score for reports was 3.37, indicating a relatively high level of usage. “Manuals” were also frequently used, with 1195 participants (30.6%) indicating that they always used manuals. However, the usage of manuals varied more compared to reports, with 1812 participants (46.4%) using them sometimes, 571 participants (14.6%) using them rarely, and 330 participants (8.4%) never using manuals. The mean score for manuals was 2.99. “Memorandum” usage was reported by 1250 participants (32.1%) as always, with 1703 participants (43.7%) using them sometimes, 716 participants (18.4%) using them rarely, and 224 participants (5.8%) never using memorandums. The mean score for memorandums was 3.02. “Correspondence” had a similar pattern, with 1092 participants (27.9%) reporting always using it, 1563 participants (40.0%) sometimes using it, 893 participants (22.9%) using it rarely, and 360 participants (9.2%) never using correspondence. The mean score for correspondence was 2.87. Lastly, “Suggestion boxes” were used less frequently compared to the other non-oral communication methods. Only 863 participants (22.1%) reported always using suggestion boxes, while 1050 participants (26.9%) used them sometimes, 963 participants (24.6%) used them rarely, and 1032 participants (26.4%) never used suggestion boxes. The mean score for suggestion boxes was 2.45. The weighted mean for non-oral communication was calculated as 2.94, indicating that overall, the participants reported a moderate level of usage for non-oral communication methods. Moving on to Table 4.4b, which presents the findings for oral communication, the participants reported higher levels of usage compared to non-oral communication methods. The table includes items of oral communication, along with the corresponding frequencies and percentages. “Staff meetings” were the most frequently used form of oral communication, with 2495 participants (63.8%) reporting always participating in staff meetings. Additionally, 1244 participants (31.8%) reported participating sometimes, 155 participants (4.0%) reported participating rarely, and only 14 participants (0.4%) reported never participating in staff meetings. The mean score for staff meetings was 3.59, indicating a high level of usage. “One-on-one communication” was also commonly reported, with 1787 participants (45.7%) indicating always engaging in this form of communication. Furthermore, 1628 participants (41.7%) engaged in one-on-one communication sometimes, 381 participants (9.7%) engaged in it rarely, and 112 participants (2.9%) reported never engaging in one-on-one communication. The mean score for one-on-one communication was 3.30. The weighted mean for oral communication was calculated as 3.45, indicating that overall, the participants reported a relatively high level of usage for oral communication methods. In conclusion, the findings from Tables 4.4a and 4.4b suggest that the participants in the study reported using both non-oral and oral communication methods in their work. Non-oral communication methods, such as reports and manuals, were used moderately, while oral communication methods, such as staff meetings and one-on-one communication, were used more frequently. These findings highlight the importance of both non-oral and oral communication in the workplace and provide insights into the communication preferences and practices of the participants. The current study aligns with the research conducted by Anya and Ezekie (2019) in terms of the communication forms employed by administrators. Making use of oral and non-oral was mostly used in both studies. However, the current study reported a higher percentage of administrators engaging in the use of oral communication compared to the findings of Anya and Ezekie, (2019). On the other hand, some contrast was observed in the findings of Guffey and Loewy, (2018). This difference highlights the need for further investigation into the forms of communication used among administrators.

Test of hypothesis one showed a significant combined influence of leadership styles (autocratic, democratic, laissez-faire, and digital), decision-making skills (problem solving skills, time management skills, and emotional intelligence) and communication forms (oral and non-oral) on administrative effectiveness of public secondary schools principals in Oyo state. The result showed that there was a significant combined influence of leadership styles (autocratic, democratic, laissez-faire, and digital), decision-making skills (problem-solving skills, time management skills, and emotional intelligence), and communication forms (oral and non-oral) on administrative effectiveness of public secondary school principals, and can be compared and contrasted with findings from related studies in the field of educational administration and leadership. When comparing with related studies, similarities were found in the findings of different scholars. One of the scholars found out that leadership styles had a significant impact on administrative effectiveness, which aligns with the current study’s results (Khajeh, 2018). Similarly, it revealed that decision-making skills were positively correlated with leadership effectiveness, consistent with the current study’s findings (Schalk, Engen & Assen, 2018). On the other hand, some contrasts were observed in the findings of different scholars. A scholar found a negative correlation between autocratic leadership and administrative effectiveness, which contrasts with the current study’s result (Surucu & Sagbas, 2021). Also, another scholar did not find significant correlations between problem-solving skills, time management skills, and leadership effectiveness, in contrast to the current study’s findings (Gravili, Manuti & Meririnhos, 2022).

Test of hypothesis two revealed significant relative influence of leadership styles (autocratic, democratic, laissez-faire, and digital), decision-making skills (problem solving skills, time management skills, and emotional intelligence) and communication forms (oral and non-oral) on administrative effectiveness of public secondary schools principals in public secondary schools in Oyo state. Based on the test of hypothesis, the findings indicated that leadership styles, decision-making skills, and communication forms significantly influenced the administrative effectiveness of public secondary school principals in Oyo state. . Specifically, the study identified four leadership styles, namely autocratic, democratic, laissez-faire, and digital, that were found to have relative influence on administrative effectiveness. This result is consistent with previous related studies in the field. For example, a study conducted in a different state or country may have found similar results, indicating that leadership styles, decision-making skills, and communication forms are important factors influencing the administrative effectiveness of school principals. This consistency in findings suggests that these factors are likely to have a universal impact on administrative effectiveness in the context of public secondary schools. However, it’s also possible that there may be some differences in the findings when compared to related studies. For instance, some previous studies may have focused on specific leadership styles or decision-making skills, whereas the current study included a broader range of leadership styles and decision-making skills. Additionally, the context and setting of the current study, which is Oyo state in this case, may differ from that of related studies, which could result in variations in the findings.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the study concluded that leadership styles, communication forms, and decision-making skills are significant determinants of administrative effectiveness in public secondary schools in Oyo State, Nigeria. It was also concluded that leadership styles as explains a significant amount of the variance in administrative effectiveness, indicating a strong positive relationship between leadership styles and administrative effectiveness. The findings of the study on the level of decision-making skills (problem-solving, time management, emotional intelligence) show that the principals rated themselves high in problem-solving skills, followed by emotional intelligence and time management. Also, the findings highlight the importance of both non-oral and oral communication in the workplace and provide insights into the communication preferences and practices of the participants.

Recommendations

Based on the findings of the study, it is recommended that 

1. Public secondary school principals in Oyo State, Nigeria should focus on developing effective leadership styles, decision-making skills, and communication strategies to enhance their administrative effectiveness. This may include providing leadership training programs, fostering problem-solving and time-management skills, and promoting effective oral and non-oral communication within the school environment.
2. Public secondary school principals should prioritize developing and promoting effective leadership styles, invest in training and development program for improving leadership skills, and create a positive leadership culture to enhance administrative effectiveness. 
3. Decision-making skills should be recognized and prioritized as an important factor in enhancing administrative effectiveness of public secondary school principals in Oyo State, Nigeria. This should be incorporated into trainings and seminars and should form major criteria for appointing secondary school principals.
4. Public secondary schools should prioritize and invest in training principals in effective communication forms to enhance their administrative effectiveness. This may include developing clear and efficient communication channels, improving communication their skills, fostering open and transparent communication culture, and using various communication tools and techniques. By doing so, public schools are likely to see improvements in their administrative effectiveness, leading to more efficient and effective operations. It is important to keep in mind that effective communication is a continuous process and should be regularly monitored and evaluated for optimal results.

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J.O. Obielumani¹ S.C. Okotume¹ & I.I.Onyeuku²

¹Department of Chemistry Education Federal college of Education (Tech.), Asaba, Delta State, Nigeria

²Department of Integrated Science Education, Federal college of Education (Tech.), Asaba, Delta State, Nigeria

Abstract 

This study aimed to evaluate the efficacy of zinc oxide/plantain peelings nanoparticles for oil spill contaminated surface water remediation within Ogoni creek of Niger Delta, Nigeria. The nanoparticles were characterized using scanning electron microscope (SEM) and X-ray Powder diffraction (XRD), taking in cognizance of the physicochemical parameters prior and after analysis so as to ascertain efficacy of the remediation method. SEM revealed the image of an irregular morphology and a porous surface which can enable oil entrance into the internal parts of the nano materials for easy sorption purposes. The XRD revealed a hexagonal wurtzite structure with a particle size of 22nm. The synthesized nanoparticles exhibited adsorption properties when used on the surface water samples showing percentage remediation ranging between 2.38 – 8.56% (SWa); 2.16 – 8.83% (SWb); and 53.33-77.62% (SWc). The results showed that the plantain peelings/ZnONPs had good efficacy for oil spill removal in the contaminated surface water samples. Kinetics of remediation gave a linear graph and took a pseudo-first order reaction with R² values close to 1. (R² = 0.978, 0.985 and 0.963). ANOVA revealed that there is a significant difference (p<0.05) at 95% confidence limit in the diminishing trend of the surface water contaminated samples. It is therefore recommended that nano materials harnessed from biomass materials in conjunction with other green synthesis should be employed for water remediation.

Keywords: Adsorption, Nanoparticles, Physicochemical, Remediation, Surface water 

            Graphical Abstract 1

  Plantain peels (b) Dried and ground plantain peels powder (c) Filtrate of plantain peel extract (d) Filtrate + Zinc acetate (e) Centrifuge and oven dry (f) SEM (g) XRD (h) Oil spill contaminated water site

1.0 Introduction. 

            Extensive oil spill contamination and degradation of surface water and its resulting detriment to green environmental actualization has remained a challenge since the discovery and exploration of crude oil in Niger-Delta, Nigeria. Oil spills often resulting from unforeseen disasters [1], accidental leakages [2] and youth restiveness [3] have been recorded over the years in the Niger Delta zone of Nigeria. Spill experts have estimated about 30-50% of oil spills to be caused either directly or indirectly by human error while 20-40% is caused by equipment failure or malfunction [4]. Natural conditions for degradation of petroleum and its related products are favourable with high temperatures and high rainfall, the recovery of contaminated areas proves difficult due to nature and extent of contamination [5].

 Serious global health impacts ranging from physical and mental disorders, organ dysfunction, neurological disorder, respiratory problem cancer, reduced life expectancy, weakening of the body’s immune system, respiratory problems and death have often resulted from oil spill and related issues [6]; [7];[8] while other health related issues emanating from oil pollution  may involve high levels of emotional stress and psychological distress resulting from living under such environmental adversity[9].

            Remediation of oil spills is a serious issue due to contaminants adverse effects on the biosphere. Oil spreads on the top surface of water and form a horizontal smooth and slippery surface known as slick. This forms a thin coating on bird’s feathers and as such causes it to lose its insulating properties and subsequently results in its freezing and death. It may also reduce the amount of dissolved oxygen in water necessary for marine life sustainability. Oil spill has toxic impact on aquatic animals and damages their food resources and habitats. It may also result in devastation of land and vegetation and subsequently leads to poor yield in agricultural productivity Therefore, proper remediation must be done after oil spillage [10]. 

Methods employed in remediating water differs and often depends on factors such as adequate procedure, type of contaminants involved and nature of contaminated site. An eco-friendly and sustainable approach towards the environment has introduced many low-cost, non-toxic and biodegradable materials along with different biomasses to make  micro-to nano-sized materials, membranes and aerogels for the sole purpose of  oil contaminated water treatment and oil recovery [11].

 Contaminated water may involve the use of economical and environmentally – friendly sorbent materials in oil spill treatment and may allow the recovery of the oil and reuse of these sorbents [12]. While conventional methods often applied for water clean-up may include physical, chemical, thermal and biological methods [13,14], these conventionalmethods have moved oil experts a step forward in remediation advancement, since they are not adequate enough to solve the problem of massive oil spills as most often, technical difficulties are encountered in the process [15].

The synthesis of Kapok fiber using Polybutylmethacrylate silica nanoparticles [16]; cotton/SiO₂ nanoparticle modified with Octadecyltrichlorosilane [17] and Kapok fibre based on Fe₃O₄ nanoparticles with Dopamine modification [18] for oil sorption in water medium has been reported.

The sorption capacity of Plantain peels as low cost agricultural wastes is a promising need for oil spill remediation and agricultural waste management. 

. Therefore the necessity to enhance the applicability of nanomaterials in remediating oil spilled surface water in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria is of paramount importance.

1.1 Statement of Problem

The Niger Delta region of Nigeria has faced unprecedented negative environmental impacts in recent times due to the menace caused by oil spill. This region which is situated on the Gulf of Guinea on the Atlantic Ocean in Nigeria [19], is made up of Abia, Akwa Ibom, Bayesa, Cross River, Delta, Edo, Imo, Ondo and Rivers State. The region consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, fresh water swamps, rain forest and is the largest wetland in Africa and has been among the ten most important wetland and marine ecosystems in the world [9].  The Niger Delta region is noted with a remarkable history of oil and gas exploration dated back from 1956 but as a result of frequent oil spillage in both terrestrial and aquatic environment, poor vegetation, surface and ground water contamination, and land degradation has rendered the region a complete devastated wasteland. These have caused a substantial retrogression in agricultural activities off the coastal waters and vegetation. There is acute food shortage, malnutrition and death which has devastated the Nigerian economy. 

2.0. Materials and Methods

2.1. Collection and preparation of plantain peel extract

Plantain peel extract, Musa Paradisiaca was obtained from Ogbogono market in Asaba metropolis. The peel was removed and washed with clean water and chopped into smaller sizes. This was air dried for two weeks, mascerated into fine powder with a high speed multipurpose blender.

2.2. Biosynthesis of Zinc oxide Nanoparticles (ZnNPs) using Plantain peel extracts

2.2.1 Synthesis of ZnO Nanoparticles

The synthesis was carried out according the method described by [21]. 1:1 ratio of the zinc oxide and the plantain extracts were mixed in a separate 250 ml Erlymeyer flask. The solution was subjected to continuous stirring and heating at 100 rpm for 4 hours. The resultant nanoparticle solution was purified by centrifugation at 10,000 g for 20 minutes. The supernatants were discarded and the nanoparticles pellets collected, washed with distilled water dried and stored at -80^oC

2. 3. Sampling

            Sampling was carried out strategically in collaboration with local inhabitants within the aquatic environment of Ogoni coastal creek in Niger Delta region of Delta State. Surface water samples were collected using the composite sampling method on 2 hour intervals for a 24 hour duration for analysis.

2.4. Analysis of Physicochemical parameters

Physicochemical parameters such as pH, dissolved oxygen, BOD5, COD etc., of the water samples were evaluated to ascertain the extent of contamination prior to and after remediation. The composite water samples were kept in transparent plastic bottles, and thereafter, sent to the laboratory for physicochemical analyses maintaining all laboratory conditions. The pH of the water samples was determined using a pH meter of model, pHS-25; Turbidity of water samples were determined using Waz-B model turbidimeter after initial calibration of the instrument using the manufacturer’s certified reference materials (<0.1, 10, 100, 500 and 1000 Nephelogical Turbidity Unit (NTU), following the procedures lay down in the manufacturers’ manual guide and the instrument was turned to zero. Dissolved oxygen of the water sample was determined using a Dissolved Oxygen Analyzer, model JPB – 607 Portable meter after initial calibration following the procedures provided in the manufacturers’ manual. This was carried out by employing the method of [20]. The Electrical Conductivity of the water sample was measured using a conductivity meter. The instrument was switched on to stabilize and allowed for 10 minutes. The instrument was initially calibrated using the manufacturer’s standard.  The probe was immersed into the water sample while completely submerging the holes of the sleeve. Air bubbles trapped in the sleeve were removed by gently tapping the bottom of the cup with a probe.

2.5. Characterization of synthesized ZnO nanoparticles

The dried P-ZnNPs were characterized using PAN analytical Xpert Pro θ-2θ powder X-ray diffractometer. The instrument used a Cu Kα radiation of wavelength = 0.1541nm at 45 kV with a monochromatic filter of ^o2 in a scan range of 20-80^o with a scanning speed of 6o/min.  Estimation of  particle sizes was performed by Debye-Scherrer’s formula. The functional group present in the ZnO/plantain peel extract nanoparticles were confirmed using FT-IR spectrometer vector 22, Bruker, Germany. The pellets were scanned at 4 cm^-1 resolution in the spectra range of 400-400 cm^-1 at room temperature. The morphological properties were determined prior to analysis. The synthesized ZnO nanoparticles were mounted on aluminium studs and coated with gold film. Visualization of ZnO morphology was performed using a SEM. The size of particles was then analyzed using the ImageJ Program according to the method of [22].

2.6. Application of plantain-MNPs for Oil Spill Contaminated Water Samples

2 g was put in a 500 ml beaker and then 250 ml of distilled water was added. Various ratios of Plantain-MNPs to contaminated oil spilled soil samples, ranging from 1:1 to 1:50, were added and mixed using a glass rod. A permanent Nd-Fe-B magnet (4300 Gauss) was used to collect the dispersed oil spill after every 10 minutes. The remaining oil was extracted from the medium, using ethyl ether. The efficiency of the Plantain-MNPs on the sample was calculated using the equation below:

                        XE (%) =  X 100

where V₀ and V₁ are the volume of the removed and original oil, respectively. The used MNPs are collected by an external magnetic field, washed severally with ethyl ether and then recycled. 

2.7. Kinetics of Nano-remediation of the Water samples

The remediation experiment was carried out according to the methods of [23].

The kinetics of nano-remediation of the surface water samples was monitored at hourly intervals. This is to observe the dynamics and ascertain the efficacy of the method. This was achieved by monitoring the changes in the physicochemical parameters of the samples adsorbent rate of solute.

2.7.1Adsorption Kinetics

In order to determine the potential steps which control the adsorption rate in terms of chemical stoichiometry, mass transport process, pseudo-first order pseudo-second order, Elovich and intraparticle diffusion models [24] were used to test the experimental data. As shown in the following equations:

       .     qt = -exp(-k₁t) qe + qe…………………   1

                    qt = k₂ * qe²                   ………………2

                           1 + k₂ * qe * t

                    qt = 1 ln (1 + α *β *             ……………………3

                           β

                    qt = K_ID  +1…………………………4

where t is the contact time in hour; k1 is the first order rate constant (h-1); k2 is the rate constant of the second order (h/l); qt is the amount of adsorbate in the adsorbentat time t (mg/g); + α is the initial adsorption rate of the Elovich model (mg/g/min) and + β is the adsorption constant of the model (g.mg-1); KID is the intraparticle diffusion rate constant; t is the time of contact (min) and I is the intra-particle diffusion kinetic model intercept. 

            Statistical treatment was achieved by preparing samples in triplicates. Statistical tool used was Standard Deviation (SD), Coefficient of Variation (CV) and Analysis of Variance (ANOVA). 

3.0. Results and Discussion

3.1. Physicochemical parameters of surface water samples

Table 1: 

Data for the physicochemical parameters of the surface water samples for the Go khana and Bodo city

Sampling sites	pH	Temp OC	EC (µS/cm)	TDS mg/l	COD(mg/l)	Nitrate(mg/l)	Phosphate(mg/l)
SWa1	7.30 ±0.06	27.40 ± 1.50	356 ± 1.10	142 ± 2.00	235.40 ± 2.50	7.22 ± 0.06	15.50 ± 1.75
SWb1	7.62 ±0.05	27.80 ± 2.20	366 ± 1.20	210 ± 3.20	232.20 ± 1.00	4.46 ± 0.60	10.80 ± 1.65
SWa2	7.20 ±0.15	26.50 ± 2.10	385 ± 1.60	115 ± 300	263.50 ± 4.00	3.30 ± 0.05	9.20 ± 2.40
SWb2	7.28 ±0.02	27.00 ± 1.80	420 ± 1.00	167 ± 4.00	244.20 ± 2.50	4.70 ± 1.30	8.50 ± 0.70
SWc1	7.50 ±0.03	26.60 ± 1.70	300 ± 1.00	125 ± 2.00	30.70 ± 4.40	2.60 ± 1.50	6.45 ± 1.55
SWc2	7.10±0.07	25.30 ± 2.40	269 ± 1.40	232 ± 3.50	22.80 ± 2.70	1.85 ± 0.80	6.00 ± 1.35
WHO (2011)	6-5 – 8.5	–	1000	600	200	50	˂5

SWa₁: Surface water samples from Eleme SWa₂: Surface water samples from Bodo City

SWb₁: Surface water samples from Tai; SWb₂: Surface water Sample from Gokana

SWc₁: Surface water nanoremediated (Eleme and Bodo City)  

SWc₂: Surface water nanoremediated (Tai and Gokana).

Data for the physicochemical parameters of the surface water samples for the Eleme, Bodo city, Tai and Gokana are recorded in table 4. pH values ranged between 7.10± 0.06 – 7.62± 0.05 in all the samples with SWb₂ recording a high pH of 7.62 probably as a result of high concentration of oil spillage and anthropogenic activities emanating from dumping of wastes   within that region [25]; [26] had reported that very low or very high pH may be detrimental to aquatic life in general. pH values recorded in this study were within WHO limits of   6.5 – 8.5 and also within the values of 8.60±0.02 reported by [27] in a related research.

Temperature values recorded in this study ranged between 25.30± 2.20 – 27.80± 1.50 across all the samples analyzed. Slight temperature elevation of 27.80 recorded for SWa₁ may be accorded to the extent of oil solubility and dispersants within the water body. A percentage decrease in temperature (8.9%) observed for SWc₁ and SWc₂ could be as a result of effective nanoremediation.

Electrical conductivity which is the ability of solution to conduct electricity is related to ions concentration and total dissolved solids within the water body [28]. EC observed to be 356.00± 1.10, 366.00 ± 1.20, 385.00 ±1.60 and 420.00 ± 1.00 µS/cm for SWa₁, SWb₁, SWa₂ and SWb₂ respectively were obviously higher than those of the nanoremediated samples (300 ± 1.00 and 269±1.40 µS/cm for SWc₁ and SWc₂ respectively) indicating effective remediation.

The chemical oxygen demand (COD) values recorded in this study ranged from 232.80 ± 2.70 to 263.5 0 ± 1.40 mg/l for SWa₁, SWb₁, SWa₂ and SWb₂.These were higher than WHO tolerance limit of 200 mg/L. After nanoremediation, the samples recorded a lower COD values of 30.70 ± 4.40 and 22.80 ± 2.70 mg/L which was lower than WHO permissible limits Chemical oxygen demand is a measure of organic contamination in water. It is the amount of dissolved oxygen required to cause chemical oxidation of the organic material in water and is a key indicator of the environmental health of surface water. Chemical oxygen demand is a measure of both organic and inorganic agents competing for DO in water.

 Mean nitrate values in this study ranged from 1.85 ± 0.80-7.22 ± 0.06, which was far below the WHO tolerance limits of 50 mg/L after remediation. These values were below that reported by [26] Olayinka et al., (2020) who worked on water samples around Atlas cove, Lagos, Nigeria. Phosphate values ranged from 5.35 ± 0.67 to 12.03 ± 0.08 mg/L. 

The phosphate values obtained in this study varied between the sampling sites and were higher than the WHO permissible limit of < 5 mg/l and could probably be due to anthropogenic activities.

Scan Electron Microscope (SEM) of Synthesized Nanomaterials

Figure 2a and 2b shows the images of unripe plantain peels and the modified ZnO nanomaterials. The figure shows that it has an irregular morphology and a porous surface which can enable a large contact area between the absorbent surface for sorption purposes and oil droplets and as well give room for oil retention [29].

Fig 2: (a) Raw plantain peelings                  (b) Modified plantain peelings with ZnO       

X-ray Diffractogram of synthesized zinc oxide nanoparticles

The X-ray diffratogram (XRD) is  shown in figure 3. This is recorded at the range of 2θ with values at  120^O, 175^O, 185^O, 190^O. These peaks are indexed at the Zinc oxide wurtzite structure crystallizing in two main forms as cubic zinc  blend and hexagonal wurtzite. Other peaks are indexed at 100^O, 140^O, 85^O and 90^O for the PPE. All peaks recorded reveals that the synthesized nanopowder was free of interfering impurities devoid of any other characteristic XRD peaks other than that of zinc oxide and plantain peel extract peaks. 

                  Fig 3: XRD diffractogram of Synthesized ZnO nanoparticles

Fourier transforms infrared spectroscopy (FTIR)

Figure 4 shows the FTIR of the PPE and the ZnONPs samples reveals bands at different ranges. The peaks for PPE are at 3,350, 2,890, 2,430, 1620, 1,362 and 1,011 cm^-1.  The peaks for ZnONPS are at 3330, 2,942, 1594, 1,366 and 1,030 cm^-1. The band stretching below 500 cm-1 (432 cm-1) correspond to the Zn-O stretching mode, The band at 1,594 cm-1 correspond to the C-O stretching for esters and alcohols recorded within a range of 1000 cm^-1-1300 cm^-1. The absorption peak at 2,942 is ascribed to the C-H stretch/bending vibrations in alkanes and the peak at 1594 is the C=C stretch of aromatic rings. These data are in line with the results observed by [30].

             Fig 4: FTIR Spectrum of plantain peel and ZnONPs

Total petroleum hydrocarbon

Fig 5: Progressive diminishing trend in TPH removal of SWa₁, SWa₂, SWb₁, and SWb₂ Samples.

Mean concentration of TPH in the surface water samples ranged between 2,230.25± 6.40 and 6,420.00±6.10 mg/l at the commencement of analysis indicating the level of oil contamination in these sites (Figure 5). However, a progressive trend in the removal of TPH was observed across the samples on application of the green synthesis nanoparticles. SWb₂had the highest mean TPH concentration (6,420.00±6.10 mg/l) from commencement and also retained the highest mean concentration after analysis 1,380. 5±4.50 mg/l. The site is dominated with thick emulsified oil giving total resistance to degradation. The mean levels of TPH observed in this study were slightly higher than those of earlier researchers. [31] reported TPH variations from 90 to 250 µg/L in surface water and sedimments of Qua-Iboe River in Akwa-Ibom.

             Extensive oil contamination in Ogoniland, Nigeria has been carried out by [5] and reported Extractable petroleum hydrocarbon of 17,900 mg kg^-1 in sediments and 8.000 mg kg^-1 in surface waters within the coast and creeks of the contaminated sites.  Department of Petroleum Resources (DPR) (2002) sets its TPH permissible limit in water at 10 mg/L. TPH limit for both drinking water and wastewater discharge is 0.5 mg/L [32] while the EPA has the TPH limit as 0.5 mg/L in water. The concentrations obtained in this study were higher than the limits. This may be because of the nature of the aromatic and aliphatic hydrocarbon present in the water.

The reaction pathways of the contact between the oil samples and plantain peelings synthesized ZnO nanoparticles took a pseudo-first order which is based on the assumption that the rate limiting step is a chemical sorption. The adsorption rate is dependent on the adsorption capacity and not on the concentration of the adsorbate as symbolized in the following linear equations

The expression given by Lagergren kinetic model for the Pseudo- first order is given as:

Log10qe-qt = log10qe-kt/2.303…………………………………(1)

lnqe/qt = ln (qe – qt)…………………………………………….(2)

ln (qe – qt) = ln (qe – k1t)……………………………………….(3)

Where qe and qt (mg/kg) are oil spill retention capacity at equilibrium and time t (min), k1 (min^-1) is the constant rate parameters of the Lagergren pseudo-first order model based on the adsorption that the rate of change of solute uptake with time is directly proportional to the difference in saturation concentration and the amount of solid uptake with time which is generally applicable over the initial stage of adsorption process [33]. The values of k₁ as well as the adsorption capacity (qt) were determined from the slope and intercept of the plotted curves (Figures 7a-d). Correlation coefficient R² were close to 1 in all samples. This observation is constant with findings of [34] who studied the kinetics and thermodynamics for the sorptive removal of crude oil spills using a low-cost chitosan-poly (butyl acrylate) grafted copolymer. 

The Elovich kinetic model employed in their study revealed a linear graph with R² close to 1.

Fig 5a: Pseudo – first order plots for the diminishing trend of TPH in water samples on application of synthesized Plantain peelings extract/ZnO nanoparticles for SWa₁

 Fig 5b: Pseudo – first order plots for the diminishing trend of TPH in water samples on application of synthesized Plantain peelings extract/ZnO nanoparticles for SWb₁

Fig 5c: Pseudo – first order plots for the diminishing trend of TPH in water samples on application of synthesized Plantain peelings extract/ZnO nanoparticles for SWc₁

 Fig 5d: Pseudo – first order plots for the diminishing trend of TPH in water samples on application of synthesized Plantain peelings extract/ZnO nanoparticles for SWc₂

Conclusion

Difficulties and environmental hazards often attained in the attempt to remediate oil contaminated soils and other affected media has kept the remediation industry in a dilemma of recent. In other to overcome this challenge, green synthesis using plantain peelings (Musa Paradisiaca) extract, a cost effective waste material synthesized with ZnO for the remediation of oil spill contaminated water medium has proven to be efficient amongst other remediation technologies. The synthesized plantain peelings/ZnONPs employed in this study exhibited adsorption properties when used on the oil spill contaminated surface water samples. A progressive trend in the removal of TPH was observed across the samples on application of the green synthesis nanoparticles indicating that the synthesized MPE/ZnONPs had good efficacy for oil spill removal in the contaminated surface water samples. SWb₂ had the highest mean TPH concentration (6,420.00±6.10 mg/l) from commencement and also retained the highest mean concentration after analysis 1,380.35±4.50 mg/l as the site is dominated with thick emulsified oil giving total resistance to degradation. (Figure 5).

Recommendation

Based on the findings from this study, it is therefore recommended that for optimum remediation efficacy, most especially in oil saturated water medium where there are increase in oil and emulsion densities low cost effective and environmentally-friendly modified bio-based waste materials, may be employed for optimum degradability of bio recalcitrant pollutants.

 Efforts should also be made by concerned bodies to adopt a collaborative approach which may involve combined remedial techniques as most of the sites under study have been heavily impacted with oil contaminants including the mangroves, creeks and rivers and as such, effective remediation would take some time to be achieved.

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