Husain Abdulhay

 

Abstract: Issue of self- versus other-regulation is also diligently stressed and applied in contemporary education so as to put person at the helm of situation, not a pawn at the mercy of circumstances. In the same vein, this study aims to draw attention to a newly developed concept of learning which overemphasizes the role of individual learner in attunement of his thought, emotions and strategies to accelerate and escalate the extent of his acquisition. To do so, an overview of this new phenomenon known as self-regulated learning is given at first and evidence attesting to the fruitfulness and utility of such strategy is dispensed in the following.

Keywords: Self-regulated learning, motivation, cognition, metacognition, context

 INTRODUCTION

Self-regulated learning (henceforth SRL) emerged as a result of inquisitiveness into “how students become master of their own learning” (Zimmerman and Martinez-Pons, 1990, p.4). It has been eventuated from inquiry into the process of learning by those learners who have been assiduous and triumphant in their learning despite hindrances to their efforts (ibid).

Self-regulation has gained momentum in educational psychology consonant with constructivism approach to learning to attend more to the role of individual learner and his/her needs for better management of his/her learning. Research in educational domain is likewise exploiting this advancement by highlighting all aspects of individuals which are worth the investigation and consideration for an effective learning to occur.  This prompted researchers to pedagogically extend an operational definition for self-regulated learning.

Self-regulation has come to the fore as learner’s responsibility for learning and taking active role for constructing his own knowledge is much more acknowledged and promulgated in developmental education. Contemporary education acknowledges the centrality of learner and learner’s development and seeks to lend assistance to advance this development by considering all aspects of learning and teaching affecting learners’ progress. Knowledge is not any more transmitted to acquirers; rather, it is obtained in a way, bound and determined by learners, to actualize this entity.

Learners are much more valued in the contemporary educational system in so far as their roles as the builders of knowledge are more gratified. SRL is congruent with constructivism and learner-centered education.  Self-regulated learning is in parallel with constructivist view of learning and teaching in that it puts learner at the epicenter of learning and construction of knowledge and, hence, it merits more heed in contemporary education. Constructivism underscores the importance of individual self in building meaning (Vygotsky, 1978). Learner acts out as an umpire of feeding inlet of knowledge to them.

Disassociation from text-based education and moving towards constructivism seeks learners to be independent self-regulative learners and this is much sooner accomplished in a milieu which supports and provides sufficient altitude for learners to experience and implement their skills and strategies to self regulate their learning. Teachers can provide enough leeway for learners to participate and engage by creating an environment which is secure to experience and maneuver over their learning. Cultivating  a milieu which is encouraging and motivating allow for experiencing and implementing skills and strategies more willingly and get feedback for establishing and if deemed necessary altering their strategies to learn more effectively.

Literature aims to spur teachers and practitioners to reckon at learners’ responsibilities and decision making, congruent with constructivism and schism from transmission of knowledge, rote learning, and spoon-feeding schools of teaching.

 

 

2. REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE

 

Self-regulated learning has been in the limelight over the last three decades. It has grabbed attentions among academics and psychologists. It stems from educational psychology and percolates in educational and non-educational studies and instruction. SRL has attracted many fields from psychology to mathematics, health, sport, medic, technology, policy making, and language education. Myriad empirical and non empirical studies exist concerning educational and non educational self-regulation learning.

Effect of self-regulatory strategies on academic success has been well established in many studies (Pintrich & De Groot, 1990; Pintrich, 1990; Zimmerman, 1990). Self-regulated learners indulge much higher self-propulsion in their learning in comparison with those who do not self-regulate. Zimmerman and Martinez-Pons (1990) refer to a growing body of correlational research which denotes higher achievements with greater usage of learning strategies by self- regulated learners than with little utilization of self-directed learning strategies.

Wolters, A. C. (2010) in a review study entitled the relation between the 21^st Century and self-regulated learning (SRL), with reference to multiple studies, evinced that however forging students into a self-regulated learner establishes the stepping-stone to volition, motivation, and self-management in them, transferable also to contexts outside of school.

Effect of schooling on the different dimensions of self-regulated learning has been examined in different fields of study. Leutwyler, Bruno & Maag Merki, Katharina (2009) in a longitudinal study extending for almost two years in gymnastic school revealed significant effect of schooling on development of self-regulatory capacity of young learners.

Pratontep and Chinwonno (2008) scrutinized the self-regulated learning strategies of 30 Thai university students in a reading comprehension program. The results uncloaked significant differences between the students’ English reading comprehension, divided into upper and lower level groups based on their competencies in reading comprehension,  especially for the lower level group, in pre- and post-test. Students reported frequent use of metacognitive and performance regulation strategies through the self-regulated learning interview schedule. The students in upper level group actively used self-regulated learning strategies more often than the lower level did to regulate their metacognition and performance. Furthermore, the students’ verbal protocols of reading unveiled the use of self-regulated learning strategies in the performance or volitional control phase more often than in the forethought or self-reflection phases.

The positive effects of interventions studies designed to promote students’ SRL have now been well established. Training programs are carried out and pilot tests are conducted as part of the syllabus or running experiments to enhance self-regulated learning. Cleary and Zimmerman (2004) present an anecdote of a cyclical model of academic self-regulation in a case study program to highlight the primary processes and techniques used by an self-regulation coaching (henceforth SRC) working with a 12-year-old Caucasian student and, eventually, to empower her self-regulation skills. The program was sprouted from social-cognitive theory and research and integrated many of the essential features of the problem-solving model. Interventions used in the Self-regulation empowerment program (SREP) comprising making graphic, cognitive modeling and coaching, and structured practice sessions. The SRC assessed Anna’s motivational profile as well as how she used strategies to self-regulate her learning according to triadic phases of self-regulation and, at the end, after getting a feeble grade in the tests she was offered an intervention approach in an individualized training program to teach her to set goals, to record in person the performance processes (i.e., strategies used) and outcomes (i.e., test grades), and to evaluate goal progress and strategy effectiveness. The intervention programs at the end endorsed her improved test score of 90 as a result of her newly acquired study strategies.

The training program much attended to the psychological side of Anna and encouraged her to press in and press on by recording and monitoring her progress with the help of delivered self-regulation strategies taught by her coach. Taking more responsibility for her learning and modifying her beliefs and motivating herself helped Anna to elevate her grades in school. The studies bear robust evidence of the positive effects of SRL instructional programs on children’s academic achievement. It must also be mentioned that training programs will benefit more students and even educators when they are implemented concurrent with other academic interventions or social programs and when they consider all aspects of learners (affective, cognitive, motivational and cultural) and learning settings and self-regulation stages cannot be applied in a rigid way to every  learning activity (ibid).

Causal-effect study carried out by Liu (2008) showed that self-regulatory capacity of learners can predict learners’ self-perceptions in English achievement that in practice affects their successes. This notifies how the enrichment of self-regulatory capacities in the forms of perceptions and beliefs assists learners to attain success.

 

 

3. A DEFINITION OF SELF-REGULATED LEARNING

 

Self-regulated learning is a composite concept encapsulating besides cognitive and metacognitve strategy also motivation and affection in its framework. Currently, self-regulation is recognized as an amalgamation of cognition, metacognition, motivation and emotion. Zimmerman (1989) posits that the learner’s decisive self-management of environment, behavior, and personal processes is the most visible indicator of a learner’s degree of self-regulation.

Self-regulated learning with its broadened definition is “multi-component, iterative, self-steering processes that target one’s own cognitions, feelings, and actions, as well as features of the environment for modulation in the service of one’s own goals” (Boekaerts and Karoly, 2005).

Paris and Paris (2001) identify self-regulated learning in its three words as the mobilization of autonomy and control by the individuals steering and regulating their actions toward attainment of the goals.

While self-regulation is defined in its discourse meaning as control process of learning, academic self-regulation is identified as proactively active participation of learners in the process of learning.Theorists have their own set interpretation of self-regulated learning contingent upon tradition and schools they’ve adopted for learners’ learning processes.

The terms “self-regulation” and “self-control” are being used interchangeably, albeit some subtle distinctions are drawn by different researchers. Some use the term self-regulation more broadly to refer to goal-directed behavior whereas “self-control” may be associated specifically with conscious impulse control (Baumeister and Vohs, 2004). To Schmeichel and Baumeister (2004), self-regulation associates well with both conscious and unconscious alteration of responses by the self, while “self-control” implies a more explicit and cognizant process of response alternation. By the same token, it can be said that through self-regulation learners wages into acting of the self to change its own responses.

Zimmerman (1990) asserts that however self-regulated learning  is defined differntly according to adopted theoretical orientations by different  researches but the commen conceptualization shared among them is that self-regulated learners are cognitively, metacognitively, motivationally and behaviorally predisposed to accomplish their goals . To become self-regulated learner means that one becomes adept in orientating his/her learning to reach his/her own goals despite cognitive, motivational and emotional impediments. Self-regulation enacts as an interim gadget for optimizing learning and expediting process of goal achievement. Paris and Paris (2001) propound that each person builds his/her own theory of self-regulation.

Self-regulation appeals for heeding the interplay of context and individual behavior (Bandura, 1986). Many instruments and methods exist and are developed to understand self-regulation (e.g. the Learning and Strategies Study Inventory to assess self-regulation strategies in general; LASSI (Weinstein, 1987) , Scale of English Self-Regulated Learning Strategies originated by Wang, Wang, and  Li, 2007 and Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire, MSLQ originated by Pintrich, Smith, Garcia & McKeachie (1993).

 

 

4. THEORIES AND MODELS OF SELF-REGULATED LEARNING STRATEGIES (SRLs)

 

SRL is examined against various theoretical perspectives for the inclusion of many facets of control and learning (Paris and Paris, 2001). They name Piaget’s constructivist theory, Vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory, social learning theories, and information-processing theories as the central tenets of these theoretical perspectives to study SRL. Zimmerman (1989) expounds it in terms of phenomenological, social cognitive, Vygotskian and cognitive constructivist theories and volitional.

The most prominent theory which overshadows the self-regulation studies and research is Albert Bandura’s social cognitive theory (Zimmerman and Schunk, 1989). Zimmerman (1995), the avant-garde author on self-regulated learning, pursues social cognitive theory to study self-regulation.

However, social cognitive theory has illuminated self-regulated learning studies by providing a holistic backdrop against which the self processes are enacted. It seeks to emphasize reciprocal interactions between the environment, the person, and his/her behavior (Bandura, 1997). It purveys a theoretical framework to scrutinize learning in its real context. All the contributors, inside and outside of the individual learners, to control and regulate learning is encapsulated in social cognitive theory. Learners, in this theory, are identified with their thorough dimensions in which their thoughts, feelings and actions interact reciprocally in an integrating and molding environment to generate the desired learning.

Social cognitive theory addresses the interrelationship between the learner, the learners’ behaviors, and the social environment of classroom (Bandura, 1997). Social cognitive theory expounds on how learners’ properties are influenced by characteristics of learning environment. It represents a broad spectrum of the factors which influence the learners and learning processes.  With the help of the theory researchers are enabled discern umbilical nexus between the learners and learning environment. The consideration of environment in determining actual learning is urged by social cognitive theory, an assumption akin to Vygotscian view of learning, to swerve the riveted attention on the sole studies of cognitive individual development.

Social cognitive theory regards contextual or situational variables as potent contributors to students’ motivation and self-regulation than personal attributes.  It implies in a sense that the context is influential in individual’s cognitive, behavioral and motivational processes of learning. In this view, the individual’s self-regulated learning is not seen as a stable trait in all situations. However it is liable to alternation and change over the course of time and leaned upon different settings. So as a result of the application of this theory to education, self-motivational beliefs and behaviors will vary depending on the nature of educational setting or the specific tasks which learners are required to do.

There are many models of self-regulated learning each of which originates from a different theoretical perspective. In the domain of academic studies many models of self-regulation have been projected, each of which traces back and is imputed to a different theoretical approach, which categorically overlap in their construct and conceptualization (Wolters 2010). The following showcases some, the most prominent of which is the Zimmerman’s model.

 

1. The Personal Responsibility Orientation model set forth by Brockett and Hiemstra (1991)
2. The Effort Management Hierarchy model developed by Thomas and Rohwer (1993)
3. Zimmerman’s three-phase self-regulation model (Zimmerman, 1990)

 

The Personal Responsibility Orientation model set forth by Brockett and Hiemstra (1991) places self-direction in learning as an overriding theme with two related sub-dimensions. There exists the following two constructs under the umbrella of self-direction: (a) self-directed learning which incorporates the concepts of the adult learner and teaching-learning process set forth by Knowles, and (b) learner self-direction which focuses on characteristics internal to the individual that incline person toward taking self-initiated onus.

According to Thomas and Rohwer (1993), the effort management hierarchy model is based on four hierarchical levels of study activity. These activities include monitoring, self-regulation, planning and evaluating. Thomas and Rohwer purport that learner self-direction occurs in a continuum of activities which range from awareness of needs to individual control of one’s study efforts including concentration, time and effectiveness of learning. They add that the key to self-directed learning is regulation and remediation.

Zimmerman’s triadic self-regulation model introduces self-regulation as a cyclical process involving learner assessment and feedback of personal, behavioral, and environmental factors during three phases of the learning process: (a) the forethought phase during which goal setting and social modeling occur; (b) performance control during which the learner compares their performance to that of other learners and provides self-instruction regarding learning strategy; and (c) self-reflection, the stage of self-evaluation, resultant feedback, and self-reward for performance success (Schunk, 2001).

Pintrich (2000) proposes four assumptions for self-regulation and learning:

The first assumption, active constructive assumption, assumes that all acquirers be active, efficient participants in the learning process. Learners subsume new material and anchor it based on previously internalized information to establish individualized meaning, purposes, and strategies. Secondly, control potential is the assumption that learners have the ability to self-manage their thought processes, motivation and behavior and the environment. Third, goal assumption, assumes that learners set goals and self-regulate their efforts by monitoring thought processes, behavior, and motivation en route to reaching those goal. The fourth assumption, mediation, recognizes the role of learners’ personal, behavioral, and environmental self-regulation processes of learning for adjusting mercurial volatility of the individual, the learning context and goal attainment (ibid).

Paris and Paris (2001) extended a developmental metaphor of self-regulation based on socio-cultural model of learning in which students develop competencies and become more self-regulated. In this model of learning Piagetian tenet is also applied in which behaviors are molded and organized through participation of learners in zone of proximal development and self-regulation is an adaptive representation of this organization demonstrated in a situation than a set of skills to be learnt (ibid.).

 

 

5. COGNITIVE & METACOGNITIVE FACETS OF SELF-REGULATED LEARNING

 

Metacognition is considered as an effective strategy for putting self-regulation into effect. Positive direct effects of metacognitive self-regulation on deep learning strategies and on self-regulatory strategies was sealed by Al-Harthy and Was (2010).

Metacognition is ken about cognition and regulation of cognition. It refers to ability to mull over and control ones’ own learning (Flavell, 1979, 1981). Knowledge about cognition encompasses three sub-processes facilitating reflective aspect of meta-cognition: declarative, procedural and conditional knowledge. Regulation of meta-cognition includes planning, monitoring, debugging and evaluation of strategies. The metacognitive self-regulation component refers to the awareness of and control over the cognitive processes.

Susimesta (2006), in an attempt to identify the theoretical and empirical boundary line between self-regulation, self-regulated learning and metaconition, concluded that drawing a boundary line between cognition skills and strategies and metacognition skills and strategies is sometimes difficult. Dinsmore, Alexander, and Loughlin (2008), by rehashing and dissecting 225 studies, found that metacognition is so pertained to cognitive orientation while self-regulation more to human action. Duckworth, K., Akerman, R., MacGregor A.,Salter, E., & Vorhaus , J. (2009) endorse that cognitive and non-cognitive skills are entwined.

Zimmerman and Martinez-Pons (1990) purport that, students who are mecognitivley aware show a better performance and are more strategic than those learners who are less informed of. Not to mention, many of the metacognitive knowledge and skills are not necessarily and specifically taught in classroom. As Elliot (1999) puts it, students mould their ideas and reactions gradually and only after undergoing many challenging learning.

 

However, there is some inconsistency between findings in some researches. Pokay and Blumenfeld (1990) evidenced the negative relationship between meatcognitive strategy use and achievement. To quote Zimmerman (1995, p. 217), “it is one thing to possess metacognitive knowledge and skill but another thing to be able to self-regulate its use in the face of fatigue, stressors, or competing attractions”.

 

 

6. MOTIVATIONAL FACETS OF SELF-REGULATED LEARNING

 

According to Boekaerts, M. (1999) most studies have focused on modifying cognitive dimensions of self-regulation for optimal learning to happen than those of affection, motivation and performance. Zimmerman (1995) claims that self regulation is more than metacognitive ken and thinking skills. It concerns with self efficacy beliefs and the sense of agency and going through motivational and behavioral processes to effectuate the in-place beliefs. However, self-regulation is comprised of a convoluted system of social, motivational and behavioral processes that is inaugurated by individual referenced to self-factor (ibid). He persuades and prevails on researchers to traverse metacognitive knowledge and skill to consider more the motivational and behavioral processes underlying self-efficacy and personal agency for effectuating these self beliefs.

Reaserch  in domain of strategy instruction denotes that strategy awareness is good predictor of learners‘ use of strategies but motivatioenal belief of lerners is good indicator of putting these strategies into use. Motivational studies of self-regulation are escalating as motivational beliefs play a significant part in deployment of metacognitive strategies (Wolters C, A. & Pintrich P, R. 1998;Young, 2005).

Studies on motivation and strategies demonstrate a close link between motivational beliefs and use of strategies. Existing research has documented positive relations between students’ academic self-efficacy and their use of self-regulation strategies (Schunk, 2005). In an early schooling study, Pintrich and De Groot (1990) found that middle school students’ self-efficacy beliefs were positively related to their cognitive engagement and academic performance. The findings documented that school children who believed they were capable of learning were more likely to report use of SRL strategies and to persist longer at difficult academic tasks.

Paulsen and Gentry (1995) examined the relationships among motivational variables (intrinsic and extrinsic goal orientation, task value, control of learning, test anxiety, and self-efficacy), cognitive learning-strategy subcategories (rehearsal, elaboration, and organization), self-regulation subscales (time, study, and effort), and students’ academic performance (final grade) in an Introduction to Financial Management course. They found that all motivational variables were significantly related to the academic performance, final grade in the course, where path analysis revealed the self-efficacy as the strongest predictor of performance.

Motivational beliefs act as cantilevers which strengthen the suspensions of attitudes to sustain effort and persistence for finalizing the goal. Self-regulated learner is tantamount to a self-efficacious learner who persists in his beliefs despite worries and has the adequate will to strive to attain his goals. Self-regulated learner is tantamount to a self-efficacious learner who persists in his beliefs despite worries and has the adequate will to strive to attain his goals. Research denotes that effective self-regulation is pivoted on students’ sense of self-efficacy for self-regulating their learning and taking on actions (Schunk, 1995).

 

 

 

7. ENVIRONMNETAL FACETS OF SELF-REGULATED LEARNING

 

SRL is conceptualized as a dynamic process enhanced by some contextual features (Boekaerts and Corno, 2005). Social cognitive theory sets great store by interrelated interaction of the environment, the person, and his or her behavior (Bandura, 1986). Social cognitive theorists postulate that student’ social experiences in learning environment, particularly their interactions with teachers, can affect self-regulated learning (Zimmerman, 1989).  An allover calibration of the factors influencing learning overshadowed by social cognitive theory has helped researchers and educators to scrutinize self-regulated learning much scrupulously.

Myriad studies of strategy instruction have shown that cognitive practices along side with non-cognitive support result in higher attainments. Pintrich and De Groot (1990) believe that the importance of classroom contextual factors for instigating key enablers of learning, viz. ‘will’ and ‘skill’ represented as older cognitive models of learning, to succeed is irrefutable.

Zimmerman (1997) recognizes environmental determinants as physical and social attributions. Social experiences in learning are like autonomy support, feedback to self-evaluate, leaner-centered. Influence and contribution of learning and teaching context and domains can be examined at three levels of macro (school) micro (classroom) and personal (individual level) and this study only considers the social aspects of learning and teaching at micro levels. Physical attributions are facilities, equipments, arrangement of classroom and et cetera.

There are multitudes of studies that vindicate the irrefutable effect of the contextual factors on developing self-regulatory capacity of learners (Cleary and Zimmerman, 2004; Lin, 2004; Perry, 1998; Sungur and Gungoren, 2009; Wolters and Pintrich 1998; Yen, 2005; Young, 2005). In a correlational study conducted by Yen (2004) the strength of association between student-teacher interactions and self-regulated learning(r =.36, p <.01) was found to be large which endorsed once again the constructive role of teachers in creating a setting conducive to fostering and spurring student’s self-regulated learning. Young ( 2005) in a study aiming to fathom motivational effect of the classroom environment in facilitating self-regulated learning  found that delivery with high interaction, encouraging feedback, and clear goals that emphasize learning over grades will augment intrinsic motivation and the use of self-regulated learning strategies. Leutwyler and Merki (2009) conducted a longitudinal study in an ecologically valid setting of 20 public and two private high schools in Switzerland (Gymnasium, ISCED 3A) without specific training programs.  The results showed the significant effects of schooling and instructional processes on students’ progress in self-regulated learning though differing in degree of stability contingent upon different features of the school and instructional process. The development of many aspects of cognitive and metacognitive self-regulation was impacted by school process variables, to a greater degree, than students’ extra-curricular experience. The findings implied the effect of various social and didactical factors on the promotion of self-regulation of cognitive, metacognition and motivation. Cognitive and metacognitive self-regulation variances explained by these variables ranged between 1.8 % for transformation strategies and 5.3 % for monitoring strategies and evaluation strategies. Perceived social inclusion played an important role in the positive development of practically all dimensions of motivational self-regulation (βmin = .131; p < .05). With regard to the didactic aspects of classroom instruction, requiring students to elaborate frequently promoted the development of intrinsic motivation (β = .089; p < .05) while teachers’ use of a process orientation showed no effect at all and high self-reliance of learners had a demonstrable effect on only one single case. The degree of transferring orientation in teaching (measured using the scale “elaboration”) illustrated the positive relations with the development of cognitive and metacognitive self-regulation. Only one association between motivational self-regulation and teachers’ use of transfer orientation was demonstrable in isolated cases only. Gender had impacts only on some aspects of cognitive and metacognitive self-regulation, explaining between 12.8 % and 25.3 % of the variance for monitoring strategies and transformation strategies and explained much of the variances in motivational self-regulation both of which accounted for students’ starting conditions.

Critical role of specific contextual and situational variables on students’ motivation and self-regulation has been attested in recent studies. (Lin, Xi-zhe 2004; Linnenbrink & Pintrich, 2002; Young, 2005; Zimmerman, 1989). Classroom environment contributing to students’ motivation and autonomy to have opportunity and take responsibility for personal experience is recommended by Paris and Paris (2001).

Many aspects of learning environment like autonomy support in the form of providing choices and opportunity, teaching programs, teaching approaches, student-teacher interaction, and motivational beliefs have been found to contribute to fostering and development of this skill (Ames, 1992; Lin, 2004).

The optimal conditions for developing self-regulation occur when children and young people have an opportunity to pursue goals that they themselves find meaningful; they will also be invited to develop their skills by selecting their own activities, taking initiative, engaging in challenging and co-operational learning experiences and making their own decisions (Boekaerts and Corno, 2005). Self-regulation, as an indivisible compartment of such professional development, is emphasized by social constructivist theory. This means that knowledge is constructed through social interaction and is a shared experience rather than an individual one (Vygotsky, 1978). Teachers need to be involved in sharing and reflecting on their practices with their colleagues. Teachers leading a solitary practice may not be aware of the need to make changes in their instructional perspectives. Teachers’ collaboration with one another has been widely studied as a remedy to the isolation that many teachers experience. Butler, et al., (2004) propound that cooperation creates a professional learning community that holds members accountable while sustaining momentum during “inevitable challenges”.

Classroom environment contributing to students’ motivation and autonomy to have opportunity and take responsibility for personal experience is recommended by Paris and Paris (2001). So as for learners’ self-regulated learning a supporting and empowering environment is likewise required to be designed and implemented by teachers and educators to motivate learners to deploy self-regulatory strategies.

Harrison and Prain (2009) conducted a case study on 11 year 8 students’ self-regulation of learning beliefs and practices in two English task completion and engagement within an 11 month schooling program influenced by the learning and teaching processes, contextual, organizational factors in an Australian regional secondary school context with a low socio-economic origin. Students were questioned on affective and cognitive strategy uses after completing tasks by the authors and teachers after two or three weeks. students reported use of self-regulatory strategies by honing independent  learning through constructing an environment that cater for their differences in interest and also by harnessing structure of the class  and learning and teaching process.

 

The research comprised part of a tri-schooling study project to obtain self-regulatory capacities of students on lessons, within and in pursuit of task completion activities, by classroom observations and interviewing learners and teachers. Their perceptions and strategies were noted these were coded as the springboard for the further analysis on the self-regulatory development patterns. Engagement was operationalized in respect of cognitive, emotional and behavioral processes.  Within task completion, interview yielded that learners reported affective responses to the tasks and use of strategies.

Among 11 participants, nine showed sundry self-regulatory tactics, alacrity to take responsibility for executing the tasks, seeking help from teachers and classmates and  peer learning and happiness on achieving set goals and also managements of their own times. One of the participants, Albert, having gone through inquiry into his failure on task completion revealed that he had difficulty in implementing the strategies he had shown at other skills than school work at which he was good.

Experiencing transformed organization of the class in a new learning community and teacher’s expectation of students to work independently in inquiry time had significant impact on student’s perceptions and subsequently on their self-regulatory practices. The new learning community brought with it the convolution of each specific environment which had an enabling effect on students’ developments. Support of teachers showed significantly the improvement of self-regulatory strategies. Unscheduled syllabuses in the new learning community dissipated the monotony of the activities while provoking some uncertainty and anxiety over what will come next but axiomatically offering more challenge and responsibility and providing more opportunity in the new environment.

Results had some implications for future reinforcement of self-regulatory capacity of schoolchildren students through caring for students’ differences, providing non-rigid and positive non-competing learning environment, more accurate learning evaluative system, and support for teachers to meet student’s need collaboratively.

 

 

 

8. 8. IMPORTANCE OF SELF-REGULATED LEARNING IN ACADEMIC ENDEAVORS

 

Self-regulated learning has been introduced in education taking its roots from educational psychology. SRL has grabbed attention of many people from different fields from psychology to mathematics, health, sport, medical, technology, policy making, marketing and language education. It is in line with constructivist epistemology and in parallel with the learner-centered education and gradual schism from teacher-directed learning through providing learners with opportunity and laissez-faire to have control over their learning skills and participating them in decision-making

Educational psychology research has dealt extensively with self-regulation and its significance as a mediating variable for academic performance, success and social competence (Zimmerman, 1990; Magno, 2010). Self-regulated learning is a composite concept encapsulating apart from cognition and metacogniton also motivation and affection in its construct.

 

Effect of self-regulatory strategies on academic success has been well-established galore in many studies (Kitsantas, Steen, and Huie, 2009; Lindner and Harris 1992; Pintrich, 1999; Pintrich and De Groot, 1990; Zimmerman, 1990). In the realm of academic self-regulated learning cross-sectional and longitudinal studies in naturalistic and non naturalistic contexts prevail that do address the development and enhancement of self-regulated learning. Self-regulation is believed to be the best predictor of academic performance on all the outcome measures, suggesting that the use of self-regulatory strategies, such as comprehension monitoring, goal setting, planning, and effort management and persistence is essential for academic performance on different types of actual classroom tasks (Boekaerts and Corno, 2005; Zimmerman and Pons, 1986, 1988).

Previous studies dealt exclusively with pure cognitive models of SRL but by expansion of theories and models research is currently encapsulated other dimensions of self-regulated learning which interplay in self-regulated learning process. Duckworth et al. (2009) state that self-regulation is not concerned with ‘thinking skills’; it also questions the role of emotion, motivational beliefs, self-concept and contextual factors in learning. The word self is more appreciated when it is reflected as a whole enacting and formulating in connection with world. Individual as a whole entity integrated in setting, yields more precise speculations about his thought, motivation and behaviors.

Studies depict that the acquisition of self-regulation skills is not an all or nothing phenomenon learnt overnight. This is not a skill acquired instantaneously and automatically and like other learning needs to be nurtured and practiced by schooling. It is a skill that beings from early schooling and continues to flourish cognitively by age and diminish motivationally at the same time, invigorated and empowered by co- and other-regulation. Hong and O’Neil (2001) revert back to multitudes of studies which evince that it is a trait which is not stable and is subject to fluctuation and oscillation.

While many educators consider self-regulation as a set of skills, some consider it as the deployment of all individual resources to invigorate learning process. Paris and Paris (2001) extended a developmental metaphor of self regulation based on socio-cultural model of learning in which students develop competencies and become more self-regulated. In this model of learning Piagetian tenet is also applied in which behaviors are molded and organized through participation of learners in zone of proximal development and self-regulation is an adaptive representation of this organization demonstrated in a situation than a set of skills to be learnt (ibid.).

Self-regulation is also studied as the state or the trait attributes in relation to the psychological characteristics. With self-regulation as a protean system, trait-related measures are also important in self-regulated learning to be studied in connection with academic performance. Hong and O’Neil (2001) concur that differences of trait and state constructs for self-regulation in individual learners are also in need of consideration both for learning and performance and for offering training programs by instructors. Winne and Perry (2000) maintain that self-regulated learning measure tools can be categorized as an aptitude gauge and an activity (event) gauge. Measurements of aptitude examine stable qualities and properties of students that represent predictable behaviors in the future that come in the form of self-reporting questionnaires, structured interview and teacher judgment or as event gauge which describes state and processes of individuals while they are self-regulating.

The research on self-regulation has not been limited to the traditional settings and are implemented to nontraditional settings like distance education and online learning where personal and self-factors more than social and contextual factors play a definitive role in  prompting academic achievement (Azevedo and Seibert 2004; Susimesta, 2006).

 

In addition, many studies on self-regulated learning have been done in the domain of foreign language learning. English learning skills also have been subject of inquiry in terms of exploitation of self-regulated learning strategies. Usefulness of self-regulation as a strategy for productive learning in second language learning and acquisition discipline is being endorsed by several studies (Harrison and Prain, 2009). Tseng, Dörnyei, and Schmitt (2006) evinced the transferability of self-regulation construct from educational psychology into the field of second language acquisition by examining self-regulatory capacity for vocabulary learning strategies of Taiwanese university and high school students.

However it should be noted that, very few studies exist that systematically delve into how far elements of self-regulation differ by gender (Zimmerman and Martinez-Pons, 1990), or by characteristics of the family such as socio-economic background. Leutwyler and Merki (2009) found that that gender played no role in the deployment of self-efficacy and persistence. Gender was stabilized to explain no variances in cognitive and metacognitive self-regulation (ibid).

 

 

9. CONCLUSION

 

Taking into account the relevant theories, research, reviews, and meta-analytical studies of the self-regulation literature, it is generally agreed that the findings about the organization of self-regulation and its strong relationship with performance and success are highly reliable (Pintrich and Schunk, 1996). The literature elucidated the value of self-regulated learning and constructive role of learning and teaching environment in its burgeoning and fostering.

With self-regulation skill training programs being incorporated as separate courses in most disciplines in addition to content knowledge teaching programs in today’s education, magnitude of this skill in enabling effective learning is being conveyed. Helping students to reach the point that they have the capacity to regulate their own learning is advised to equip learners to advance their learning. By the same token, other- regulation and co-regulation is a way of propelling learners into self-regulation.

However, trickling learners into academic self-regulation and dispensing gradually with other regulation and co-regulation with teachers and peers seeks a supporting learning environment. Transition from other regulation by teachers and co-regulation by peers to self regulation seeks a fostering learning environment which provides skill and will for self-regulated learning. Paris & Paris (2001) assert that helping students to become self-regulated not only promotes more sui juris, competent, and determined learners, but is also likely to elevate test scores. A supporting and empowering environment is required to be designed and implemented by teachers and educators to motivate learners to deploy self-regulatory strategies. However, despite this strong advocacy of the value of this capacity, teachers still struggle and hesitate to provide learning experiences that support this learning capacity in students (Prain, 2008).

As literature enlightened how cognition, motivation, affect and context are closely intertwined in promoting self-regulation, attending to all these elements in conjunction with teaching of strategies and skills elevates higher achievement and wellbeing of learners. The review made it clear how the enrichment of self-regulatory capacities in the forms of perceptions and beliefs assists learners to attain success. It commands attentions of learners and teachers at collegiate levels and beyond and even more importantly those serving at basic levels of education and primary school to heed more attention to this skill since the development of this capacity appeared to be incremental developing faster and faster after the initial stages of schooling.

The aforesaid studies accentuating the interplay between self-regulation phenomenon and success encourage learners to mull once again over self-regulatory strategies and put this fruitful skill into use.  The concrete data also remind practitioners and educators to rehash and review their content delivery methods, interaction with students, apprehension of self-regulatory behavior of college language learners and thorough insight into learners’ perceptions of motivational beliefs. The evidence provided prevails on educators and curriculum developers to cogitate more on modifying and revising learning and teaching environment. With contextual factors, directly and indirectly, affecting development of this skill more practice en route to enhancing self-regulated learning, which eventually, result in deep learning is suggested.

The literature likewise spur curriculum developers and syllabus designers to revise their materials for incorporating more problem solving tasks and group working activities, intervention programs, strategy training courses for bolstering self-regulated learning which has been shown to be the cornerstone of constructivist learning.

 

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MUHAMMED ABDUL BUGAJE¹ AND HAMZA ABUBAKAR²

Abstract

The study investigate the effects of activity based introduction approach on the academic performance of student integrated sciences which focuses on the level of success in using this method and its affectivity in teaching and learning integrated sciences education .the study is attempt to land out the significant differences between activity based instructional strategy and conventional method of teaching (lecture method).   The   research is a pilot study restricted to the department of Integrated Science Education in Katsina  State College of education Nigeria.  The sample comprise thirty (30) students of NCE II randomly selected.  The groups were place into two categories, experimental and control groups.  The experimental and Control groups. The experimental groups were taught using Activity-based approach and the control groups were taught using conventional methods. Quisi-experimetal design is used using pre-test posttest control group deign.  The data collected were analyzed using t-test statistic at P0.05 level of significant.  The instrument used for data collection is integrated science process skills (ISPS) test.  The results obtained shows that there is significant differences between the two approaches which entails the use of Activity-base is effective and efficient methods of teaching and learning science on general.  Recommendations were made for the effective use of Activity-based approach in teaching and learning integrated science education.

Introduction

Pedagogy is the instructional methods methods for strategy teachers adopt to facilitate instructional delivery for the achievement for the achievement of stated curriculum objectives.  Instructional delivery for the achievement of stated curriculum objectives.  Instructional strategy is the major factor in delivery effectiveness for it determines the success of the lesson.  The instructional method that the teachers adopt in teaching a lesson is a vital because this can make students like or dislike the subjects.  Teachers need to adopt teaching methods that will influence students’ interest, enthusiasm and understanding positively in the subject leading to acquisition of the pre-requisite knowledge, skills, value and scientific attitudes.

However the methods a teacher employ depends on the number of factors ranging from the nature of subjects, age, the students, specific objectives, teacher and environmental variable as stated by Etuibon (2014).  There are varieties of instructional methods from which a teacher may select the effectiveness for instructional delivery.   This range from demonstration, conventional, discussion, field trip to more innovative methods like co-operative learning, concept mapping which actively involves students in learning, Ajewole (2010).

The best method of teaching integrated science education is that methods that engage students participation in activities. Active participation in learning concept in integrated science will provide students with their own personal experience that will facilitate learning which many never be forgotten. The activity base approaches enriches the teaching learning process by ensuring the students actively participate in the lesson rather than just being passive listeners in the classroom Eboka, (2014)

Mastropiere & Scruggs (1995) lamented that many students benefit from learning science through activity base approach that reduces the relevance on textbooks, lectures, knowledge of vocabulary and prevail paper test this kind of approach seek to promote that allow them to discover and experiment with science through discovery and inquiring teachers involve students in creating and expanding their knowledge and understanding about content area being studied.

The philosophy of integrated science emphasize and stresses the effectives use of activity base strategy as a tentative method of teaching integrated science in the Nigeria colleges of education as stated by national commission for colleges of education (NCCE) accompanied by science teacher’s association of Nigeria (STAN). The minimum standard for science 2012 edition NCE curriculum outline the philosophy and objective of integrated science.

          The philosophy of the Nigeria certification education (NCE) integrated science is anchored on the following areas:

• Fundamental unit of science
• The use of scientific methods as a common approach in problem solving
• The role and function of science in every day life
• To prepare students for further students is integrated science.

Objectives NCE (2015) minimum standard

• Enabling the students gain concept of the fundamental unity of science
• Installing the student with community of approach to problems of a scientific method.
• Increasing students understanding of the role and definition of science in every day life and in the world in which they live.
• Making students well informed and scientifically literate.
• Enabling student acquire and demonstrate the intellectual commence and professional skills to the teaching of integrated science.
• Developing students ability to impart and encourage in their pupils the spirit of inquring into living and non living things in the environments.
• Developing the ability and motivation is students to work and think in an independent way/ manner
• Enabling students to carry out scientific investigation emphasizing co operation development of appropriate scientific process and skills and improves their written and oral communication skills
• To develop in students the interest to pursue higher studies in integrated science.

Integrated science is the unity of all knowledge the conceptual unity of the sciences, a unified process of scientific inquiry and an interdisciplinary study as defined by Brow, (1977). The development of process skills and basics skills is an emphasized objective of Nigerian integrated science projects capable for teachers to make use if activity base approach to assist the students to observe carefully and thoroughly, report completely and accurately what is observe. Organize information acquired generalize on the basic of acquired information predict as a result of generally design experiment to check production use models to explain phenomena and continue the process of inquiring when new data do not conform to prediction these can absolutely be acclaimed through the effective use of activity base approaches in teaching learning integrated science.

                    Foecke, (2004) in an article on the education

 of teachers of integrated science observe that how can

we expect teachers who have science only in

                   specialized packages and by methods which

may have stressed lecture and memorization and

avoided direct involvement from this background

                   and teach science in an integrated and

inquiry – oriented manner?.

Pine G. (1989), Define Activity:- based method as a technique adopted by a teachers to emphasize his or her method of teaching through activity in which the students participate rigorously and bring about efficient learning experiences. It’s a child centered approach. It is method in which the child is actively involved in participating mentally and physically learning by doing is the main focus in this method. Learning by doing is imperative in imperative in successful learning. Since its well proved that more the senses are stimulated more a person learns and longer he/she retains

          The corporation of schools of Chennai (2003) which was developed and originated by the pioneer of the method David Horsburgh out line the affectivity of the activity based strategy and lamented that.

Activity:- based approach required actives problem solving by students in finding patterns in the information through their own investigation and Analysis. With continued practice in these processes, students learn not the content of the lesson but also develop many other skills.

Horsburgh D. (2003) out line the importance of activity based method or the main purposes of carrying out activity based approach in the teaching and learning science in generate are:

• It exchange creative aspect of experience.
• It give reality for learning.
• Use all available resources
• Provide varied experiences to the students to facilitate the acquisition of knowledge, experience, skills and values
• Builds the students self confidence and develop understanding through works in his/her group.
• Experiences develop interest, enriches vocabulary and provide stumulus for reading.
• Develop happy relation ship between students, teachers and students.
• An activity is said to be language of the child a child who lacks in verbal expression can make up through use of ideas in the activity.
• Subject of all kind can be taught through activity
• Social relation provides opportunity to mix with others.

Objective of the study:

1. To determine the effectiveness of the significant difference between activity-based approach and conventional method (lecture method) of teaching and learning integrated science.
2. To determine the skills acquired between activity-based approach and conventional method of teaching and learning integrated sconce.
3. To investigate the role played by the teachers in using activity based approach in instruction of integrated science in the classroom.

Research questions:

1. What are the effects of using activity based method and conventional method of teaching.
2. What is the effect of gender when exposed to activity based approach in teaching and learning integrated science.
3. What is the role of a teacher in organizing effective use of activity base approach in teaching and learning integrated science.

Research Hypothesis

H₀₁. There is no significant difference between activity based approach and conventional (lecture) method of teaching and learning integrated science.

H₀₂. There is no significant difference between the skill obtained in activity based approach and conventional lecture method in teaching and learning integrated science education.

Operational Definition  

• Nigerian integrated science project ( NISP): Capable of desiring and produced science teaching and learning materials in order to make learning effective and efficient.
• Nigeria integrated science teacher education project (NISTEP): capable of producing high efficient science teachers through designing the modern approach of pedogoyical teaching and learning through optimum supporting system.
• Basic science process skills (BSPS) and integrated science process skills (ISPS): Science process approach (SAPA) group science process skills under two headings. The first is called the basic science process skill (BSPS) such as observation measuring and using number and classifying (BSPS) provide the intellectual group work in scientific inquiring walters & soyibo, (2001). These skills are those which must be acquired in the first level of primary and secondary education and letter is called integrated science process skills (ISPS), Such as controlling variable, formulating hypothesis and experimenting. These skills are structured.

Research Methodology:

          In the study pretest and posttest experimental control group design was used. The main study sample comprised 30 students in a total of them of them constituted the control group. When creating the experimental and control group, it was aimed not to cause any district differences between the groups to ensure this SPST had been done before the study and them choices were made randomly in the classes that had similar performances to one another. The study was conducted the one of Katsina State College of education Nigeria. The study was conducted during the two semesters.

          The science process skills test (SPST) was used to measure the integrated science skills the test developed by Nigerian integrated science project (NISP) and Nigerian integrated science teacher education project (NISTER) in collaboration with Nigerian national commission for colleges of education (2002).

          With its 33 items. The ISPST which has 11 eleven dimension 5 items related to formulating hypothesis 6 items related to identifying variable 6 items related to define operationally 6 items related to interpretation of data 3 items related to formulating models and 7 items related to experimenting.

          Pre-test post-test control group design, which is one of the methods of the experimental design is applied all participants attendant the four hours lectures per week in a science course. While the students in the control group were being taught the conventional method (lecture method). The one in the experimental group were supplied some hands activities prepared by the researcher to improve their science process skills. Through out the studies to topics to be studies is in the conformity in the green book of th

 students did 150 hands on activities for a complete semester in order to improve their science process skills they worked in group of atleast 3 and maximum of 5 students. The groups were nitrogenous with respect to their science achievement. The students in the experimental group were trained about activity based teaching method and hands on activities.

          During the student the student were asked some  open-ended questions to attract their orientation to the topic and activities and they were asked to answer them working co – operatively. At that stage, the students were obtain supported by researchers the group were demanded their funding and results attains in writing or verball of when ever they finished working together they write some group report and different students in the work groups provided oral explanations to the rest of the students about each one of those reports the finished were discussed all together to have some specific results to consolidate things.

          All NCE II students the number of the hands on activities the content knowledge relate to the science process skill and instructional time were held constant. Dependent variables of the study were the students achievement scores of ISPST. Independent variables of the study were the different types of instruction employed. When students pretest ISPST for experimental and control group score and post test for experiment and control groups core were used to test the research question and to determine the treatment effects on students. The data collected was analyzed using analysis of variance and it test statues of P< 0.05

Result Analysis   

The raw scores of students of Experimental and Control Groups were arranged and then analyzed  by suing means score, standard deviation and t-test statistical tools.  The analysed data have been interpreted in the following ways:

The tabulated value for 58 degree of freedom at 0.05 level of significance, since  the calculated t (7.90)is less greater than  the critical value (1.684), H_o may be retained. We may conclude that there is significant difference between activity based instruction and conventional methods of teaching. It is indeed, the basic skills were acquired during the experimental studies.  Hence activity based instruction is effective and efficient in teaching and learning science all level of education

Recommendation:

          Learning by students through activity-based teaching strategies on experience you get is at great importance because the education sector, with many goals and the advantages and benefits. The recommendations are as follows:

• The teachers should increase the students attention and willingness to respond to the educational settings.
• Guide the development trend of students and their needs and develop their talents and the direction of education is correct.
• The teachers should employ and emphasize on improvisation which capacitated the acquisition of basic and process skills.
• Teachers should provide opportunities for students to self-study, where the benefit of the teaching learning situation in their future.
• Adequate supply of learning and teaching materials should be provided so as to enhance learning and teaching effectively.
• Adequate funding should be provided by the government.
• Non-governmental organization should assist the situation through provision of materials and other learning materials.
• Encourage for work in group for co-operative learning process.
• Encourage the students to take responsibility of their own learning.
• Students role towards the development of activity based learning strategies are.

Their personal interest

• Participate in educational objectives
• Developing god organizational skills
• Involve in the programme flow
• Demonstrate enthusiasm in seeking new knowledge
• In collaboration with others

The teachers role in the development and use of activity based teaching strategies are:

• Planning and preparation for
• Identify outcome
• Having noted the outcomes of learning using proper strategies
• Mechanisms within the group
• Promote co-operation in carry out activities

Conclusion

Activity based teaching strategies describes a range of pedagogical approach to learning teaching its core premises include the requirement that learning should be based on doing some hand experiments.     The idea of activity based approach is rooted in the common notion that children are active learners rather than passive recipients of information. If child is provided the opportunity to explore by their own and provide an optimum learning environment then the learning become joyful and long lasting.

Reference

http//www.best teaching. Com/060510-activity based teaching strategies

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Dr. Anandalakshmi ‘A Report on ABL” (http/www.ssa.tn.nic/docu/ ABL

Report by Dr. Anandalakshmi ptf), SSA PP 1-8

Dalhatu H. (2011), a survey of pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) on

NCE students in teaching of experimental skills in physics

Remziye et al, (2011). The effect of enquiry based science teaching onn\

elementary schools students science process skills and science attitudes.

Bulgerian journal of science and education policy (BJSE), Volumes Number

         National Commission for colleges of education curriculum minimum

         stardard revised edition (2012) Green book.

        Isa U. (2012), Introduction to science education for NCE and Undergraduate

Book 1 E- Watch print media Ibadan, Zaria.

Safqat H, et,at(2011): The Effect of pair Group  Activity-based Learning on

            Students academic achievement in Physics at Secondary school Level.

            International Journal of Acdemic Research, Volume 3, No1.

 

Sarah Shaharruddina, Dr Fais Ahmadb,

Abstract

This research examined the role of job autonomy in influencing the level of organizational cynicism. By using a survey method through the questionnaires distribution, 504 data set was utilised for the analysis. Several statistical techniques such as factor analysis, reliability test, correlation analysis, and regression analysis were conducted in this research. Through the data analysis, this research indicates a negative relationship between and organizational cynicism. With based on the analysis result, this research suggests that job autonomy could be favourable towards decreasing the level of organizational cynicism.

1. Introduction

Some of the research on positive workplace attitudes such as  job satisfaction and organizational commitment have gained numerous attention by scholars for decades. Recently it is shown that researchers have increased interest towards paying attention on a negative workplace attitude such as organizational cynicism (Bashir et.al,2011).  The issue relating to organizational cynicism has become the topic of interest for researchers more the past several years ago.

Organizational cynicism is believed as one of a big problem that organizations have to deal with, which should be taken into account and serious consideration by the organizations. However, despite the existence of this problem, it is important for the researchers to investigate what factors that lead towards the development of organizational cynicism This issue is something that cannot be ignored, as it could bring a continuous negative effect on employees and organizational efficiency. (Tekin, & Bedük, 2015).  With this regards, it is important for every organizations to find better solutions in reducing this phenomenon which may hinder organizational and employees success.

The lack of job autonomy given is believed to be one of the major factors that influencing organizational cynicism among the employees. It is suggested that more studies on organizational practices need to be further investigated whether it can reduce organizational cynicism among employees (Chiaburu et.al, 2013). In viewing the level of job autonomy and its influence on organizational cynicism, it is believed that low autonomy could influence the level of organizational cynicism. For example, as cited in Bashir (2011), a lack of autonomy creates melancholy (Stets, 1995) and frustration which results towards misbehaviour and felony (Agnew, 1984) creating serious problems for the organization. Although employees are hardworking and take seriously on their work, but still they seems to less satisfied and lack of passion which cause them to be less committed to the organization. These problems happened as employees feel restricted from working freely and be a part in decision making regarding their own work by themselves. (Naqvi, Ishtiaq, Kanwal & Mohsin Ali, 2013).  In handling with the issue of organizational cynicism, job autonomy  is believed to be one of the necessary weapons  to reduce negative attitude, as employees will not be strictly controlled in their job (Meyer,1987). Furthermore, autonomy also will enable employees to have more freedom in terms of controlling their work and to form procedures on work assessment (Dee,Henkin & Chen,2000).

Although job autonomy has been found to negatively related with organizational cynicism (Avey, Hughes, Norman and Luthans ,2008), there are some inconsistencies found in the past research which seems difficult to confirm the association of these two variables. This can be due to the understanding that job autonomy sometimes is considered as a risky option and this is why not every  employees are  willing to be empowered with autonomy (Bashir; 2011). For example, job autonomy is somehow becoming quite difficult to handle as it requires a high level of trust and accountability on the individuals. It was found that if a high level of trust is required, autonomy turns out to be risky especially when there is least supervision takes place (Langfred,2004). On the other hand, job autonomy may cause employees to be more vulnerable to emotional exhaustion. This is happened if the workload exceed employees’ capacities, where employees will feel trapped and emotionally distressed (Fernet, Austin, Trépanier, & Dussault, 2013). Based on the inconsistencies found, it is relevant for the present study to continuously investigate and discover the influence of job autonomy on organizational cynicism.

2. Literature Review and Hypothesis Development

Some of the research on positive workplace attitudes such as  job satisfaction and organizational commitment have gained numerous attention by scholars for decades. Recently it is shown that researchers have increased interest towards paying attention on a negative workplace attitude such as organizational cynicism (Bashir et.al,2011).  The issue relating to organizational cynicism has become the topic of interest for researchers more the past several years ago.

Organizational cynicism is viewed a as general or specific attitude characterized with anger, disappointment, and also a tendency to distrust individuals, groups, ideologies, social abilities or institutions (Andersson ,1996). This kind of attitude mostly experienced among employees who believe that their organization is lack of honesty.

Wanous, Reichers and Austin (1994) have specifically described organizational cynicism as “encompassing pessimism about the success of future organizational changes based on the belief that change agents are incompetent, lazy or both” (p.269).  In the context of organizational change management perspective, Ince & Turan (2011) viewed organizational cynicism as an attitude that arise in the workplaces due to the mis-managed of change efforts and it is believed that organizational change is considered as one the major factors of organizational cynicism (Nafei,2013).

Dean et.al (1998) define organizational as “ a negative attitude toward one’s employing organization, which involves a ‘belief’ that organization lacks of integrity and negative affect toward the organization which has tendencies to disparaging critical behaviors toward the organization that are consistent with these beliefs and affect” (p.345). The term of organizational cynicism which defined by Dean et.al (1998) is known as the most commonly cited in the literature and it is conceived as representing an attitude rather than an enduring trait. It is because, organizational cynicism is known as a state variable which may change depends on the experience faced by employees.

Job autonomy is   the extent of power that employees have to delegate their own task and other job activities, which specifically concerns on the voluntary power and freedom towards the work goals,  task elements arrangement and determining the process and the pace of task that are conducted (e.g. Kwakman, 2003; Xanthopoulou, Demerouti, Bakker, & Schaufeli, 2007). It has been   generally defined it as “the degree to which the job provides substantial freedom, independence, and discretion to the individual in scheduling the work and to determine the procedures to be used and  carried out (Hackman & Oldham 1975; Marchese & Ryan, 2001; Morgeson, Delaney-Klinger &Hemingway, 2005; Parker, Axtell & Turner,2001; Dysvik and Kuvaas 2011; Humphrey, Nahrgang, & Morgeson, 2007). On the other hand, it is  also specifically refers to employee’s self rule and independence in terms of decision making (Hackman &Oldham, 1976)

2.1       Job Autonomy and Organizational Cynicism

            It is found that the high level of job autonomy brings employees to feel well adapted with the situational factors compared with other employees who experience less autonomy (Gellatly & Irving, 2001).  In comparison with those who have little job autonomy, those who with more job autonomy will show more satisfaction with variation aspects of the work context (Oldham & Hackman, 1981), positive affect, self confidence and internal motivation (Hackman & Oldham,1976).

Besides, it enables employee to expand their creativity (Oldman & Cummings,1996)  and  less emotional dissonance (Abraham 2000).  Having jobs with adequate autonomy in the organization could equip employees to experience more engagement as autonomy helps to decrease emotional dissonance (Karatape, 2011).   On the other hand, as job autonomy is important towards employee wellbeing, it gives employees more opportunities to adapt themselves with stressful situation and assist them to make decisions on how and when to respond to job demands. With such benefits, employee will face less burnout (Bakker and Demerouti ,2007).

Research has also indicated that job autonomy has a huge impact in influencing employees work attitude (Naus et.al,2007). This is because employee who are empowered to control over their work will be able to meet the job demand and adapt with ambiguity that placed on them which also may reduce the role ambiguity that they have faced (Çekmecelioğlu et.al, 2011). On the other hand, Çekmecelioğlu et al, (2011) also found that job autonomy helps to build the level of employee self confidence, creativity and performance. This may encourage employees becoming  more independent to carry out their task. As other benefits, autonomy may give employees more opportunity to show their extra role behaviour such as OCB (Runhaar , Konermann & Sanders,2013)

H1: There is negative relationship between job autonomy and organizational cynicism.

• METHODOLOGY

This section  discussed the sample  of the study, scales of variables and process of analysing the obtained data.  Finally, discussion of the findings, conclusions and suggestions of the future research are made in the light of the findings.

3.1       The sample population

The survey based on a disproportionate stratified random sampling technique  was carried out, as it could reduce the sampling error due to the imbalance of population in certain groups (Babbie,1995;& Butcher,1973). The  samples for this study were chosen based on the selection of  the immigration officers (uniform based employees) of the Immigration Department of Malaysia  (IDM),  who work under the  security and defence group, ranging from the upper position of employees  scheme grade,  KP 48 to the lowest KP17 (as shown in Table 1). About 800 questionnaires have been distributed to four selected Immigration states offices and 504 usable data  (63% of response rate) were chosen in this study for the analysis.

3.2       Measures

The data was collected using a questionnaire survey. The first section contains demographical information such as age, gender, qualification, experience and more. The second section is about organizational cynicism which consist of 14 items adopted from Dean et.al,(1998). The alpha reliability for this variable  was 0.868, and sample items included such as “I believe my organization says one thing and does another”, “My organization’s policies, goals, and practices seem to have little in common”, “When my organization says it’s going to do something, I wonder if it will really happen”, “My organization expects one thing of its employees, but rewards another”. “I see little similarity between what my organization says it will do and what it actually does”. “When I think about my organization, I experience aggravation.”, “When I think about my organization I get angry.”, “When I think about my organization, I get tension.”, “When I think about my organization, I feel a sense of anxiety”, “I complain about what is happening in the work to my friends beyond my institution.”, “We look at each other in a meaningful way with my colleagues when my organization and its employees are mentioned”, “I often talk to others about the ways things are run in my organization”, “I criticize my organization practices and policies with others”, “I find myself mocking my organization’s slogans and initiatives”.  How ever, after the Factor Analysis has been conducted, the item number 11 was removed due to high crossloading. Therefore, only 13 items were proceed for the next stage of analysis.

The third section relates to job autonomy, adopted from Karasek, (1979),  and the alpha reliability was found to be at 0.735. The job autonomy items included “My job requires high level of skills”, “My job requires me to learn new things”, “My job requires non repetitive jobs” and “My job requires creativity”, “My job allows me freedom to decide how to organize my work”, “My job allow me to make decisions on my own”, “My colleagues are helpful in assisting in one’s own decisions”, and “I am allowed to say over what had happened”.

• FINDINGS

Based on the correlation analysis depicted in Table 3,  job autonomy was shown to be negatively correlated with organizational cynicism ( r = -0.106 , p < 0.01). Based on the results, the negative relationship indicates that high job autonomy is more likely to reduce organizational cynicism than with lower job autonomy.

 Meanwhile, the regression results shown in Table 4 indicates that job autonomy has a significant influence upon organizational cynicism (b=0.101, p =0.001; Sig = 0.022 p<0.05). Therefore, this finding confirms that organizational cynicism could be overcome when job autonomy is given focus attention.

5. Discussion

The  hypothesis result of this research is accepted, where job autonomy is negatively significant in influencing organisational cynicism. As expected, Job autonomy is functioning as an important role to hinder organizational cynicism. This is consistent with the previous research  finding that job autonomy are likely to result in positive outcomes such as increase in job satisfaction and commitment (Naus et.al,2007). Relevant and as demonstrated by the present study, job autonomy  would help to prevent  the possibility of employees from easily developing a cynical attitude, where employees feel more trusted by the organization to carry out tasks. Hence, the presence of job autonomy could result in a higher level of  employees’ intrinsic motivation and more committed employees will be. This finding supported the previous study which showed increase in job autonomy was significantly allied with an upsurges in job commitment (Khamisabadi,2013).

The finding of the present research that depicted a significantly negative influence of job autonomy and organizational cynicism was also evidenced in previous research where it  supported that employees who have more autonomy in their job shows more positive feelings, and self confidence (Hackman & Oldham, 1976), less mental stress (Karasek, 1979), and  less emotional dissonance (Abraham,2000). Additionally,  as been captured by Naus et.al, (2007), the restriction in terms of autonomy could hinder employees self expressive behaviours, which it will potentially evoke opposition and resistance that could lead to negative attitudes and behaviours such as cynicism towards the organization. This problem occurs when there is a  very strict structural controls in terms of rules and procedures  and tight organizational control that impede employees capabilities, work competency and ideas to perform the job. This might cause negative feelings among the employees where they feeling forced to follow all those overly strict procedures which limit their freedom in contributing their ideas and decisions.

Based on the findings that have been obtained,  this study therefore confirms  that,  job autonomy is negatively significant in influencing organizational cynicism,  where  employees who perceive lack of job autonomy will feel more frustrated with their  role and career, which it will ultimately affect their level of commitment and satisfaction level. In the mean time,  the absence of job autonomy cause employees to develop a negative belief about their organization that they are not valued and appreciated, this in turn may also result towards negative emotions and behaviour among the employees.

5.1       Limitations and Direction For The Future Research

There are few limitations of the research that should be acknowledged. First, since all the measurement scale used in this study was adopted from the past studies, factor analysis showed that one item from the dependent variable  was not permanent due high crossloading. How ever, the scale showed satisfactory reliability in this study.

Second, this research is mainly quantitative in nature, where quantitative research is generally little is known about “why” and “how” regarding the antecedents and consequences of the relationship among the variables. Nevertheless, this approach still does not jeopardize the whole findings of the present research as quantitative research could help in generalizing the result by using a large sample size.

Since this study has significant implications for both theoretical and practical contributions, future researchers also should consider to expand the organizational cynicism research by adding organizational culture as a moderating variable. This is to test whether organizational culture could moderate the relationship between the independent and dependant variable. Furthermore, to investigate if there is any type of organizational culture that could weaken or strengthen the relationship between job autonomy and organizational cynicism.

Another useful extension for the future researchers to highlight is to conduct more research into investigating the consequences of organizational cynicism For example, by examining whether organizational cynicism could influence the level of employees engagement, employee deviant behaviour and employees’ union commitment.  . This can be examined by having organizational cynicism as a mediating variable.

5.2       Conclusion

This research summarizes that job autonomy is negatively related with organizational cynicism, where organizational cynicism may reduce if job autonomy is high and given focus attention. Additionally,  it gives an important indication that job autonomy appears to be something that is need to be highlighted in organizational cynicism research context, whether it is beneficial or risky to the employees.  With these findings, this research contributes a new knowledge in the organizational cynicism research.

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Florina Jerliu¹ and Bujar Bajçinovci ^{1, *}

 

 

Abstract

Rapid transformation of cities and urban spaces in South-East Europe (SEE) since 1990s is closely related to the common experience of post-socialist and/or post-war challenges in the region. Among pressing issues identified as a common challenge in the region is the trend of self-regulation or unchecked urban development, which contrasts the pre-1990s conventional central planning and development format. This has drawn the attention of a wider Europe, which resulted in a number of initiatives, both governmental and nongovernmental, been created to jointly initiate regional projects that aim at developing urban solutions. The emerging criticism developed by such initiatives has played and important role in raising the awareness about the complexity and the need to address the SEE context within the context of Europe as a whole. This paper introduces the nature of urban transformation in SEE through the example of capital cities; it further documents commonly identified urban development challenges by two regional initiatives, NALAS and Archis SEE Network, from the perspective of authors, the first being a member in both networks. Results suggest that the way forward is to foster national legal frameworks in SEE by taking into account the contextual inputs for urban interventions, in terms of both urban policy and case study projects, developed through regional and international cooperation.

Keywords: South East Europe, regional initiatives, urban transformation, self-regulation, unchecked development, urban intervention

1   Introduction

As of 1990s, former socialist countries that make the region of the Southeastern Europe (SEE), and especially those that emerged out of wars in the former Yugoslav Federation have gone through rapid political, social and economic transitions. The most visible effects of such changes are found in capital cities while most complex emerge those being subject to the operations of international processes carried out by the UN.[[1]] Despite contextual differences, the European agenda ranked high in newly formulated state policies, as it guarantees support in overcoming challenges of multiple transitions and investing in economic growth, social wellbeing, as well as acquiring the free movement within European Union countries. As alleged by the EU, all these countries “share the European perspective”,[[2]] which leads to the thought that with all SEE countries becoming candidate, and consequently, member states, the synonym of regional transition would nominally come to an end. However, the ever-growing regional cooperation and networking in SEE has disclosed the fact that the transitional period takes longer, and that the fulfillment of the EU accession criteria doesn’t guarantee the aspired linear, uniform, and successful transition from the former single communist party system and centrally managed state-owned economy, towards a democratic society and market based economy. [1] What is certain is that the development benchmarking and the EU support in this process is highly needed given the fact that the delay in overcoming transitions in SEE shall by default affect European agendas in issues which are crucial to the common institutional, physical and cultural environments.

 

Among challenges identified through networking initiatives in the region is the rapid transformation of physical environment. Descending practices in shaping urban areas, in many cases to the detriment of agricultural lands, and misuse of natural resources, remain a common denominator for the SEE, regardless of the EU membership status. More specifically, the unchecked urban development has been identified in almost all post-socialist and/or postwar countries in the region, and as such, it has drawn the attention of a wider Europe. Commitments that the SEE countries have taken in this respect, have been addressed and are gradually being met through model projects and initiatives coming from governments and the civil societies. Examples of such engagements are given in this paper in order to document findings and common challenges of urban transformations in SEE.

2   The context of urban transformation in SEE

Although the geographical division of the South-East Europe (SEE) itself is not formally defined by UN [*] [[3]] the term itself has been widely adopted to identify the project designation area by co-financing initiatives and regional networks as a substitute to the geographical and historical term for the Balkan, with the aim of coming closer to the united Europe’s cultural and political orientations. Despite of the number of countries (see: Figures 1-4) that do fall under this region, which commonly varies depending on the cooperation projects or networks, SEE shares rather common challenges in terms of urban regeneration and development issues.

 

Unchecked urban development has been identified as an issue in majority of SEE countries. The urban self-regulation, commonly referred to housing development without seeking building permit, has been associated with urban growth caused by massive migration of rural population to urban centers. In the case of Kosovo, it is estimated that only during the first two years of the post-war period (between 1999 and 2001) the percentage of urban population increased from 37% to 44%. [[4]] The increasing demands for land for housing in major cities have therefore subsequently affected their outskirts, landscapes and environment in a larger scheme.

This trend has been notable in almost all SEE capital cities. Variations derive depending on the inherited context, mainly being attributed to pre-socialist development level, and infrastructural capacities of cities to accommodate the needs of migration flux, as well as their latter institutional maturity to manage rapid urban changes.

 

 

From the left: unchecked development in the outskirts, and urban densification / unplanned construction of the inner-city

While the Adriatic coastline is experiencing new spatial metropolitan-rural interaction and the public space is suffering as a result of this development process, Tirana (Fig. 5) is struggled with consequences of newly formed informal settlements in public land, and Prishtina (Figure 6), Belgrade and Sofia with buildings erected without construction permit. On the other hand, Bucharest is challenged by collective dwellings built in the socialist times, which today are in a critical state in terms both of their structure and social function. Skopje, in the other hand, engaged in building of a new image of the city through an urban plan for city center which has been criticized for its improper neo-nationalistic character. Adding to this the issue of privatization of public space and facilities, which is shrinking and transforming the space in cities, SEE countries are kept in between anticipated modernization/Europeanization trends in one hand, and in the other hand, fragmental and unchecked transformation of urban spaces, which resulted in unsustainable development. Urban solutions therefore are needed for each local context, while looking at possibilities to replicate solutions in both, national and regional terms. In this context, initiatives to document the trends of urban transformation and research scenarios for improvement of urban situations in cities have proved to be helpful in the sense that they provide the ground for collaboration and transfer of knowledge among professionals and decision-makers throughout the region.

 

3   Regional Initiatives: ‘NALAS’ and ‘Archis SEE Network’

Among initiatives that involved in issues of urban transformation are those launched by the Network of Associations of Local Authorities of South-East Europe, NALAS [[5]], and the Archis SEE Network [[6]]. These two networks are discussed in this paper from the perspective of the member in both networks, which have made possible for the author to expand the initiated strategies for urban regeneration in Prishtina, capital of Kosovo (started in late 2006) resulting in formal cooperation with the city administration, as well as in dissemination about the process and practices, to the local authorities is SEE.

 

From the left: the map of NALAS member (source: http://nalas.eu/Members); the map of Archis SEE Network members (http://www.seenetwork.org)

3.1 Network of Associations of Local Authorities of South-East Europe (NALAS)

NALAS is a network which currently unites 16 full members from South-East Europe. At the heart of NALAS are the Task Forces which bring together experts from the region, competent association staff and professionals employed in the local government administration. The Task Force for Urban Planning tackles the issues common in the region, such is integration of informal settlements, inclusion of more stakeholders in the urban planning process and collection and analysis of the right parameters in what is known as ’urban economics‘ [[7]].

Common challenges identified by this Task Force during its meeting sessions since 2009 are generally associated with law enforcement. While urban planning legislation in NALAS member countries are drafted against the European legislation model, provisions that regulate instruments for implementation of urban plans and their management are still being devised. Hence, the identified ‘common challenges’ (Table 1) were analyzed against individual contexts and were used to lay the ground for common recommendations and model projects for the member associations.

Source: Working document: “Common Challenges” (2009) available online for members in NALAS Knowledge Tree (document management system)

 

As it may be noted from the table above, there are evident problems in urban planning and management issues in SEE countries, which require determination of the local authorities to address the gaps in respective legal frameworks and intervention instruments. In this endeavor, NALAS initiated comparative analysis in the different member associations and resulted with the publication entitled “The Legislation and analysis of the implementation of spatial and urban planning in Albania, Kosovo, Macedonia, Moldova, BiH and Turkey as compares to the case of Denmark”, published in 2009.[[8]] Recommendations that were drawn through this initiative (Table 2) were used to develop specific recommendations for improving relevant national legislative frameworks.

 

Source: The table is a simplified form of presentation of general recommendations provided in the document NALAS (2009) “The Legislation and analysis of the implementation of spatial and urban planning in Albania, Kosovo, Macedonia, Moldova, BiH and Turkey as compares to the case of Denmark, developed for the purpose of this paper

 

First two recommendations on the local government role suggest that countries must undertake intense reforms, especially in the area of spatial and urban planning, as they are obliged to provide conditions for sustainable development of communities. In other words, the ongoing decentralization process, including fiscal decentralization should generate mechanisms and means that would enable to meet the needs for the social and economic prosperity. The set of recommendations concerning legal framework on implementation of urban and spatial plans suggest complementation by new laws and by-laws that regulate ownership, illegal settlements and illegally built facilities, as well as protection of cultural heritage sites. The problem of ownership and illegal development has been commonly acknowledged by NALAS member associations as the most striking issues that need urgent attention and regulation. Another concern identified as to being problematic in maintaining proper planning and monitoring system is the frequent changes to the legislation concerning the type, content and direction of plans. The quality of plans and public participation in the planning process are also critical in many countries, as it is the quality of services delivered by the planning authorities. In this context, urgent need for fostering municipal capacities and creating competent planning authorities is addressed by NALAS members.

The NALAS cooperation projects have proven to be important as they directly involve local authorities, whose performance is crucial to the future planning systems. In this context, regional initiatives play an important role in creation of the grounds for faster and more equitable socio-economic development and securing improved standards of living in SEE.

 

3.2    Archis SEE Network

 

Activism and independent initiatives of architects, urbanists, artists, sociologists and other professionals from the civil society and academia has become quite noted in the region. The idea to bring together these initiatives within Archis SEE Network (created in 2008) has made possible the exchange of knowledge and best practices in coping with various political and social dimensions of the urban environment, as well as to integrate the issues discussed in international discourse on urbanism. About 27 local initiatives have made their projects available through this network, and have gained a wider audience in SEE and beyond. In doing so, local initiatives have maid possible the exposure of their findings about trends and challenges of urban transformation in local level, as well as their involvement in regional projects.

Figure 5. Study on Prishtina: prototypes of illegal buildings  – illegal buildings constructed after 1999 are indicated with red color. (Courtesy of: Archis Interventions /AI Prishtina)

 

The criticism about urban occurrences in SEE coming from the civil society plays and important role in relevant information exchange and in shaping opinions about the context of transition in SEE countries, and the challenges they deal with, in the process of internationalization. Furthermore, their active involvement in devising solutions for certain urban issues in local level that may apply in a wider regional context, have raised the awareness of developing agencies and professionals from other parts of Europe.

Among local initiatives that gained attention of the international discourse through documenting informal building trend in the post-war context and providing strategies and problem solutions, is based in Prishtina.  Projects that involve documentation of descending urban trend in the city were initiated in cooperation with European partners,[†] and were jointly developed with regional partners and the local administration in Prishtina. Urban analysis and strategies devised through the local initiative were adopted by the municipality of Prishtina and the model of intervention in Prishtina’s case was disseminated and considered by the SEE local administrations’ network.

The major contribution of this initiative was the launching of the process of legalization of buildings erected without building permit.  The process was based on the qualification of prototypes of uncontrolled construction (Fig. 5, Table 3), [[9],[10]] which later evolved into a set of minimal standards for legalization [[11]], later on incorporated in the Kosovo Law for Treatment of Constructions Without Permit.[[12]]

5. Conclusion

The context of the post-socialist and post-war associated with unmanaged growth in which the built environment was shaping during the last decades in SEE, have negatively affected the cities’ structures, as well as the perception about their future prospect. This has been identified through documentation of local cases of urban transformations by regional initiatives such are NALAS and Archis SEE Network. Studies and recommendations produced through regional networking highlight the need for upgrading the legal framework and complementary implementation mechanisms. In order to achieve this objective, a fostered planning administration in SEE countries is strongly needed. Also, the institutional commitment and the public awareness to treat the existing illegal buildings and their surrounding by means of qualification and treatment must be firm. In this respect, attention should be given to local initiatives and their researches and projects that more often than not provide urban solutions which can be implementable in a specific context, but can also be replicable in the national or regional context. The illustrated case of initiatives in Prishtina, capital city of Kosovo, has shown that taking into account case study projects coming from the grassroots level may directly affect the fostering of national urban policies and legislation, and beyond.

 

References

[*] There is no formal recognized geographical division of the Southeaster Europe. The Division provided by the United Nations defines regions in Europe into Eastern, Western, Southern and Northern Europe. The division created in late 1990s is programmatic and is linked with development co-funding such is the EU initiative called the Stability Pact for South Eastern Europe. The use of this term has grown and is gradually substituting the historical and geographical term of Balkan by the pretext of diminishing the negative connotation that has been generally associated with by the western European countries.

[†] The local NGO Archis Interventions/Prishtina was founded in 2005 as part of the Archis network, together with Archis Interventions/Amsterdam and Archis Interventions/Berlin. Author of the paper is a co-founder/manager of the Prishtina branch.

[[1]] F.E. Ian Hamilton, Natama Pichler-Milanovi, and Kaliopa Dimitrovska Andrews. (eds.). 2005. Transformation of cities in central and Eastern Europe: Towards globalization, United Nations University, p.11, 13

[[2]] South East Europe / Potential Candidates, in: http://www.southeast-europe.eu/eu-enlargement/potential-candidates.html

[[3]] Composition of macro geographical (continental) regions, geographical sub-regions, and selected economic and other groupings. In: http://unstats.un.org/unsd/methods/m49/m49regin.htm#europe

[[4]] Kosovo Environmental Protection Agency (KEPA), Report on Environmental state 2006–2007, p.20

[[5]] Network of Associations of Local Authorities of South-East Europe (NALAS), in: http://nalas.eu

[[6]] Archis SEE Network, in: http://www.seenetwork.org.

[[7]] NALAS / Urban Planning, In:  http://nalas.eu/knowledge-center/Task-Forces/Urban-Planning

[[8]] NALAS Task Force for Urban Planning (2009). The Legislation and analysis of the implementation of spatial and urban planning in Albania, Kosovo, Macedonia, Moldova, BiH and Turkey as compares to the case of Denmark. In:

http://www.nalas.eu/up/legalanalysis/index.aspx#download

[[9]] V. Geci, F. Jerliu, et.al (2007). Archis Interventions The new Prishtina. Volume Magazine, edition 1. Amsterdam. p. 80-93

[[10]] Archis Interventions (2007). The New Prishtina, European Forum Alpbach, In: http://www.seenetwork.org/files/2010/11/16/2/Archis%20Interventions_The%20New%20Prishtina_2007.pdf

[[11]] Archis Interventions Prishtina (2009) Manual on Legalization. In: http://www.seenetwork.org/files/2010/11/16/3/Archis%20Interventions_Prishtina_Manual_2009.pdf

[[12]] Law for Treatment of Constructions Without Permit, Law No. 04/L-188, In:  www.kuvendikosoves.org/common/docs/ligjet/04-L-188%20a.pdf