Abstract The global demographic shift towards an aging population presents a critical challenge to healthcare infrastructure: the rising incidence of falls and unmonitored medical emergencies among independent-living seniors. Falls remain the leading cause of fatal and nonfatal injuries in adults aged 65 and older. This article provides a comprehensive review of the efficacy of medical alert monitoring systems, evaluating their role in reducing the “long lie” post-fall, alleviating caregiver burden, and mitigating healthcare costs. By synthesizing data from recent longitudinal studies and technological assessments—including the integration of medical alert monitoring with SOS system protocols and advanced automatic fall detection devices—we argue that these interventions are no longer merely reactive safety nets but essential components of proactive geriatric health management. The review further explores the psychological benefits of “aging in place” facilitated by these technologies, concluding that modern monitoring solutions significantly improve quality-adjusted life years (QALYs) for the elderly.
1. Introduction
The concept of “aging in place”—the ability to live in one’s own home and community safely, independently, and comfortably—has become a central tenet of modern gerontology. However, the biological reality of aging introduces significant risks, primarily related to mobility and acute medical events. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), approximately one in four Americans aged 65 and older falls each year, resulting in 3 million emergency department visits annually. The mortality rate from these accidental falls has risen by 30% over the last decade.
The critical determinant in fall-related mortality is often not the trauma of the impact itself, but the duration of the subsequent immobilization, clinically referred to as the “long lie.” Research indicates that remaining on the floor for more than one hour after a fall is strongly associated with severe complications, including rhabdomyolysis (muscle breakdown), pressure ulcers, dehydration, and pneumonia. Consequently, the latency period between an incident and the arrival of medical assistance is a definitive variable in survival rates. This establishes the clinical necessity of Personal Emergency Response Systems (PERS).
2. The Physiology of Delayed Intervention and the “Long Lie”
The primary medical justification for continuous monitoring lies in the mitigation of delayed intervention. A retrospective cohort study involving 295 individuals demonstrated that PERS users were significantly less likely to experience a “long lie” of 60 minutes or more compared to non-users. The mechanism of protection is straightforward yet profound: by reducing the time to discovery, the physiological cascade of stress responses is interrupted.
For seniors living with chronic conditions such as congestive heart failure or COPD, the risks extend beyond falls. Acute exacerbations of these conditions often render the patient unable to reach a telephone. In these scenarios, the integration ofmedical alert monitoring with SOS system integration becomes a lifeline. Unlike standard telecommunications, these dedicated systems bypass the cognitive load required to dial emergency numbers, connecting the user immediately to a specialized response center. This rapid connection capability is correlated with a higher probability of returning to independent living post-hospitalization, as faster treatment onset typically limits the severity of the initial medical insult.
3. Technological Evolution: Accelerometry and Algorithmic Detection
Early iterations of PERS relied entirely on user activation—the classic “push-button” model. While effective in conscious, mobile patients, these systems failed in cases of syncope (fainting) or incapacitating trauma. This gap has been bridged by the advent ofautomatic fall detection devices.
Modern fall detection utilizes Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems (MEMS), specifically tri-axial accelerometers and gyroscopes, to monitor velocity, orientation, and impact forces. Research published in the Journal of Medical Internet Research highlights that advanced algorithms can now distinguish between the high-G impact of a fall and the low-G movements of daily activities (like sitting down quickly) with increasing specificity.
Recent deep learning frameworks have further refined these capabilities. By training neural networks on vast datasets of human movement, false positive rates—historically a barrier to adoption—have been significantly reduced. For instance, sensors can now detect the “pre-fall” phase (loss of balance) and the “post-fall” phase (lack of movement), triggering an alert even if the user is unconscious. This passive layer of protection ensures that cognitive impairment or loss of consciousness does not preclude the arrival of emergency services.
4. Psychosocial Impact on the Dyad: User and Caregiver
The efficacy of medical alert systems extends into the psychological domain, impacting both the user and their informal caregivers (often family members). Fear of falling (FOF) is a well-documented psychological syndrome in the elderly, leading to self-imposed restrictions on activity, social isolation, and physical deconditioning—which, paradoxically, increases the risk of falls.
A study analyzing user perception found that 75.6% of participants reported an enhanced feeling of security after adopting a monitoring system. This “peace of mind” effectively acts as a buffer against FOF, encouraging seniors to maintain mobility and engage in social activities, which are critical for cognitive health.
For caregivers, the burden of “vigilance anxiety” can be debilitating. The constant worry that a loved one has fallen while alone contributes to caregiver burnout. The implementation of a reliable monitoring system serves as a surrogate proxy for presence. Data suggests that caregivers of PERS users report significantly lower stress levels and higher subjective well-being. This reduction in caregiver strain is a vital, often overlooked, outcome that supports the sustainability of home-based care arrangements.
5. Economic Implications for Healthcare Systems
From a health economics perspective, the cost-benefit analysis of medical alert monitoring is compelling. The alternative to aging in place—institutional care—imposes a massive financial burden on families and state healthcare systems. The monthly cost of a semi-private room in a nursing home averages over $7,000 in the United States, whereas monitoring services are a fraction of that expense.
Furthermore, by preventing the complications associated with long lies (e.g., intensive care for rhabdomyolysis or sepsis), monitoring systems reduce the average length of hospital stays (LOS). A study on healthcare utilization found that while PERS users have high rates of chronic conditions, the system facilitates earlier discharge to home settings rather than skilled nursing facilities, as the home is deemed a “safe environment” due to the presence of the monitor.
6. Discussion: The Convergence of Monitoring and Telehealth
The future of geriatric safety lies in the convergence of emergency response with broader health monitoring. We are observing a shift from “alarm-based” systems to “predictive” platforms. Emerging providers are moving beyond simple SOS functions to integrate biometric monitoring (heart rate, oxygen saturation) that can alert response centers to medical crises before a fall occurs.
Institutions and forward-thinking platforms, such as Vitalis, are increasingly recognized for adopting these rigorous standards, bridging the gap between consumer electronics and medical-grade reliability. This adherence to high-fidelity monitoring protocols ensures that the technology remains a robust clinical tool rather than a mere convenience.
7. Conclusion
The literature surrounding medical alert monitoring for seniors presents a unified conclusion: these systems are a cornerstone of modern geriatric safety. By drastically reducing response times, they directly mitigate mortality and morbidity risks associated with falls and acute medical events. Beyond the physiological benefits, they offer a profound psychological dividend, restoring confidence to the elderly and relieving the anxiety of caregivers.
As technology continues to miniaturize and algorithms become more sophisticated through AI, the distinction between “lifestyle wearables” and “medical devices” will blur, likely leading to higher adoption rates. For healthcare providers and families alike, the data supports a clear directive: the integration of automatic fall detection and 24/7 professional monitoring is not merely a precaution, but a critical intervention for preserving the longevity, dignity, and independence of the aging population.
References
Herne, D. E. C., Foster, C. A. C., & D’Arcy, P. A. (2008).Personal Emergency Alarms: What Impact Do They Have on Older People’s Lives? Investigating the lived experience of PERS users and the reduction of fear of falling.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC).Older Adult Fall Data. Statistics on fall-related mortality and injury rates in the United States (2023-2024 data).
Journal of Medical Internet Research (JMIR).An Effective Deep Learning Framework for Fall Detection: Model Development and Study Design (2024). Analysis of accelerometer accuracy and algorithmic improvements in distinguishing falls from daily activities.
Stokke, R. (2016).The Personal Emergency Response System as a Technology Innovation in Primary Health Care Services. An examination of the economic impacts of PERS on municipal healthcare costs.
Fleming, J., & Brayne, C. (2008).Inability to get up after falling, subsequent time on floor, and summoning help: prospective cohort study in people over 90. The definitive study on the risks of the “long lie.”
Hiếu, P. T. (2026). Work Motivation of University Lecturers: A Narrative Review and Policy-Oriented Synthesis. International Journal of Research, 13(1), 494–507. https://doi.org/10.26643/ijr/2026/24
Phí Thị Hiếu
Associate Professor, Thai Nguyen University of Education, Thai Nguyen, Vietnam
Abstract
This article presents a narrative review of selected literature on work motivation among university lecturers, aiming to synthesize key theoretical perspectives and recurring empirical themes. Drawing on established motivational frameworks, particularly self-determination theory and two-factor theory, the review examines how intrinsic and extrinsic factors interact to influence lecturers’ engagement, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment.
The reviewed literature suggests that intrinsic motivation is frequently identified as an important factor in sustaining lecturers’ long-term engagement and professional dedication. These intrinsic factors are strongly supported by autonomy, perceived competence, collegial relationships, and opportunities for meaningful teaching and research. At the same time, extrinsic conditions, including salary, workload, promotion systems, and employment stability, function as essential foundational factors that shape lecturers’ overall job satisfaction and retention, even if they do not directly generate intrinsic motivation.
The review further highlights the importance of organizational culture, leadership practices, and governance structures in shaping motivational experiences. Several studies suggest that managerialist and performance-driven environments may, in some contexts, be associated with reduced perceptions of autonomy and intrinsic motivation among lecturers. In addition, contemporary higher education reforms emphasizing accountability and performance metrics are shown to have mixed motivational effects, depending on how they are implemented and perceived by academic staff. Overall, the review underscores that lecturers’ work motivation is a multidimensional and context-dependent phenomenon with significant implications for teaching quality, research productivity, and the sustainability of higher education systems. The reviewed literature points to the potential value of higher education policies that take lecturers’ psychological needs into account when designing governance and evaluation mechanisms.
Keywords
Work motivation, academic motivation, university lecturers, higher education
Introduction
Work motivation of university lecturers has been widely recognized as a critical factor influencing the quality of higher education, institutional effectiveness, and the sustainable development of academic systems worldwide. University lecturers play a central role not only in teaching and research but also in curriculum development, academic governance, and community engagement. As higher education systems face increasing pressures related to globalization, digital transformation, accountability, and performance-based evaluation, understanding the factors that motivate lecturers to perform effectively has become an important concern for researchers, educational leaders, and policymakers.
In the context of higher education, work motivation refers to the internal and external forces that initiate, direct, and sustain lecturers’ professional behaviors, including teaching commitment, research productivity, innovation, and engagement with institutional goals. Motivated lecturers are more likely to demonstrate higher levels of job satisfaction, instructional quality, and professional dedication, which in turn positively affect student learning outcomes and institutional reputation. Conversely, low levels of work motivation among academic staff may lead to reduced teaching effectiveness, diminished research output, burnout, and higher turnover intentions.
The literature on work motivation of university lecturers draws on established motivational theories such as Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, Herzberg’s two-factor theory, self-determination theory, and expectancy–value theory. These theoretical frameworks have been used to explain how intrinsic factors (e.g., passion for teaching, academic autonomy, professional growth) and extrinsic factors (e.g., salary, promotion opportunities, working conditions, leadership support) interact to shape lecturers’ motivational orientations. In academic settings, intrinsic motivation is often emphasized due to the intellectual and autonomous nature of academic work, yet extrinsic conditions remain crucial for sustaining long-term commitment and performance.
A growing body of empirical studies across different national contexts has explored how lecturers’ work motivation may be influenced by a combination of individual, organizational, and contextual factors. These include institutional policies, workload distribution, research support, evaluation systems, leadership styles, collegial relationships, and opportunities for professional development. In recent years, changes in higher education governance—such as increased performance measurement, publication pressure, and competition for research funding—have significantly reshaped lecturers’ motivational experiences. While some lecturers may feel motivated by clear performance incentives and recognition, others may experience increased stress and reduced autonomy.
In developing and transitional higher education contexts, including Vietnam and other Southeast Asian countries, research has highlighted additional challenges related to limited resources, heavy teaching loads, and disparities in career advancement opportunities. These contextual factors may intensify the importance of supportive leadership, fair evaluation systems, and meaningful professional development in sustaining lecturers’ motivation. However, despite a growing body of research, existing findings remain fragmented, and systematic syntheses focusing specifically on university lecturers’ work motivation are still limited.
Therefore, a comprehensive literature review on the work motivation of university lecturers is necessary to consolidate existing evidence, identify dominant research themes, and clarify theoretical and empirical trends in this field. By synthesizing prior studies, such a review can contribute to a deeper understanding of how motivational factors operate within higher education and provide valuable insights for institutional policy and academic management. Ultimately, enhancing lecturers’ work motivation is essential for improving educational quality, fostering innovation, and ensuring the long-term sustainability of higher education institutions.
Materials and Methods
This study employed a narrative literature review approach to critically synthesize influential theoretical and empirical studies relevant to lecturers’ work motivation. The literature was collected primarily from peer-reviewed academic journals, scholarly books, and reputable academic reports focusing on higher education, educational psychology, and human resource management in academic settings. The review included both international and regional studies, with particular attention to empirical research and theoretical frameworks addressing intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and professional engagement among university lecturers.
The selection of literature was guided by the following inclusion criteria: (1) studies explicitly examining work motivation, job motivation, or closely related constructs such as job satisfaction and organizational commitment among university or college lecturers; (2) research grounded in established motivational theories, including self-determination theory and two-factor theory; (3) studies conducted in higher education contexts; and (4) publications considered relevant to contemporary higher education systems and policy environments. Both qualitative and quantitative studies were included to capture a broad range of methodological perspectives.
After the identification and screening process, the selected publications were analyzed using a thematic synthesis approach. The analysis focused on identifying recurring themes and patterns related to motivational factors influencing university lecturers. Specifically, the findings were organized around key thematic dimensions, including intrinsic motivational factors such as professional autonomy and academic identity, extrinsic motivational factors such as salary, promotion, and working conditions, and institutional and policy-related influences such as leadership practices, performance evaluation systems, and professional development opportunities.
The synthesis process involved comparing findings across studies to identify commonalities and divergences, as well as examining how contextual factors such as national higher education policies and institutional characteristics shape lecturers’ motivation. Through this thematic organization, the review aimed to provide an integrated and evidence-based understanding of work motivation among university lecturers, thereby informing future research directions and policy development in higher education.
Research Results
Based on the literature selection criteria and the methodological approach outlined in the Materials and Methods section, the reviewed studies provide a comprehensive and multi-layered picture of work motivation among university lecturers. Across diverse higher education systems and institutional contexts, lecturers’ motivation emerges as a complex construct influenced by individual psychological needs, organizational conditions, and broader policy environments. Drawing primarily on self-determination theory and two-factor theory, the findings are synthesized into interrelated thematic domains that collectively explain how and why lecturers experience varying levels of motivation in their academic work.
1. Theoretical grounding of lecturers’ work motivation in higher education research
A dominant characteristic of the reviewed literature is its strong grounding in established motivational theories. Self-determination theory is widely used to conceptualize lecturers’ work motivation as a continuum ranging from intrinsic motivation to different forms of extrinsic motivation. Many studies drawing on self-determination theory emphasize autonomy as a key motivational factor in academic work, although the strength of this relationship appears to vary across institutional contexts. Empirical studies demonstrate that autonomy, understood as control over teaching content, research agendas, and professional decision-making, is a central motivational driver for university lecturers. Research grounded in self-determination theory shows that when lecturers perceive high levels of autonomy, they report stronger intrinsic motivation, higher job satisfaction, and greater commitment to their institutions. Conversely, environments characterized by rigid managerial control or excessive administrative regulation tend to frustrate autonomy needs, resulting in diminished motivation.
Two-factor theory provides a complementary perspective by distinguishing between intrinsic motivators related to the nature of academic work itself and extrinsic or hygiene factors associated with employment conditions. The reviewed studies consistently support Herzberg’s distinction, showing that intrinsic factors such as intellectual challenge, recognition, and opportunities for academic achievement play a crucial role in sustaining long-term motivation. At the same time, inadequate hygiene factors—such as low salary, job insecurity, or heavy workloads—do not necessarily motivate when present but can significantly demotivate when absent.
Qualitative research deepens these theoretical insights by illustrating how lecturers interpret motivation through their professional identities. Interviews and narrative studies reveal that many lecturers view teaching and research not merely as occupational tasks but as vocations aligned with personal values and social responsibilities. These findings reinforce theoretical models that conceptualize academic motivation as value-driven and meaning-oriented rather than purely instrumental.
2. Intrinsic motivational factors in academic work
Across the reviewed literature, intrinsic motivation consistently emerges as a central component of lecturers’ engagement and persistence in higher education. Studies examining intrinsic motivation highlight factors such as enjoyment of teaching, intellectual curiosity, commitment to knowledge creation, and satisfaction derived from mentoring students. These intrinsic drivers are frequently identified as more stable and enduring than extrinsic incentives.
Research grounded in self-determination theory demonstrates that intrinsic motivation among lecturers is strongly associated with perceived competence. Lecturers who feel capable of delivering high-quality teaching, conducting meaningful research, and contributing to academic communities report higher levels of motivation and professional fulfillment. Opportunities for professional development, research collaboration, and academic recognition are therefore frequently cited as key conditions supporting intrinsic motivation.
Several qualitative studies further show that intrinsic motivation is closely linked to lecturers’ perceptions of the social value of their work. Lecturers often describe motivation in terms of contributing to student development, advancing societal knowledge, or addressing local and global challenges. This sense of purpose reinforces sustained engagement, even in contexts where extrinsic rewards are limited.
However, the literature also indicates that intrinsic motivation is vulnerable to erosion when institutional conditions undermine autonomy or overload lecturers with administrative tasks. Studies report that increasing bureaucratic demands and performance pressures can reduce the time and energy available for intrinsically rewarding activities such as teaching innovation and research, thereby weakening motivation over time.
3. Extrinsic motivational factors, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment
In addition to intrinsic factors, extrinsic motivators play a significant role in shaping lecturers’ work motivation, particularly through their influence on job satisfaction and organizational commitment. Quantitative studies frequently examine salary, promotion systems, workload distribution, and employment stability as key predictors of motivation-related outcomes.
The reviewed literature indicates that fair and transparent reward systems contribute positively to lecturers’ job satisfaction. While salary alone is rarely identified as a primary motivator, inadequate compensation relative to workload and expectations is consistently associated with dissatisfaction and reduced commitment. Promotion opportunities and recognition of academic achievements are similarly important, particularly for early- and mid-career lecturers seeking career progression.
Organizational commitment emerges as a closely related construct in many studies. Lecturers who perceive institutional support, fairness, and recognition tend to report stronger affective commitment and a greater willingness to invest effort in teaching and research. Conversely, perceptions of inequity, opaque evaluation criteria, or unstable employment conditions are associated with lower commitment and higher turnover intentions.
Importantly, the literature emphasizes that extrinsic factors interact with intrinsic motivation rather than replacing it. Supportive extrinsic conditions can create an environment in which intrinsic motivation flourishes, whereas poor working conditions can undermine even highly motivated lecturers. This interaction aligns with theoretical arguments that motivation in academic work is best understood as a combination of internal drives and external supports.
4. Organizational culture, leadership, and institutional governance
A substantial portion of the reviewed studies situates lecturers’ motivation within organizational contexts, highlighting the role of institutional culture, leadership styles, and governance structures. Research consistently demonstrates that collegial and participatory organizational cultures are positively associated with higher levels of motivation and job satisfaction among lecturers.
Studies examining leadership practices find that supportive and transformational leadership styles foster motivation by recognizing academic contributions, encouraging professional autonomy, and facilitating collaboration. Leaders who engage lecturers in decision-making processes contribute to a sense of ownership and shared responsibility, which enhances both intrinsic motivation and organizational commitment.
In contrast, studies report that managerialist governance models emphasizing performance metrics, accountability, and competition may negatively affect lecturers’ motivation. When evaluation systems are perceived as overly quantitative or misaligned with academic values, lecturers often experience increased stress and reduced intrinsic motivation. These findings suggest that governance structures play a critical mediating role between policy demands and individual motivational experiences.
Qualitative evidence further reveals that organizational culture influences how lecturers interpret institutional expectations. In supportive environments, lecturers are more likely to view performance requirements as opportunities for growth, whereas in unsupportive contexts, similar requirements may be perceived as controlling or demotivating.
5. Policy environments and systemic influences on lecturers’ motivation
Beyond organizational factors, the reviewed literature highlights the significant impact of national and institutional policy environments on lecturers’ motivation. Higher education reforms related to funding, accountability, and labor markets are frequently examined in relation to academic work motivation.
Studies document that performance-based funding models and publication-driven evaluation systems can alter motivational orientations among lecturers. While some lecturers respond positively to performance incentives, others experience heightened pressure and diminished intrinsic motivation, particularly when evaluation criteria prioritize quantity over quality.
Job insecurity emerges as a recurring theme in policy-related research. Studies focusing on contract-based employment and casualization report negative effects on motivation, job satisfaction, and long-term commitment. Lecturers facing uncertain employment conditions often adopt extrinsically driven motivational strategies focused on short-term survival rather than long-term academic development.
At the same time, policy environments that support academic freedom, stable employment, and investment in professional development are associated with more sustainable motivational patterns. These findings underscore the importance of aligning higher education policies with motivational principles that support both individual well-being and institutional quality.
6. Variations in motivation across career stages and institutional contexts
The reviewed studies reveal systematic variations in work motivation across career stages, institutional types, and national contexts. Early-career lecturers often emphasize extrinsic concerns such as job security, mentorship, and promotion opportunities, reflecting their transitional position within academic labor markets.
Mid-career lecturers tend to focus on balancing teaching, research, and service demands, with motivation shaped by workload management and recognition of achievements. Senior academics, in contrast, frequently prioritize autonomy, leadership roles, and opportunities to influence institutional directions.
Cross-institutional comparisons indicate that resource availability and institutional mission significantly shape motivational experiences. Research-intensive universities often provide stronger research-related motivators, while teaching-oriented institutions may emphasize pedagogical engagement. Cross-national studies further show that motivational patterns are influenced by cultural norms, policy stability, and economic conditions.
These variations highlight the importance of contextualized approaches to understanding and supporting lecturers’ motivation rather than relying on one-size-fits-all strategies.
7. Consequences of lecturers’ work motivation for individual and institutional outcomes
Finally, the literature consistently documents the consequences of lecturers’ motivation for both individual performance and institutional effectiveness. High levels of motivation are associated with greater teaching quality, research productivity, innovation in pedagogy, and engagement in academic service.
Conversely, low motivation is linked to burnout, emotional exhaustion, and intentions to leave the profession. Several studies suggest that sustained motivational decline can undermine institutional capacity by reducing staff retention and weakening academic communities.
By integrating findings across theoretical frameworks, methodologies, and contexts, the reviewed literature demonstrates that lecturers’ work motivation is a critical mechanism through which organizational practices and policy decisions influence higher education quality.
Discussion
The present review highlights that lecturers’ work motivation in higher education is not solely an individual psychological phenomenon but is deeply embedded in institutional practices and policy frameworks. By synthesizing findings across studies grounded in self-determination theory and two-factor theory, this discussion connects each major result theme to implications for higher education policy, governance, and management.
First, the strong theoretical grounding of lecturers’ motivation in self-determination theory and two-factor theory has important policy implications. The consistent emphasis on autonomy, competence, and relatedness suggests that higher education policies should move beyond narrow performance management approaches and explicitly support lecturers’ psychological needs. Policies that increase administrative control, impose rigid accountability mechanisms, or standardize academic work without regard for disciplinary diversity may unintentionally undermine intrinsic motivation. From a policy perspective, this implies that national and institutional frameworks should preserve academic freedom, allow flexibility in teaching and research design, and recognize the professional judgment of lecturers as a core principle of quality assurance in higher education.
Second, the prominence of intrinsic motivational factors such as intellectual engagement, enjoyment of teaching, and commitment to knowledge creation underscores the need for policies that protect the core academic mission. The results indicate that lecturers are most motivated when they can focus on meaningful teaching and research activities rather than excessive administrative tasks. Higher education policies that overload lecturers with reporting requirements or prioritize short-term output indicators risk eroding intrinsic motivation over time. Therefore, policy reforms should aim to streamline administrative processes, reduce unnecessary bureaucratic burdens, and create institutional conditions that allow lecturers to invest time and energy in pedagogically and intellectually rewarding work.
Third, findings related to extrinsic motivational factors, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment highlight the importance of fair and transparent employment policies. While salary and material rewards alone do not guarantee high motivation, inadequate compensation, unclear promotion pathways, and insecure employment conditions consistently undermine lecturers’ commitment. This has direct implications for higher education labor policies, particularly in systems experiencing increasing casualization and contract-based employment. Policies that ensure reasonable workload allocation, transparent evaluation criteria, and stable career pathways are essential not only for staff well-being but also for institutional sustainability and educational quality.
Fourth, the role of organizational culture, leadership, and governance revealed in the results points to the significance of institutional-level policy implementation. Even well-designed national policies may fail to support motivation if institutional leadership adopts overly managerial or control-oriented practices. The reviewed studies suggest that participatory governance, collegial decision-making, and supportive leadership styles are critical for sustaining lecturers’ motivation. From a policy perspective, this implies that leadership development and governance reform should be integral components of higher education policy, with explicit attention to fostering trust, recognition, and professional respect within academic institutions.
Fifth, the influence of broader policy environments on lecturers’ motivation highlights tensions between accountability-driven reforms and academic values. Performance-based funding, publication pressure, and metric-oriented evaluation systems may incentivize productivity but can also generate stress and reduce intrinsic motivation, particularly when quality and context are overlooked. These findings suggest that higher education policies should adopt more balanced evaluation frameworks that combine quantitative indicators with qualitative assessments of teaching, research, and service. Policymakers should be cautious about relying exclusively on competitive performance metrics and consider their long-term motivational and professional consequences.
Sixth, variations in motivation across career stages and institutional contexts indicate that uniform policy solutions are unlikely to be effective. Early-career lecturers, for example, are particularly sensitive to job security and mentorship opportunities, while senior academics value autonomy and opportunities for leadership. Higher education policies should therefore be differentiated and flexible, providing targeted support for different career stages and institutional missions. Such differentiation can help align policy interventions with lecturers’ evolving motivational needs and professional trajectories.
Finally, the documented consequences of lecturers’ motivation for teaching quality, research productivity, and staff retention emphasize the strategic importance of motivation as a policy concern. Low motivation and burnout are not merely individual problems but systemic risks that can undermine institutional capacity and educational outcomes. From a policy standpoint, investing in supportive working conditions, professional development, and psychologically informed management practices should be viewed as long-term investments in higher education quality rather than short-term costs.
Overall, this discussion reinforces the idea that lecturers’ work motivation is a critical link between higher education policy and educational outcomes. Policies that align with established motivational theories and respect the professional nature of academic work are more likely to foster sustained engagement, innovation, and commitment among university lecturers. Conversely, policies that neglect psychological and organizational dimensions of motivation risk weakening the very human resources on which higher education systems depend.
Conclusion and Policy Implications
Conclusion
This review highlights lecturers’ work motivation as an important analytical lens for understanding how organizational practices and policy environments may influence academic engagement and institutional outcomes.
Overall, the reviewed literature indicates that intrinsic motivation—such as enjoyment of teaching, intellectual fulfillment, and commitment to academic values—plays a central role in sustaining lecturers’ engagement and professional dedication. These intrinsic factors are strongly influenced by lecturers’ perceptions of autonomy, competence, and relatedness, as well as by opportunities for meaningful teaching, research, and academic contribution. At the same time, extrinsic factors, including salary, promotion systems, workload, and employment stability, remain essential baseline conditions. While these factors may not directly generate high levels of intrinsic motivation, their absence consistently undermines job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and long-term retention.
The review also highlights the critical role of organizational culture and leadership in shaping lecturers’ motivational experiences. Supportive leadership, participatory governance, and collegial decision-making are associated with higher motivation and stronger professional commitment, whereas overly managerial, metric-driven, or control-oriented environments tend to weaken intrinsic motivation and increase stress and disengagement. These findings underscore that lecturers’ motivation cannot be understood or addressed in isolation from broader institutional practices and governance structures.
Furthermore, the reviewed studies suggest that contemporary higher education reforms—particularly those emphasizing accountability, performance measurement, and competition—have ambiguous effects on lecturers’ motivation. While such reforms may enhance productivity in the short term, they risk narrowing academic work, intensifying pressure, and diminishing intrinsic motivation if not carefully balanced with academic values and professional autonomy. The evidence also indicates that motivational needs vary across career stages and institutional contexts, suggesting that uniform policy approaches are unlikely to be effective.
Taken together, the findings confirm that lecturers’ work motivation is not merely an individual concern but a systemic issue with direct implications for teaching quality, research productivity, institutional stability, and the overall effectiveness of higher education systems.
Policy Implications
The findings of this review have several important implications for higher education policy and institutional practice.
First, higher education policies should explicitly recognize lecturers’ motivation as a central component of educational quality and institutional sustainability. Policymakers should move beyond narrowly defined performance indicators and incorporate psychological and organizational dimensions into policy design. This includes protecting academic autonomy, supporting intellectual freedom, and ensuring that accountability mechanisms do not undermine intrinsic motivation.
Second, employment and human resource policies in higher education should prioritize fairness, transparency, and stability. Clear promotion criteria, reasonable workload allocation, and secure career pathways are essential for sustaining lecturers’ job satisfaction and organizational commitment. In contexts where short-term contracts and performance-based employment are expanding, policymakers should carefully assess the long-term motivational and professional consequences of such practices.
Third, institutional governance and leadership development should be a policy priority. Universities should be encouraged to adopt participatory governance models that involve lecturers in decision-making processes affecting teaching, research, and working conditions. Leadership training programs should emphasize supportive, trust-based management approaches that align institutional goals with lecturers’ professional values.
Fourth, policy frameworks should support differentiated and flexible approaches to motivation across career stages. Early-career lecturers may benefit from mentorship, job security, and clear developmental pathways, while mid- and late-career academics may value autonomy, recognition, and leadership opportunities. Policies that acknowledge these differences are more likely to foster sustained motivation across the academic lifespan.
Finally, future higher education policies should adopt a long-term perspective on academic work. Investing in lecturers’ motivation—through supportive working environments, professional development opportunities, and psychologically informed management practices—should be viewed as a strategic investment rather than a cost. Such investments are essential for maintaining high-quality teaching, advancing research, and ensuring the resilience and adaptability of higher education systems in an increasingly complex policy environment.
In conclusion, this review underscores that effective higher education policy must be grounded not only in structural and economic considerations but also in a deep understanding of lecturers’ motivational processes. Aligning policy design with established motivational theories and empirical evidence offers a pathway to strengthening academic engagement, institutional effectiveness, and the long-term sustainability of higher education.
References
1. Barkhuizen, N., Rothmann, S., & van de Vijver, F. J. R. (2014). Burnout and work engagement of academics in higher education institutions: Effects of dispositional optimism. Stress and Health, 30(4), 322–332. https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.2520
2. Bennett, A. A., Beehr, T. A., & Lepisto, L. R. (2017). A longitudinal study of work after retirement: Examining predictors of bridge employment, continued employment, and retirement satisfaction. Work, Aging and Retirement, 3(1), 16–31. https://doi.org/10.1093/workar/waw019
3. Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). The “what” and “why” of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psychological Inquiry, 11(4), 227–268. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327965PLI1104_01
4. Deci, E. L., Olafsen, A. H., & Ryan, R. M. (2017). Self-determination theory in work organizations: The state of a science. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 4, 19–43. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-032516-113108
5. Franco-Santos, M., Lucianetti, L., & Bourne, M. (2012). Contemporary performance measurement systems: A review of their consequences and a framework for research. Management Accounting Research, 23(2), 79–119. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mar.2012.04.001
6. Huyghe, A., & Knockaert, M. (2015). The influence of organizational culture and climate on entrepreneurial orientation among research scientists. Journal of Technology Transfer, 40(1), 138–160. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10961-013-9323-3
7. Kinman, G., & Wray, S. (2018). Work-related wellbeing in UK higher education: A benchmark study. Higher Education, 77(2), 357–375. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-018-0268-7
8. Nguyễn, T. H., & Trần, V. Q. (2023). Động lực làm việc của giảng viên đại học trong bối cảnh đổi mới giáo dục đại học ở Việt Nam. Tạp chí Giáo dục, 23(21), 12–17.
10. Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2020). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation from a self-determination theory perspective: Definitions, theory, practices, and future directions. Routledge.
11. Shin, J. C., & Jung, J. (2014). Academics job satisfaction and job stress across countries in the changing academic environments. Higher Education, 67(5), 603–620. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-013-9668-y
12. Teelken, C. (2012). Compliance or pragmatism: How do academics deal with managerialism in higher education? A comparative study in three countries. Studies in Higher Education, 37(3), 271–290. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2010.511171
13. Tremblay, M. A., Blanchard, C. M., Taylor, S., Pelletier, L. G., & Villeneuve, M. (2009). Work extrinsic and intrinsic motivation scale: Its value for organizational psychology research. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 41(4), 213–226. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015167
14. Tuchman, G. (2009). Wannabe U: Inside the corporate university. University of Chicago Press.
15. Van den Broeck, A., Ferris, D. L., Chang, C.-H., & Rosen, C. C. (2016). A review of self-determination theory’s basic psychological needs at work. Journal of Management, 42(5), 1195–1229. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206316632058
16. Winter, R., Taylor, T., & Sarros, J. (2000). Trouble at mill: Quality of academic worklife issues within a comprehensive Australian university. Studies in Higher Education, 25(3), 279–294. https://doi.org/10.1080/713696156
Idowu, B. O., Abidemi, A. M., & Olamide, A. T. (2026). Influence of Marital Resilience and Socio-Economic Status on Marital Commitment among Married Individuals in Abeokuta North Local Government, Ogun State, Nigeria. International Journal of Research, 13(1), 375–393. https://doi.org/10.26643/ijr/2026/12
This research was aimed at determining the extent to which marital resilience and socio-economic status affect the level of marital commitment in married couples in the Abeokuta North Local Government of Ogun State in Nigeria.
A descriptive correlational research design was adopted for this study. A total of one hundred (100) married participants were selected using stratified sampling techniques. Socio-economic status, marital resilience and marital commitment were measured through standardised instruments. The statistical tools used are Pearson product-moment correlation and multiple regression tests at the.05 level of significance.
The findings revealed positive and significant relationship among socio-economic status, marital resilience, and marriage commitment. With the combination of the two predictor variables, the variance in marital commitment was 38.2%, with the socio-economic status level coming out as the better predictor.
The paper concludes that, as much as emotional flexibility improves the marital relationships the financial aspect has a greater definite role to play in maintaining marital devotion. Based on this it is proposed that marital counselling programs should also be integrated with resilience-building and financial empowerment programs to help women to develop healthier and more sustainable marital relationships.
Keywords: Marital Commitment, Marital Resilience, Socio-economic, Quantitative Method, Abeokuta, Nigeria.
1.1 Background of the Study
Marriage is one of the most ancient and most significant social institutions which provides the basic foundation upon which families and societies are built. It represents friendship, love, mutual assistance and persistence of the human family. Good marital union is never based on just affective love or simple compatibility but on strong devotion of both parties to maintain the relationship despite the challenges which life inevitably presents. Marital commitment is also defined as a psychological and emotional desire to maintain a lifelong relationship with a spouse (Deniz and Yozgat, 2013). It comprises commitment towards the partner, fidelity to the marriage institution and the willingness to tolerate hardships in the process of seeking to achieve mutual growth and fulfillment. Higher marital commitment has been linked to greater marital stability, satisfaction as well as holistic family well-being.
However, this does not necessarily make marital commitment stable. As illustrated in the modern marriage in Nigeria and in Abeokuta North Local Government in Ogun State in particular, the situation is a mixture of emotional, social and economic issues. The financial strain, lack of jobs, inflation and the changing cultural demands still threaten the sustainability of marital relationships. Although love can cause one to enter in marriage, marital resilience and socio-economic stability are the driving factors. Based on that, the study of the interaction between marital resilience and socio-economic status in terms of their influence on marital commitment is a crucial interest of investigation in both family and marital relationship.
Marital resilience has become one of the key constructs to explain why couples adjust and overcome stressors that could otherwise disrupt their relationships. It means the ability of couples to achieve emotional balance, maintain harmony and prioritise the relationship despite the adversity (Sanford et al., 2016; Aydogan and Kizildag, 2017). Healthy couples use positive coping mechanisms such as empathy, forgiveness, open communication and mutual support to overcome issues like financial stress, sickness or family conflict. Marital resilience therefore portrays a process of facilitated vulnerability and reciprocal accommodation where couples empower themselves by being able to face adversities together. On the other hand, lack of marital resilience can be in the form of withdrawal, aggressiveness, avoidance or devastating conflict hence, undermining trust and reducing commitment.
While marital resilience is an expression that conveys the psychological strength that keeps the emotional bond of companions within a couple intact, socio-economic status (SES) provides the material bedrock upon which the emotional bonding exists. SES includes income level, educational level, job stability and social standing in general, which determine the availability of resources and opportunities (Okunlola, Akande and Adetayo, 2023). Higher socio-economic status of couples usually means that they can afford good living conditions, medical care and education opportunities which in turn allow couples to avoid stress and achieve marital satisfaction. On the contrary, the financial pressure, social isolation and work imbalances are more likely to affect couples with low SES leading to frustration, violence and lack of commitment.
The socio-economic inequality on marital outcomes has been widely reported in the Nigerian setting. Financial difficulty, joblessness and inflation have pushed many households to a long-term stress which erodes marital stability and gratification. The situation is similar to that of couples in the Abeokuta North Local Government where most of the families have to cope with the demands of low income, changing gender roles and conflicting societal roles in extended families. In this situation, marital resilience and socio-economic context interplay becomes of importance as economic pressure can weaken relationships while resilience can help address it allowing couples to adjust in a productive way and remain committed.
Although these factors are important, most studies conducted before have often considered marital resilience and socioeconomic status as independent variables affecting marital satisfaction or adjustment. There has been little focus on how they interact to affect marital commitment- especially in the Nigerian cultural and economic context. This is a gap since marriage in Nigeria can be seen as not just a personal agreement but also a social institution that is deeply entrenched in social expectations, culture and economic factors. Psychological adaptability and socio-economic stability might be integrated to provide a deeper analysis of the mechanisms that maintain or undermine marital commitment.
This study therefore aims at examining how marital resilience and socio-economic status affect marital commitment in married people in Abeokuta North Local Government, Ogun State, Nigeria. It seeks to identify the interaction between the ability of couples to make adoptions and to overcome marital stress and their economic and social status to determine the level of commitment. This study will offer a comprehensive view on the issue of marital sustainability in Nigeria by incorporating both psychological and structural aspects of marital life in a local setting. The expected insights will add value to the counselling psychology, marriage education and family policy by providing information on how the capacity to build resilience and socio-economic empowerment can bolster marital commitment and stability in the modern Nigerian society.
1.2 Statement of the Problem
Marriages which start with love and hope sometimes fail the test of time showing that emotional attraction is not enough to maintain long term marriage relationships. The defining factor between long-lasting unions and unsuccessful ones is marital commitment- a conscious and continuing effort of partners to maintain relationships amidst the unfavorable obstacles or dissatisfaction.
Marital commitment is a multidimensional concept, which incorporates moral, emotional and structural views. It is not merely a feeling of love; it is a choice to be faithful to one’s partner and to protect the marriage and to face issues in a positive way. However, the modern reality puts this promise under a lot of pressure. The increased economic instability, gender role changes, urbanization and individualism destroy the old values that married people used to rely on to help them endure. The contemporary couples are facing financial insecurity, competing career requirements and limited emotional intimacy and all this amounts to a slow decline in the feeling of accountability to the marital relationship.
These processes are becoming more noticeable in Nigeria. According to marriage counsellors and family psychologists, couples have been found to be less tolerant of conflict, have less communication and less trust and these factors have all led to emotional detachment and subsequent separation. Marital strain has been heightened by factors such as unemployment, poverty, cultural expectations and social comparison mediated by media exposure particularly in young couples both in urban and semi-urban environments. Indeed, an example is in Abeokuta North Local Government in Ogun State, where most couples are faced with economic and social challenges that hinder their ability to undertake their family duties and thus affect the level of their satisfaction and dedication to the relationship.
Although this has become of increasing concern, the majority of the studies have been focused on marital satisfaction, adaptive adjustment or patterns of communication without giving much insight into the construct of marital commitment per se, a more consistent and long-term predictor of whether couples will continue their relationship in the face of varying levels of satisfaction. The lack of study to be more exact on marital commitment in the specific Nigerian settings leads to interventions relying mostly on the foreign models which do not necessarily reflect the peculiarity of the Nigerian marriage where cultural expectations, extended family relations and financial factors are the central factors.
The continuity of marital instability requires the need to take a deeper look at the factors which support or undermine marital commitment. It is important to understand how people understand and practice commitment in their marriages to come up with strategies of strengthening family life. Without this understanding, marital counseling, family education and policies will be futile or erroneous.
Therefore, the gap this study aims to fill is the growing deterioration of the commitment by the married people especially in the light of socio-economic stress, change in social values and emotional weakness witnessed in modern marriages in Nigeria. The question of how people in Abeokuta North Local Government understand and uphold their marriage vows despite such challenges is in dire need of an answer. This study will shed light on the psychological, social and economic aspects which determine the survival of marriages and help in empowering family units within the society.
1.3 Purpose of the Study
The overall purpose of this study is to evaluate the extent to which marital resilience and socio-economic status influence marital commitment of married people living in the Abeokuta North Local Government, Ogun State, Nigeria. Specifically, the research attempts to:
1. Evaluate the presence of a correlation among marital resilience, socio-economic status and marital commitment.
2. Establish the combined influence of marital resilience and socio-economic status on marital commitment among the target population.
3. Determine the relative contribution of each of marital resilience and socio-economic status to marital commitment among married individuals.
1.4 Research Questions
The research questions to be used in the study are as follows:
1. Does marital resilience, socio-economic status and marriage commitment among married partners in Abeokuta North Local Government, Ogun State in Nigeria have a significant relationship?
2. What is the combined effect of marital resilience and socio-economic status on marital commitment among married individuals in Abeokuta North Local Government, Ogun State, Nigeria?
3. What is the relative contribution of each of marital resilience and socio-economic status to marital commitment among married persons in Abeokuta North Local Government in Ogun state, Nigeria?
2.1 Literature Review
Commitment in marriage is considered to be one of the strongest antecedents of a stable and happy marriage. It is a summary of the desire and the perseverance of a partner to stay in a marital union amidst the problems that can occur as time goes by. Cheraey et al (2020) argues that marital commitment is not just a mere emotion but a conscious decision to maintain the relationship and be faithful to one’s partner. Marital commitment in this conceptualisation acts as the binding force which keeps couples together in varying emotional and situational situations.
Adams and Jones (1997) developed a three part model of marital commitment which they divided into personal, moral and structural elements. Personal commitment which can be motivated by affective affection and emotional satisfaction constitutes the emotive dimension; moral commitment occurs because of personal values or religious beliefs which reflect ethical imperatives and structural commitment is created by socio-economic, family or institutional pressures which make separation unattractive. Deniz and Yozgat (2013) further narrowed it down as a psychological binding that drives the individuals to stay in the marital union and even work hard to sustain the relationship as time goes by. The various views unite on a definition that makes marital commitment affective and volitional thus necessitating the need to be affectionate and intentional.
Empirical studies in the recent past have highlighted how significant marital commitment can be, in determining the marital satisfaction, the manner in which the marriage partners communicate and the overall well being of the partners. Couples with a greater degree of commitment were more likely to have positive communication and work together to solve the conflict. On the other hand, the low level of commitment was linked to emotional disconnection, cheating and ultimate marriage breakups. The erosion of moral values, increasing economic hardship and the changed societal priorities among others were found to have led to the reduction in the level of marital commitment among married people in the Nigerian context.
Intergenerational effects also occur because of commitment. Studies have proven that the emotional stability and growth of children in the family depends on the degree of commitment of the wife and husband (Cheraey et al., 2020). Kids of these strained marital connections tend to develop psychological distress, low self-esteem and insecurity in their relations and this is a highlight of the extensive consequences of deteriorating marital dedication. Therefore, determining the factors that maintain or undermine commitment like resilience and socio-economic security is pertinent in the alleviation of marital breakdowns in the modern societies.
Marital resilience has become a very crucial construct to explain the adaptation and sustenance of marital health to adversity among couples. It refers to the ability of a couple to recover due to challenges in marital life, stress or crisis situations and maintain emotional connectedness and commitment (Sanford, Helms and Solomon, 2016). It is therefore not the lack of conflict in marriage but the possibility of the development even in the face of adversity that constitutes marital resilience.
According to Aydogan and Kizildag (2017), marital resilience is a dynamic process whereby couples rely on the common strengths, trust, as well as empathy to manage challenging situations. Resilient couples are likely to be optimistic and supportive of each other and find meaning in their struggle, thus they turn adversity into a growth opportunity. Conversely, those couples which are not resilient, tend more to withdraw, become hostile or refuse to accept responsibility when conflict occurs which results in a decline of their marital relationships (Sanford et al., 2016).
Nigerian couples with high resilience exhibited a high level of emotional regulation and communication in times of financial hardship or crisis in the family. Also, the couples who combined their positive coping mechanisms including co-problem solving and emotional support, experienced increased intimacy and trust, therefore strengthening their marital commitment.
In addition, there are personal, relational and contextual factors that determine marital resilience. Personal optimism, mutual spirituality and strong social networks also make couples have the ability to overcome marital stressors (Aydogan and Kizildag, 2017). Quality of interpersonal communication has revealed itself as one of the determinants too; open and understanding dialogue can lead to understanding and reduce resentment. In Nigeria, culture tends to support endurance in marriages, though endurance is not only passive but should be active and comes with adaptation and growth amid adversities. Resilience in marriage is an important factor that provides stability and commitment in marital life. It strengthens the emotional and cognitive connections which the committed relationships are built on by enabling the conversion of adversity into unity instead of polarization.
The socio-economic status (SES) is a decisive element that determines the relationships in marriage life and level of commitment between the two partners. SES generally refers to the level of income, education, profession and social status that, together, define the accessibility of resources and the quality of life of a person or a family. Emotional security, mutual ambitions and marital contentment are usually cultivated in the financial and social stability linked with increased SES. On the contrary, economic distress has the potential to augment marital strain, reduce satisfaction and commitment.
It has been proven that partners who have steady finances are less likely to experience conflicts and are also more likely to report higher relational satisfaction (Okunlola, Akande and Adetayo, 2023). Economic stability reduces the stress associated with the achievement of the basic needs and allows partners to focus on the emotional and social aspects of relationship. Financial stress on the other hand often leads to frustration, a breakdown of communication and blame especially in families where the gender roles have specified the role of provision of finances to one partner. Also, it is noteworthy to know that economic disparity and lack of job security in many Nigerian homes has increased unhappiness and lack of loyalty in marriages.
Education, being one of the components of SES also determines the marital commitment. More highly educated people tend to be more aware of the emotional, legal and social demands of marriage and are probably more likely to have better communication and conflict-management skills. However, higher education can lead to a change in gender roles and expectations which at times can create conflicts where the ambitions or incomes of the partners are not similar. The social status also defines how couples perceive their relationship and their ability to deal with external pressures as social comparison, influence of peers and extended families may strengthen or weaken marital relationships.
Apart from the socio-economic factors influencing marriage conflicts, e.g. inflation, joblessness and the ever-growing income disparity, in Nigerian setting, marital relationships are further pressured by socio-economic challenges. Most couples especially in semi urban places like Abeokuta North Local Government cannot balance financial survival and emotional intimacy. This fight very often ends up in loss of satisfaction, loss of trust and loss of commitment in the long run (Nwamidi, 2023).
Socio-economic stability is the baseline on which emotional and relational well-being could thrive. When the couples achieve financial adequacy and social backing, they will be in a good position to maintain dedication and build resolute marriages. On the other hand, prolonged socio-economic stress is likely to destroy communication, trust and sense of purpose that bind marriage.
This indicates that marital commitment is a multidimensional and multi faceted construct and is dependent on psychological, relational and contextual factors. Marital resilience offers an emotional system with the help of which couples deal with stress and continue to be affectionate, but socio-economic status offers structural support that would allow them to remain stable over time. Despite having different dimensions these constructs are interconnected and in resilience and the socio-economic security facilitate adaptation to socio-economic challenges and commitment in socio-economic security mitigates stress and promotes harmony.
Though there is a lot of literature in different parts of the world, researches with the focus on the interaction of marital resilience, socio-economic status and commitment in the Nigerian context are limited. The cultural, economic and social peculiarities of Nigerian marriages require the practical research that would explain the impact of the factors on marital commitment. In this regard, the current research aims at sealing this gap by investigating how marital resilience and socio-economic status affect marital commitment among married people in Abeokuta North Local Government, Ogun State.
2.2 Theoretical Framework
The current study focuses on how the marital resilience and socio-economic status affect marital commitment among married couples who live in the Abeokuta North Local Government in Ogun State and is based on three major theoretical concepts: the Commitment Theory, the Family Stress Theory and the Ecological Systems Theory. The theories provide a unique and complementary point of view to explain how people are able to maintain commitment in the marital environment despite socio-economic and relationship pressures.
According to social psychologists like Stanley and Markman (1992), who developed the Commitment theory, commitment is a complex concept that involves individual devotion, social duty and institutional bonds which hold the partners responsible. The theory argues that commitment is not only an affective one but a decision to sustain a relationship in the long run and particularly in times of conflict or poverty. In the marital relationship, commitment is operationalized by regular effort, willingness to sacrifice as well as giving precedence to the long-term sustainability of the relationship rather than dissatisfaction in the short term. The theory also makes a difference between personal commitment, the internal motivation to be in a marital union because of love, satisfaction or shared values and constraint commitment which can be external factors discouraging separation. In Abeokuta North, where the family choices are significantly affected by the socio-economic realities, the theory helps in clarifying how the financial stability or the lack thereof, individual ambition and structural commitment impact on the marital perseverance.
Hill (1949) and later on, McCubbin and Patterson (1983) developed the Family Stress Theory; this approach explores how families respond to and adapt to stressful conditions. It assumes that stressors are economic hardship, job loss or relationship conflict, all of which put family stability at risk. Nevertheless, coping abilities and family resilience mediate the adverse impact of this stress. According to the model, resilience works as a buffer whereby it is through such a buffer that couples are able to constructively adapt to adversity and maintain their commitment to their marriage despite the external forces. In this research, Family Stress Theory provides a platform through which one can examine how socio-economic issues impact marital relationships. Married couples with high marital resilience are better placed to view stress as something manageable and employ adaptive coping strategies, thus protecting their commitment. This theoretical perspective is particularly relevant in the socio-economically non-homogeneous environments like Ogun State where the income change and other differences in living conditions are commonly tested in marriage relationships.
Ecological Systems Theory, as proposed by Bronfenbrenner (1979), is a complete perspective of human development and relational behavior that places individuals in a system of environmental nest which include microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem and chronosystem. In marital context, this theory argues that the commitment in marriage is only determined by the interpersonal factors but also the rest of the socio -economic and cultural context. Microsystem includes direct relationship between spouses, exosystem and macrosystem include factors like condition of the economy, cultural values and government policies which have indirect impact on marital stability. Marriage, religious beliefs and economic pressures in Abeokuta North are some of the cultural expectancies that influence marital resilience and commitment. Therefore, Ecological Systems Theory is offered as a holistic way to study an interplay between contextual variables (family values to socioeconomic structures) and individual resilience to support or undermine marital commitment.
Overall, the three theories can be contemplated as a combination that helps to understand the complex interconnection of individual factors, relational adaptability and environmental factors that influence marital commitment. The Theory of commitment presupposes psychological and structural attachments; The Family Stress Theory focuses on coping and other survival strategies and the Ecological Systems Theory expands the analytical scope to include socio-cultural and economic settings. They all make up an integrative design of examining how married people in Abeokuta North maintain dedication to socio-economic strains and the urgency of endurance in modern marital life.
3.1 Methodology
3.2 Research Design
The type of the research design that was used in the study was a descriptive survey research design of a correlational nature. The choice of design was informed by the fact that it allows one to investigate how variables correlate with one another without having to manipulate the variables.
3.3 Study Population
The sample of this study will be made up of the entire population of married people who live in Abeokuta North Local Government Area of Ogun State, Nigeria.
3.4 Sample and Sampling Techniques
A total of one hundred (100) married people were used as the sample. Stratified sampling was also implemented so that the representation of different socio-economic and demographic groups, including education, occupation, and income level were adequate.
3.5 Research Instrument
The researcher used a questionnaire as a data collection instrument, which had three standardised scales that were used to measure socio-economic status, marital resilience and marital commitment among married couples.
Socio‑Economic Status Scale
To determine socio-economic status of the participants, the Socioeconomic Status Scale was used (SeSS) created by Fehintola (2020). SeSS is in 4-point Likert scale with Strongly Disagree (1) and Strongly Agree (4) as the two extremes. Items are assessing different indicators of socio-economic status, such as education, occupation, income level, and access to resources (e.g., which type of transportation, how many dependents, and whether or not he/she has a home). The scale showed that it has high internal consistency with Cronbach alpha of 0.859.
Marital Resilience Scale
Marital resilience was measured with the help of the Couple Resilience Inventory (CRI), created by Sanford, Backer -Fulghum, and Carson (2016). The CRI measures both positive and negative relational behaviours on seven items by rating them on a 4-point Likert -type scale with Strongly Disagree (1) as the least positive and Strongly Agree (4) as the most positive. It is the adaptation and the staying of the couples in stressful situations. CRI has a two-dimensional factor structure and its Cronbach alpha of 0.90 assures of its reliability and internal consistency.
Marital Commitment Scale
Adams and Jones (1997) developed the Dimensions of Commitment Inventory (DCI) that was used to measure marital commitment. The DCI evaluates three variables, which are personal commitment, moral commitment and structural commitment. The rating of the items is conducted on the basis of 4-point Likert scale (Strongly Disagree = 1, Strongly Agree = 4). Adams and Jones developed reliability of the instrument in which, Cronbach alpha coefficients of personal commitment, moral commitment and structural commitment registered 0.91, 0.89 and 0.86 respectively, which imply high internal consistency.
3.6 Administration of the Research Instrument
The researcher handed out questionnaires and was helped out by trained research assistants. The respondents were also told the purpose of the study and were guaranteed anonymity of their responses. The data collection was done physically in the individual community centres and households within the Abeokuta North Local Government to ensure that the significant number of responses were collected.
3.7 Ethical Considerations
Relevant institutional ethics committee was consulted to grant the ethical approval. The participants were given informed consent beforehand. The research participants were promised anonymity, voluntary participation and the option to exit the study without having to be penalized. Data collected was highly confidential and was only used solely for the research.
3.8 Method of Data Analysis
The data analysis was done using SPSS version 27. Descriptive statistics including, frequency distributions and percentages were to summarise the demographic data. Inferential statistics was carried out at 0.05 significant level using Pearson Product-Moment Correlation (PPMC) and Multiple Regression Analysis.
4.1 Results
RQ1: Are there significant relationship Socio-economic status, Socio-economic Status and Marital Commitment among married individuals in Abeokuta North Local Government, Ogun state?
Table 1: Summary of correlation matrix showing the relationship between the study variables
RQ2: What is the joint contribution of Socio-economic status and Marital Resilience to Marital Commitment among married individuals in Abeokuta North Local Government, Ogun state?
Table 2: Multiple Regression Analysis on Marital Commitment
R
R Square
Adjusted R Square
Std. Error of the Estimate
0.628
0.395
0.382
2.01735
SUMMARY REGRESSION ANOVA
Model
Sum of Squares
Df
Mean Square
F
Sig.
Regression
257.351
2
128.675
31.618
.001b
Residual
394.759
97
4.070
Total
652.110
99
Table 2 indicates that the independent variables (Socio-economic status and Marital Resilience) have joint effect on Marital Commitment among married individuals in Abeokuta North Local Government, Ogun state. The table shows a coefficient of multiple correlations (R) of 0.628 a multiple R2 of 0.395. This means that 38.2% (Adj. R2=0.382) of the variance in the Marital Commitment of married individuals in Abeokuta North Local Government, Ogun state is accounted for by the independent variables, when taken together. The table also showed that the analysis of variance for the regression yielded of F (31.618, p<0.05). The above present is significant at 0.05 level. This shows that there is joint contribution of both Socio-economic status and Marital Resilience to the Marital Commitment of married individuals in Abeokuta North Local Government, Ogun state.
RQ3: What is the relative contribution of each of Socio-economic status and Marital Resilience to Marital Commitment among married individuals in Abeokuta North Local Government, Ogun state?
Table 3: Relative contribution of each of the independent factors to the prediction of Marital Commitment
The results of this paper show that marital resilience and socio-economic status are major factors that are used to identify marital commitment among married people in Abeokuta North Local Government, Ogun State, Nigeria. Correlation analysis also indicated statistically significant positive relationship between marital resilience, socio-economic status and marital commitment. Most importantly, it was noted that marital resilience showed a stronger relationship compared to socio-economic factor meaning that the ability of couples to adjust to a crisis has a stronger impact on commitment as opposed to their socio economic status. This observation is not new since the study by Sanford et al. (2016) highlighted the importance of positive resilience behaviours to promote marital commitment.
Nevertheless, the results of regression analysis revealed that the combination of marital resilience and socio-economic status explain 38.2% of the variance in marital commitment ( Adj. R2 = 0.382). This means that these factors are statistically relevant but there are other external factors, which could also play a role in the commitment of marital e.g., cultural norms, extended family and personal values. Regression coefficients also indicated that socio- economic status has a stronger influence on marital commitment compared to marital resilience and this implies that despite the fact that resilience helps married couples to adapt to a poor situation, socio-economic status is a stronger predictor of long-term commitment. This shows that marital stress is lessened by high socio-economic status and it also improves the stability of marriages and leads to marital commitment among married people.
4.3 Conclusion
This study concludes that both marital resilience and socio-economic status significantly contribute to marital commitment. However, socio-economic status plays a more dominant role in determining how committed individuals remain in their marriages. Despite the importance of resilience counseling, the socio-economic status provides a stronger foundation for marital commitment in the context of this study. The study suggests the importance of both emotional and financial preparedness before marriage to foster marital commitment. Although couples with higher levels of marital resilience are better equipped to handle marital stress, low socio-economic status may still impede marital commitment among married individuals in Nigeria. Studies has shown how the influence of Socio-economic status on marital commitment has been the same in Denmark, Germany, Sweden, Finland and some other countries (Jalovaara, 2002). Socio-economic status has been shown to affect marital commitment according to some other research studies (e.g., Sassler, Addo and Lichter, 2012).
4.4 Recommendation
Based on the findings from this study, the following recommendations are suggested to Marriage Counselors and other stakeholders:
New Couples should be encouraged to engage in financial planning and have multiple sources of income to enhance their economic stability.
Government and NGOs should provide economic empowerment programs targeting married individuals to reduce the financial strain on families.
Marital Resilience Counseling should focus on developing positive coping mechanisms for marital challenges and fostering adjustments from each partner as a sign of commitment towards the marriage.
Religious and community groups should endeavour to set up marital resilience training in order to help couples especially newly wedded ones to build strong emotional bonds.
Engaged couples should undergo comprehensive pre-marital resilience counseling that covers both financial and emotional resilience in order to prepare their mind for any possible adversity that may arise to challenge the efforts of each individual in fostering Marital Commitment.
Marital commitment should be prevented by offering post marital resilience counselling to couples experiencing marital dissatisfaction or financial strain.
The employers could also implement work-life balance policies, which are family-friendly policies, which boost marital stability.
By focusing on both the economic and emotional aspects of marriage life at the same time, couples in Abeokuta North and other places will achieve greater marital fulfilment and long-term dedication.
References
Adams, J. M. and Jones, W. H. (1997). The conceptualization of marital commitment: An integrative analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72(5), 1177–1196. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.72.5.1177
Aduragbemi Okunlola, D. et al. “Socio‐economic Correlates of Marital Status and Marriage Timing Among Adult Men in Nigeria.” Journal of Family Issues, 44(4). https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513X211059828
Arriaga X. B. and Agnew C. R. (2001). Being committed: affective, cognitive and conative components of relationship commitment. Pers Soc Psychol Bull2001; 27(9): https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167201279009
Aydogan, D. and Kizildag, D. (2017). Marital resilience and coping strategies among married individuals: A psychological perspective. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 34(5), 603–620. https://doi.org/10.1177/1066480717731215
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development: Experiments by nature and design. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. https://doi.org/10.4159/9780674028845
Cheraey, L., Goudarzi, M. and Akbari, M. (2020). Comparison of the Effect of Imago Relationship Therapy and Feldman’s Integrated Approach on Marital Commitment in Conflicting Couples. Avicenna Journal of Neuro Psycho Physiology, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.32592/ajnpp.2020.7.1.100
Deniz, M. E. and Yozgat, U. (2013). The role of commitment in marital relationships: Psychological attachment and long-term orientation. Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences, 84, 606–611. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.06.617
Hill, R. (1949). Families under stress: Adjustment to the crises of war separation and reunion. New York, NY: Harper and Brothers. https://archive.org/details/dli.ernet.18276
Jalovaara M (2002). Socioeconomic Differentials in Divorce Risk by Duration of Marriage Demographic Research, 7, 537–564 https://doi.org/10.4054/DemRes.2002.7.16
McCubbin, H. I. and Patterson, J. M. (1983). The family stress process: The double ABCX model of adjustment and adaptation. In H. I. McCubbin, M. B. Sussman and J. M. Patterson (Eds.), Social stress and the family: Advances and developments in family stress theory and research (pp. 7–37). New York, NY: Haworth Press. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315822429
Sanford, K., Backer-Fulghum, L. M., and Carson, C. (2016). Couple Resilience Inventory: Two dimensions of naturally occurring relationship behavior during stressful life events. Psychological Assessment, 28(10), 1243-1254. https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0000256
Sassler S, Addo FR and Lichter DT (2012). The Tempo of Sexual Activity and Later Relationship Quality. Journal of Marriage and Family, 74(4), 708–725. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2012.00996.x
Stanley, S. M. and Markman, H. J. (1992). Assessing commitment in personal relationships. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 54(3), 595–608. https://doi.org/10.2307/353245
by Tatiana Belova (Tanya Beloved) Professional photographer, two-time winner of the “Best Photographs of Russia” competition, author of over 2000 family and individual sessions across the USA, Europe, and CIS countries. Featured in Forbes, USA Today, and other major publications.
When we look at a photograph that moves us — a child laughing in a puddle, a parent’s tearful smile, a portrait where someone meets our gaze so truthfully — something in our brain lights up. Not just metaphorically. In fMRI scans, the hippocampus (our memory hub), the amygdala (our emotion processor), and the visual cortex all flash into activity.
Photography doesn’t just show. It reactivates. It replays old memories, triggers new narratives, and even projects forward into imagined futures.
I have worked with over 2000 families and individuals across the U.S. and Europe, capturing more than portraits — I capture neural echoes. When people view their own images afterward, they often say, “I remember exactly what I felt.” And their bodies remember, too.
The Brain Behind the Lens
Neuropsychology tells us that emotionally charged images activate multiple systems:
Amygdala – for emotional tagging
Hippocampus – to link feelings with past experiences
Prefrontal Cortex – to interpret and assign meaning
Default Mode Network (DMN) – engaged in self-referential thinking and imagination
A photo, especially a personal photo, serves as a stimulus that ignites the entire memory-imagination-emotion triad. This is why family albums, personal portraits, and emotionally resonant visual stories feel so powerful — they are not passive. They are interactive stimuli for our inner world.
Visual Therapy, in Practice
In my sessions, I’ve often observed how clients begin narrating their life stories through a single image. A mother sees a photograph with her child and says, “This reminds me of how my mom used to hold me.” An elderly man holds a black-and-white photo I took and begins to cry — “I haven’t seen me like this in decades.”
This is not coincidence. This is cognitive-emotional activation.
I began incorporating soft guided reflection into my post-shoot viewing sessions. I ask: “What does this moment remind you of?”, “Do you see yourself differently here?”, “Where does this feeling live in your body?” Often, the answer opens not just memory — but healing.
In an era dominated by AI-generated images, authentic photography becomes a neurological anchor. AI can replicate a smile — but not the emotional resonance behind it. True photography speaks the language of the nervous system. It can soothe, evoke, reflect, or even disrupt — consciously and unconsciously.
Understanding this helps photographers move from technical creators to emotional translators. And it helps clients understand their images not just as “pictures,” but as emotional tools for self-knowledge.
Final Insight
Photographs are not just memories — they are maps of identity. They light up our minds like constellations. And in this light, we see not only who we were — but who we are becoming.
References
Kandel, E. (2012). The Age of Insight: The Quest to Understand the Unconscious in Art, Mind, and Brain.
LeDoux, J. (2015). Anxious: Using the Brain to Understand and Treat Fear and Anxiety.
Immordino-Yang, M. H. (2016). Emotions, Learning, and the Brain: Exploring the Educational Implications of Affective Neuroscience.
Schacter, D. L. (2021). The Seven Sins of Memory: How the Mind Forgets and Remembers.
Cognitive decline remains one of the most pressing challenges in modern healthcare. Scientists continue to search for answers that explain how memory loss begins and progresses. Their investigations aim to improve treatments and guide better patient support systems. This ongoing exploration draws from both advanced technology and the personal experiences of those affected. As findings evolve, they reshape how society views brain health and aging. Each step forward signals new opportunities for knowledge and care.
Whelan, R., Barbey, F.M., Cominetti, M.R. et al. Developments in scalable strategies for detecting early markers of cognitive decline. Transl Psychiatry12, 473 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41398-022-02237-w
Researchers emphasize that memory decline is not only a medical condition but also a societal issue. Families, caregivers, and healthcare providers all feel the impact of this growing concern. Studies now focus on identifying early indicators that may slow or delay progression. These efforts require collaboration across institutions and disciplines worldwide. The pursuit of solutions highlights the urgency of preparing for an aging global population. By examining new research, society gains hope for improved futures.
Progress in Memory Health Studies
Recent years have produced a steady stream of studies exploring the causes of memory decline. These investigations examine biological factors, lifestyle influences, and patterns of disease progression. By analyzing large sets of patient data, researchers uncover insights that can transform treatment approaches. This process of discovery builds a foundation for more effective therapies in the future. One widely referenced example is theLilly memory loss study, which underscores the value of long-term observation in shaping outcomes. The emphasis is on identifying key stages where intervention may be most effective. Each discovery informs both clinical practice and patient support strategies. The result is a deeper understanding of memory health across populations.
The consistency of findings across multiple studies adds credibility to the results. Scientists rely on patterns that emerge across different demographics and conditions. These patterns reveal how memory loss interacts with various risk factors over time. With every confirmed result, the medical community gains stronger guidance for care. Moreover, the use of advanced imaging and biomarkers enhances the accuracy of these studies. As a result, clinicians can design approaches that are tailored to individual needs. By combining technology with patient data, research continues to refine its direction. The outlook for memory health treatment grows more promising with every advance.
The Value of Clinical Research in Cognitive Disorders
Clinical research remains a cornerstone in the effort to address memory decline. These studies provide the evidence necessary to confirm or challenge existing theories. Without them, progress in developing new interventions would slow dramatically. Clinical trials also provide opportunities for patients to participate directly in advancing knowledge. A notable example is thememory loss clinical research study Lilly, which contributed valuable findings to the field. Its results illustrate how carefully designed studies inform not only treatments but also preventive strategies. By including diverse populations, researchers ensure that conclusions apply broadly. This diversity strengthens the relevance of research in real-world settings.
The practical impact of clinical studies extends beyond academic research. Data collected through these trials often guides regulatory decisions and healthcare policies. This influence shapes how treatments become available to patients on a larger scale. Furthermore, trials allow for comparisons between existing and experimental therapies. Such comparisons highlight strengths and weaknesses in current approaches. Patients benefit directly when new findings inform clinical guidelines. Over time, research translates into more accurate diagnoses and better management of symptoms. The path from study to treatment remains essential for progress in brain health.
Understanding the Role of Alzheimer’s Trials
Alzheimer’s disease continues to receive significant attention in research due to its widespread impact. Studies in this area aim to clarify the mechanisms that drive progression. By targeting these mechanisms, researchers hope to develop more effective therapies. The importance of Alzheimer’s disease clinical trials lies in their ability to validate new treatment strategies. These trials explore experimental drugs, behavioral interventions, and monitoring technologies. Each contributes to building a clearer picture of how the disease can be slowed or managed. The outcomes also inform broader approaches to cognitive decline. What begins in the lab eventually influences global health practices.
The scope of Alzheimer’s research reflects the seriousness of the condition. Millions of people worldwide face its effects, making solutions urgently needed. Clinical trials not only test drugs but also examine the role of care methods. This includes caregiver education, lifestyle adjustments, and community support initiatives. Such holistic approaches ensure that research findings reach beyond laboratory settings. Policymakers often look to these trials when designing public health strategies. In this way, the results of Alzheimer’s research resonate across healthcare systems. They provide both immediate guidance and long-term direction for society’s response.
The Impact of Technology on Memory Research
Technology has transformed the way cognitive decline is studied and managed. Imaging tools allow researchers to observe subtle brain changes over time. Digital platforms enable real-time data collection from patients in various settings. These innovations shorten the gap between symptom onset and early detection. As a result, treatments can be introduced at more effective stages. Wearable devices also play a role in monitoring cognitive performance daily. Their data adds valuable detail to long-term clinical studies. Technology continues to expand the possibilities for understanding memory health.
The integration of artificial intelligence further accelerates discovery. Algorithms analyze massive datasets for patterns invisible to the human eye. This capability strengthens predictions about disease progression and treatment outcomes. With more precise information, clinicians can craft strategies tailored to individual needs. Furthermore, technology helps researchers collaborate globally by sharing data securely. Such cooperation enhances the speed and scale of discovery. Patients also benefit from more personalized monitoring tools. These developments represent a significant step toward proactive brain health care.
The Broader Public Health Perspective
Cognitive decline extends beyond individual patients into the realm of public health. As populations age, societies must adapt healthcare systems to manage growing demand. Research findings guide decisions on resource allocation and program development. Communities depend on accurate data to implement preventive measures. Without research, policies would lack the foundation needed for effectiveness. The challenge of memory decline becomes a shared responsibility across governments, institutions, and families. By investing in research, societies prepare for long-term challenges. Knowledge gained benefits not only patients but also entire communities.
Public awareness also plays a critical role in shaping outcomes. Campaigns that educate citizens about memory health encourage early screenings. These actions increase the chances of detecting issues before they become severe. Awareness also reduces stigma, making it easier for patients to seek support. Healthcare providers can use public outreach to strengthen relationships with communities. Informed citizens place greater value on preventive care and early diagnosis. This creates a cycle where research and public health reinforce each other. A stronger focus on prevention reduces the overall burden on healthcare systems. Together, research and awareness provide a roadmap for addressing memory decline.
Wrap Up
Memory research remains a central component in addressing the challenges of cognitive decline. Each study builds on the work of those before it, contributing to a growing body of evidence. Researchers rely on both advanced technology and patient data to gain insights. Clinical trials continue to serve as the testing ground for new therapies. The inclusion of diverse participants strengthens the impact of findings. Collaboration across institutions ensures that results are relevant worldwide. Every advancement increases the hope for more effective care. The journey is ongoing, but the progress is undeniable.
The broader impact of research is felt in policies, healthcare systems, and everyday life. Families benefit when treatments improve quality of care. Communities gain resilience when public health strategies address memory decline effectively. Healthcare providers use research to refine diagnoses and interventions. Policymakers rely on findings to allocate resources wisely. Patients, in turn, experience better outcomes through informed care. While challenges remain, the direction of progress is clear. By continuing to invest in research, society moves closer to a future with stronger solutions.
Weight management continues to be one of the most complex challenges in healthcare. Scientists are working to understand how biology, lifestyle, and treatment options come together in meaningful ways. Researchers build evidence through careful methods and measured outcomes. Their findings help identify safe and effective ways to support individuals seeking healthier lives. At the same time, these efforts reveal how long-term strategies differ from short-term fixes. The result is a growing body of knowledge that guides both medical professionals and individuals.
New pathways in this area often emerge through carefully designed studies. These investigations track patterns, measure results, and refine treatment approaches. The knowledge gained creates opportunities to improve care on a global scale. With every completed study, the field gains clarity on what methods lead to sustained progress. These structured efforts also show how innovation can address barriers to health. Collectively, they highlight why research remains essential to solving one of society’s most pressing issues.
Understanding Research in Weight Management
Research into weight management requires precision, consistency, and patient engagement. Experts rely on structured designs to compare outcomes across groups and identify key differences. These processes allow the evaluation of treatments under controlled conditions. Clinical trials weight loss studies often combine scientific rigor with patient-centered goals. By aligning data collection with real-world experiences, results become more practical and useful. This method also ensures that findings can be applied across a diverse population. Transitioning from laboratory insights to real-world applications creates meaningful progress. Such progress informs better care for individuals while improving healthcare systems overall.
At the core of these efforts lies a commitment to measurable evidence. Without structured research, treatments would lack credibility and reliability. Long-term monitoring is especially important to determine sustainability. Through careful observation, scientists learn which approaches have the greatest impact. Each step builds toward a clearer understanding of how weight can be managed effectively. Transparency in reporting strengthens confidence in results. Communities also benefit as findings inform broader wellness strategies. This foundation continues to shape future directions for weight management solutions.
The Role of Emerging Treatments
New treatments are often tested under tightly monitored conditions to ensure safety and efficiency. These tests measure not only weight reduction but also overall health outcomes.Clinical trials for weight loss drugs investigate how targeted compounds interact with the body. Findings from these studies may lead to new medications that complement existing strategies. These medications often undergo multiple phases of testing before reaching broader use. Such structured processes help reduce risks for patients while improving results. By analyzing patient responses, researchers refine what works best for different groups. Over time, this helps move treatments from theory to practical care.
Alongside safety, effectiveness is a key factor in advancing treatment options. Studies monitor weight patterns over months or years to determine lasting impact. When successful, these findings influence treatment guidelines and clinical practice. This evidence-based approach ensures new medications contribute to broader health strategies. Communities and healthcare providers gain valuable knowledge from these outcomes. The knowledge then supports informed decision-making about available treatment choices. Patients also benefit as innovation creates a wider range of options. Together, these advances bring greater hope to those seeking sustainable solutions.
Insights from Industry Research
Some studies highlight how large organizations contribute to knowledge in this area.Eli Lilly weight loss clinical trialsserve as examples of how structured research can advance understanding. Their designs reflect the standards used across the industry to ensure quality data. By including diverse groups of participants, these trials expand insights into different populations. Such inclusivity helps identify patterns that might otherwise remain hidden. The lessons learned often inspire new directions for further exploration. Industry involvement also accelerates progress by providing resources and expertise. These combined efforts bring the field closer to lasting answers.
While industry studies can provide valuable insights, they remain part of a much larger landscape. Independent research continues to complement these examples by offering additional perspectives. Universities, hospitals, and community health organizations also play essential roles. Together, these sources of evidence create a fuller picture of what works. The balance between industry and independent research keeps findings grounded and reliable. Each study builds on the last, weaving together knowledge from multiple directions. This collective approach ensures that results are not tied to a single perspective. Ultimately, it strengthens trust in the future of weight management research.
Broader Impacts of Ongoing Studies
Weight management research influences more than individual health outcomes. It also informs public policy and community wellness strategies. Governments rely on findings to shape health recommendations and resource distribution. By identifying effective treatments, studies help allocate funding more efficiently. This ensures that programs support methods with proven success. Healthcare providers also gain clarity on best practices through this research. Their improved understanding directly benefits patients. In this way, research extends its value beyond the laboratory to society at large.
Communities also see benefits when evidence supports preventive measures. Early intervention can reduce the need for more costly treatments later. Public education campaigns often use findings to promote healthier lifestyles. These campaigns build trust by referencing credible data. Such efforts encourage participation in programs that improve long-term outcomes. As a result, populations experience improvements in both health and quality of life. The ripple effect touches families, workplaces, and future generations. This underscores the wider importance of continued investment in research.
Technology and Data in Modern Research
Advances in technology continue to reshape the way weight management studies are conducted. Digital tools allow researchers to track participants with greater accuracy and efficiency. Wearable devices, for example, monitor activity levels, sleep patterns, and daily behaviors. This real-time data provides insights that traditional reporting methods often miss. With improved tracking, researchers can identify subtle changes that influence overall outcomes. Artificial intelligence also plays a growing role in analyzing large datasets. By finding patterns faster, these systems reveal connections that may lead to new approaches. Collectively, these innovations strengthen both the reliability and speed of ongoing studies.
The role of data extends beyond collection into practical application. By analyzing results at scale, researchers can predict how treatments may work for different populations. This predictive ability helps personalize strategies to maximize effectiveness. Patients then benefit from approaches that better reflect their unique health needs. Additionally, digital platforms create opportunities for broader participation in studies. Individuals from diverse locations can now engage in programs remotely. Such inclusivity expands the scope of research and ensures findings remain representative. As technology evolves, its integration into weight management studies will only deepen. This integration marks a significant step toward more comprehensive and sustainable solutions.
Wrap Up
Weight management research has transformed how treatments are developed, tested, and applied. By blending structured methods with patient-focused goals, the field continues to evolve. The knowledge gained helps medical professionals identify safe and effective solutions. These insights also guide broader health strategies across communities. With each completed study, the foundation of evidence grows stronger. That foundation offers clarity on which approaches produce real results. Ongoing innovation ensures that treatment options expand and adapt over time. Collectively, these factors drive progress toward more sustainable outcomes.
The journey of weight management research illustrates the power of evidence-based practice. Careful observation and long-term studies provide clarity where speculation cannot. This clarity informs decisions made by patients, providers, and policymakers alike. Broader collaboration among institutions also strengthens outcomes. By sharing data and refining methods, researchers improve overall accuracy. As knowledge expands, so too does the range of options for individuals. This process builds trust in healthcare systems while offering renewed hope. Continued commitment ensures that progress remains steady and impactful.
Children’s health requires careful attention at every stage of growth. From the earliest checkups to specialized care, parents rely on medical professionals to guide them with trust and reassurance. A strong foundation in health allows children to thrive academically, socially, and physically as they move through key milestones. Preventive practices combined with timely interventions often make the difference between temporary setbacks and long-term wellness. Each family seeks reliable answers when concerns arise, which makes accurate information and accessible resources essential. Addressing health from multiple angles creates a path toward resilience and stability.
Equally important is the collaboration among various specialists who focus on children’s unique needs. While general care provides ongoing monitoring, certain conditions call for more targeted expertise. Families often navigate questions that cross into areas like breathing, allergies, and overall development. Having guidance from experts ensures children receive personalized treatment tailored to their circumstances. Clear communication among professionals supports seamless care that benefits both children and parents. Ultimately, understanding how different specialties contribute to overall well-being empowers families to make informed decisions.
Early Care for Strong Development
Regular visits provide an opportunity for parents to track milestones with greater confidence. Specialists carefully observe growth, nutrition, and behavior, helping to create a reliable picture of a child’s development. Families often discover that even subtle patterns reveal important insights about long-term well-being. With early intervention, small issues are resolved before they grow into more serious concerns. This consistency gives parents peace of mind as they navigate daily routines. Trusted baby doctors also emphasize the value of preventive care that supports both short-term and future health. Over time, these consistent appointments strengthen the connection between families and their providers. Through every stage, children benefit from care designed to meet their evolving needs.
Parents also value the conversations that take place during each appointment. Guidance on nutrition, sleep, and activity provides families with practical steps that fit daily life. These insights give them a stronger role in promoting healthy growth at home. As patterns emerge, families begin to anticipate developmental needs with more confidence. This proactive approach reduces stress and creates a clear roadmap for future care. Parents learn to recognize when reassurance is enough and when further attention may be required. The knowledge shared during these visits empowers them to make more confident decisions. Over time, this partnership leads to improved outcomes for children and stronger confidence for families.
Managing Respiratory Conditions
Children with recurring breathing issues often require attention that extends beyond general care. Families sometimes encounter challenges that include persistent coughing, wheezing, or frequent infections. At this stage, insight from a pediatric pulmonologist becomes essential to clarify causes and recommend solutions. Specialists conduct thorough evaluations that identify both immediate triggers and long-term patterns. This expertise helps children participate in daily activities without constant setbacks. Families gain reassurance through treatment plans that combine medical care with practical adjustments. As a result, children experience fewer interruptions and greater stability in their routines. Over time, ongoing support strengthens confidence and improves overall quality of life.
In addition to clinical treatment, families receive education that extends into the home environment. Strategies for reducing triggers help prevent unnecessary visits to urgent care. Parents also gain practical skills to manage medication and track progress consistently. These measures create a structured approach that minimizes uncertainty. With time, families learn to recognize early warning signs and respond quickly. This readiness reduces stress and empowers them to maintain stability even during difficult moments. Children benefit from a sense of normalcy, knowing their condition is under control. Specialized support ensures that families can manage complex challenges while focusing on their child’s growth.
Identifying and Treating Allergies
When persistent symptoms appear, many parents seek clarity through expert evaluation. Specialists in allergy care use testing to determine the root causes of issues like sneezing, rashes, or digestive discomfort. Once results are available, families can implement targeted strategies that bring measurable improvements. Practical adjustments may include dietary changes, environmental updates, or lifestyle modifications that support comfort. These recommendations reduce disruptions and allow children to focus on daily activities with fewer obstacles. In many cases, families begin by consulting an allergist near me who provides tailored guidance. This step gives parents the confidence to address concerns with clear and actionable solutions. Over time, these efforts translate into healthier routines and greater balance at home.
Long-term allergy management often requires continuous monitoring and adaptation. Families who follow structured plans see improvements that extend beyond physical health. Reduced flare-ups mean fewer school absences and more opportunities for active participation. Parents also appreciate having strategies to manage urgent reactions with confidence. These resources minimize uncertainty and help families respond effectively during stressful situations. Each consultation adds new knowledge that supports consistent improvement in daily life. With this foundation, families gain a better sense of control over unpredictable symptoms.
Supporting Overall Childhood Wellness
The integration of general pediatric care with specialized expertise creates a well-rounded approach to children’s health. Collaboration between different providers ensures that no aspect of development is overlooked. Families often gain the greatest benefit when specialists and generalists work together toward shared goals. Each perspective adds depth, resulting in care that addresses both immediate symptoms and long-term outcomes. This model reflects the importance of coordination and communication across disciplines. By weaving preventive care, respiratory support, and allergy management into a single framework, families receive comprehensive guidance. Parents are then better equipped to respond to changing needs over time. This shared responsibility between families and providers ultimately shapes healthier futures for children.
Beyond clinical visits, education plays an essential role in childhood health. Workshops, resources, and open communication give parents the tools they need to navigate complex challenges. By understanding how lifestyle choices affect development, families strengthen their ability to promote resilience. Regular engagement with resources also fosters trust between parents and healthcare providers. This relationship makes it easier to implement recommended changes in daily life. Strong foundations built on preventive practices ensure that children can flourish across all areas of growth. Health education delivered in practical ways empowers parents to remain consistent and confident. With this knowledge, children benefit from an environment designed to support lasting wellness.
Wrap Up
Childhood wellness requires ongoing attention that blends preventive care with specialized expertise. Families who engage with trusted providers benefit from early identification of concerns and clear strategies for resolution. The ability to recognize and address issues before they escalate creates stability and reassurance. Comprehensive care also builds confidence in parents as they navigate complex health decisions. Strong partnerships between families and medical professionals reduce uncertainty and strengthen resilience. Each interaction contributes to long-term well-being by supporting growth at every stage. Children flourish when preventive measures are prioritized and informed guidance is consistently available.
The combination of insight, collaboration, and preventive action gives families a clear path forward. When general care aligns with specialized knowledge, children receive the comprehensive attention they deserve. Education provided along the way helps families feel empowered and prepared for future challenges. Practical support from trusted experts reduces stress and promotes greater balance at home. The result is healthier children who thrive in both physical and emotional development. Parents gain confidence in their ability to respond to evolving needs with clarity. Through thoughtful guidance and consistent care, families build a foundation that supports children’s future.
Human beings are inherently social creatures. From the early days of civilization, people have sought connection and companionship. Social relationships are the threads that bind societies, support mental well-being, and enable personal and professional growth. In a world that is increasingly digital and fast-paced, building and maintaining meaningful social relations is more important—and sometimes more challenging—than ever before. This essay explores the key principles, approaches, and benefits of building strong social relationships.
Social relationships encompass friendships, family ties, community bonds, and professional networks. These relationships fulfill emotional needs such as love, acceptance, and validation. They also play a critical role in reducing stress, combating loneliness, and improving overall health. Studies in psychology and sociology consistently highlight that people with strong social connections live longer, experience fewer health problems, and show greater resilience during times of crisis.
Principles for Building Social Relations
Mutual Respect and Empathy The cornerstone of any healthy relationship is mutual respect. Empathy—the ability to understand and share the feelings of others—deepens this respect. By placing ourselves in others’ shoes and validating their experiences, we create a sense of trust and emotional safety.
Effective Communication Clear, honest, and active communication is crucial. Listening attentively, expressing thoughts openly, and providing constructive feedback help prevent misunderstandings and strengthen bonds. Good communication is not just about talking; it is about listening and responding thoughtfully.
Trust and Reliability Trust takes time to build but can be lost in moments. Being reliable—keeping promises, being consistent, and showing integrity—fosters trust in any relationship. Trust creates a solid foundation for openness and collaboration.
Shared Interests and Values While differences can enrich relationships, shared interests and values often serve as bonding agents. Whether it’s a mutual love for art, similar professional goals, or aligned worldviews, common ground helps in forming lasting connections.
Time and Effort Relationships don’t thrive by accident. They require intentional effort. Making time to meet, check in, celebrate milestones, or support someone in need shows that the relationship matters. In the digital age, even a message or a video call can reinforce social bonds.
Approaches to Strengthen Social Relations
Engage in Community Activities: Participating in clubs, volunteering, or attending social events introduces people with similar interests and promotes a sense of belonging.
Practice Kindness and Generosity: Small acts of kindness—offering help, giving compliments, or sharing resources—can have a profound impact on relationships.
Be Open-Minded and Accepting: No two individuals are alike. Embracing differences and avoiding judgment help create inclusive, respectful relationships.
Resolve Conflicts Constructively: Conflicts are natural in any relationship. The key is to address them calmly, listen to all sides, and seek mutually beneficial solutions.
Challenges in Building Social Relations
Despite the benefits, building social relationships comes with challenges. Social anxiety, cultural differences, lack of time, or past experiences can inhibit individuals from forming new bonds. Additionally, digital communication, while convenient, sometimes lacks the emotional depth of face-to-face interactions. Overcoming these challenges requires courage, self-awareness, and a willingness to be vulnerable.
The Role of Social Relations in Personal and Societal Well-being
Strong social relationships contribute not only to individual well-being but also to societal harmony. Communities with healthy social ties tend to be safer, more inclusive, and better able to solve common problems. At the workplace, good interpersonal relations improve teamwork, productivity, and job satisfaction.
Conclusion
Building social relations is a lifelong journey that requires effort, patience, and sincerity. It begins with self-awareness and extends to empathy and mutual respect. Whether through casual friendships or deep family ties, strong social relationships are vital for emotional fulfillment and societal cohesion. In a world that often emphasizes individual success, we must remember that true well-being lies not just in what we achieve alone but in the connections we nurture with others. Investing in relationships is, ultimately, investing in a more humane and connected world.
Emmanuella, O., OGUNRO, V. O., OLADIMEJI, S. B., IBOSIOLA, J. O., & ABUBAKAR, Y. S. (2026). Strategic Decision-Making Practices and Organizational Performance of Selected Pharmaceutical Firms in Owo, Ondo State. International Journal of Research, 12(4), 877–907. https://doi.org/10.26643/ijr/2026/22
The study investigates the relationship between strategic decision-making practuces and organizational performance of selected pharmaceutical firms in Owo, Ondo state. Intuition Strategic Decision-Making (ISDM), Rational Strategic Decision-Making (RSDM) and Participatory Strategic Decision-Making (PSDM) were used as proxy for measuring strategic decision-making practices while organizational performance was measured using productivity (PRD). Using the sample size of 94, 120 questionnaire were administered to staff of selected pharmaceutical firms in Owo and 116 was retrieved for analysis. Descriptive survey design was adopted. Descriptive statistics, correlation and multiple regression alongside ANOVA were carried for data analysis using SPSS (26). The findings revealed that intuition strategic decision-making (ISDM) and participatory strategic decision-making (PSDM) were positively and significantly related with organizational performance while rational strategic decision-making (RSDM) was positively and insignificantly related with organizational performance during the study under review. In concluaion, the study revealed that strategic decision-making practices is positively and significantly related with organizational performance. Furthermore, it indicates that strategic managers or decision makers worked with these practices in determining and providing solutions of treating issues that they may or have encounter by adopting these practices in actualizing their aims and objectives during the study under review. It was recommended that, firms should encourage the use of these SDM practices such as intuition strategic decision-making, rational strategic decision-making and participatory strategic decision making as it enhances performance of both the employees and organization.
Organizations do consider how strategic decisions are made and not only how it affects their activities and relationship with the environment though it differs between cultures as the implications and degree varies (Abubakar et al., 2019). The modern top managers’ responsibilities go beyond supervising internal activities which includes different tasks and the external environment where the business operates (George et al., 2019). Management do design procedures for strategic management to address factors that may influence an organizations’ ability to prosper and grow thereby achieving optimal positions (Anwar & Abdullah, 2021). According to Asikhia and Mba (2021) a good decision-maker chooses actions that might give best outcome after researching on the alternatives and consequences. Strategic decision-making is an important area in organization as it clearly shows the responsibility of the top management level. For enhanced organizational performance, quality decisions, team member participation, consensus are necessary (Yılmaz & Ameen, 2022).
The growth, productiveness and successes of any entrepreneurial firms or business organization in this contemporary period in the history of business wellness and stability depends mostly on effective strategic decision-making practices among decision makers in an organization (Eromafunu et al., 2022). Moreso, in todays’ competitive and dynamic business world, strategic decision-making is vital for organizations to lead or stay ahead and it strategic decision-making do encourages continual progress and organizational culture in terms of innovation. Thereby, managers may be able to identify areas that needs improvement and take advantage on new ideas by continuous testing or research and reassessing such ideas or strategies which will eventually lead to long-term success and growth (Gagan, 2023).
1.1 Statement of the Problem
Aladesoun et al. (2020) assert that in both private and public decision-making contexts, it is recognized that decisions yielding positive outcomes may also entail negative repercussions. A common challenge in decision-making processes, whether within organizations or under government oversight, is the potential for interference from organizational owners or the current administration. In certain organizations, governmental intervention presents a significant obstacle to effective decision-making, either through direct involvement in organizational operations or by influencing policy formulation that directly or indirectly impacts organizational functioning. Despite the persistent presence of such challenges, which range from management’s inability to make sound decisions to deficiencies in manpower and communication channels necessary for implementing decisions effectively, there remains a prevailing understanding of the importance of decision-making as a fundamental tool within every organization ((Malecka 2020).
The majority of management research tends to concentrate on decision-making within risky environments due to the feasibility of modeling and experimenting with expected utility maximization such as (Malel & Kemboi, 2019; Malecka 2020; Yilmaz & Ameen, 2022; Muzanenhamo & Chikosha, 2022). Academic scholars and practitioners emphasize the significance of strategic decision-making practices in evaluating organizational performance across various dimensions such as innovation, entrepreneurship, technology, knowledge, economics, healthcare, and overall organizational performance such as Ewah 2018; Sev et al. 2018; Alosani et al. 2020; Asikhia and Mba 2021; Al-Hashimi et al. 2021; Nauhaus et al. 2021; Sinnaiah et al. 2023 and revealed how strategic decision-making impacts on organizational performance.
Put differently, prior investigations into the characteristics or factors influencing the effectiveness of strategic decision-making have not produced widely applicable results or conclusions. Consequently, further empirical research is needed to ascertain which practices, characteristics or factors contribute to strategic decision-making effectiveness within organizations before definitive assertions can be made and this study aims to address this gap. Thus, the study investigated the relationship between strategic decision-making practices and organizational performance of selected pharmaceutical firms in Owo, Ondo state.
1.2 Research Questions
The under-listed research questions have been highlighted for this study:
i. Does intuition strategic decision-making influence organizational performance of pharmaceutical firms in Owo, Ondo State?
ii. To what extent has rational strategic decision-making impacted on organizational performance of selected pharmaceutical firms in Owo, Ondo state?
iii. Does participatory strategic decision-making influence organizational performance of selected pharmaceutical firms in Owo, Ondo state?
1.3 Research Objectives
This study seeks to:
i. Examine the influence of intuition strategic decision-making on organizational performance of selected pharmaceutical firms in Owo, Ondo state.
ii. ascertain to what extent rational strategic decision-making impacts on organizational performance of selected pharmaceutical firms in Owo, Ondo state.
iii. determine the influence of participatory strategic decision-making on organizational performance of selected pharmaceutical firms in Owo, Ondo state.
1.4 Scope of the Study
The study investigates the relationship between SDM practices and organizational performance using intuition strategic decision-making, rational strategic decision-making and participatory strategic decision-making in measuring SDM practices (independent variable) while productivity was used in measuring organizational performance (dependent variable). Descriptive research design was adopted using primary source of data with a sample size of 94 (ninety-four) which was done using stratified probability sampling technique of staff in selected pharmaceutical firms in Owo, Ondo state. Multiple regression analysis was carried out alongside ANOVA using SPSS version 26. The timeframe for this study was within the month of September, 2023 to February, 2024.
2.0 Literature Review
2.1 Organizational Performance
The main goal of any business is to make profit and to achieve this, organizations would put in place methods in attaining it and what drives organizations’ failure or success has been a vital subject in business which has led to investigating determinants of organizational performance (Taofeeq et al., 2019). Organizational performance has engaged the focus of many researches as performance most times are measured in monetary terms using indicators such as sales turnover, profitability. Though the interest in the research of performance is due to the fact it is the major primary objective of every business and the survival of the business depends solely on how profitable the outcome of the organization is (Orishede, 2020).
It also refers to as the capacity of a firm to realize set objectives thereby the organization achieve its goals through effective and efficient utilization of its resources and it can be reflected due to the results of the organizations’ common objectives and the method used or implemented are consistently used (Tsai et al., 2020; Sarraf & Nejad, 2020). According to Al-Hashimi et al. (2021) it can be defined as an analysis of an organizational performance as compared to its objectives and goals and it is measured in both financial and non-financial terms (Camilleri, 2021; Sinnaiah et al., 2023). Though there are different factors that can be related with organizational performance such as conflict, social influences, cross-cultural and organizational structures (Madume et al., 2024). For this study productivity will be use as proxy for organizational performance.
2.1.1 Productivity
Aladesoun et al. (2020) stated that performance of a business which determines its continued existence and development is largely dependent on the degree of productivity of its workers. Productivity is a total measure of the efficiency or capacity to transform inputs that is raw materials into finished products or services. Also, productivity is a measure that shows how well essential resources are used to achieve specified objectives in terms of quality and quantity within a given period of time. It is suitable when measuring the actual output produced compared to the input of resources, taking time into consideration (Omenazu, 2022).
2.2 Strategic Decision Making
The goal of strategic decision-making is to maximize an organizations long-term success by planning for the future (George et al., 2019). Making decisions that are important in terms of precedents created, actions performed or resources committed, strategic decision-making is a specific sort of decision-making and there is a difference between strategic decisions and tactical and operational ones (Abdullah & Othman, 2019). An important aspect of SDM is to assess the strength of organizational capacity is to maintain its position as regards changing environment as well as making daily choices and deal with issues (Adigbole et al., 2019; Ur Rehman et al., 2019). It is a systematic and logical move by top managers in choosing best approach to success in line with organizations’ long-term goals and expectations (Harappa, 2020; Aladesoun et al., 2020). It is often a non-routine and very important to organizations where top management usually plays important role which consists of competitive approaches and moves they developed to attracts customers (Osazevbaru, 2021).
According to Eromafunu et al. (2022) SDM has over-time surfaced as one of the main active phases of recent business researchers and management. Among different forms of decision- making facets, strategic decisions are very vital decisions and they play ilk central roles in any organization. SDM is very useful when addressing poorly structured issues for which there are no possible solution procedures (Asikhia & Mba, 2021). Thus, SDM involves the use of decision support systems including external and internal environmental factors that may influence the performance of managers while making decisions (Omenazu, 2022).
2.2.1 Intuition Strategic Decision-Making
One of the areas of strategic decision-making in an organization is where the strategic thinker is often based on his/her intuitive attributes in predicting what might happen and thereby take precaution steps to ascertain its expectations by nurturing the ideas being associated with inner feelings (Battaglio et al., 2019). Intuition is a fast mental perception of circumstances of decision based on past experiences without focus or reference on the main thinking of the subject matter to be decided and it is not unreasonable or administrative due to the fact that it is based on years of experience that enables top managers to opt for solutions to issues without must interest in hectic calculations as well as guesses (Ali, 2019). Though some researches have highlighted in their studies the roles of strategic thinking process among some managers within the concept of cognitive capacities which postulate that mental flexibility can influence it (Al-Jaifi and Al-Rassas, 2019; Barlach and Plonski, 2021).
Moreso, it is vital to know that making decisions depends on the problems faced by the organizations and not all problems or issues require and utilizing the process of intuition uses available information which may quicken the process of decision-making (Bozhinov et al., 2021; Sinnaiah et al., 2023).
2.2.2 Rational Strategic Decision-Making
This approach of strategic decision-making is linked by the existence of a specific and reliable detailed quantitative analysis of alternatives in decision taken thereby relatively state boundaries of the issue being analyzed and solution is identified by optimizing the selecting alternatives and development process (Deslatte, 2020). For decision-making it should be taken into consideration the efforts is to minimize risk, uncertainty, environmental instability amongst others which might influence and structure of decision-making mechanism based on hierarchical relationships that is being applied and predetermined in the organization (Nagtegaal et al., 2020; Acciarini et al., 2021).
Most scholars agree that this type of strategic decision-making will assist managers highlight issues, produce effective solutions, select the most important solutions and apply then evaluate the solution. (Hamidullah et al., 2021).
2.2.3 Participatory Strategic Decision-Making
According to Al-Hashimi et al. (2021) Participatory strategic decision-making refers to as the extent to which relevant people in organization are involved in the process of decision-making and it is the best way of securing dissemination of ideas for implementation. It should have a positive effect when successfully implemented due to the fact that it involves employees with sufficient knowledge and information of a particular circumstances or issues of place and time thereby diverse perspectives that are essential in making high quality decision (Aleksovska et al., 2021). Participatory strategic decision-making provides opportunities in achieving their agreed solutions, improved commitment and develop sense of ownership. With high level of this strategic decision-making practices, it is an important mechanism in increasing organizational adaptability to deal with uncertainties and unpredictable situations in the external environment during the process of implementation. Thus, participatory strategic decision-making also can demonstrate the objectivity of decisions to a multitude of accountability forums and increase equity (Cepiku & Mastrodascio, 2021).
2.4 Conceptual Framework
INTUITION STRATEGIC DECISION-MAKING
RATIONAL STRATEGIC DECISION-MAKING
PARTICIPATORY STRATEGIC DECISION-MAKING
STRATEGIC DECISION-MAKING PRACTICES
ORGANIZATIONAL PERFORMANCE
PRODUCTIVITY
Figure 2.0: Conceptual paradigm
(Researcher’s conceptualization, 2024)
From the diagram above, strategic decision-making practices (independent variable) is measured with intuition strategic decision-making, rational decision-making and participatory decision-making while organizational performance (dependent variable) is measured with productivity.
2.5 Theoretical Review
This study made use of Satisficing theory and Garbage-Can theory
2.5.1 Satisficing Theory
Simon (1957) introduced the concept of bounded rationality, which acknowledges that decision-makers face constraints such as limited information, time, and cognitive capacity due to the dynamic and competitive nature of industries and business environments. Instead of aiming for optimization, decision-makers operate within these limitations by working with simplified and restricted knowledge to arrive at satisfactory, compromise choices, a concept termed “satisficing” (Marshall, 1998). Simon argued against the existence of pure optimization in the real world, asserting that only “good enough” alternatives are attainable.
In contrast to the rational decision-making paradigm, bounded rationality emphasizes the pragmatic pursuit of satisfactory outcomes rather than exhaustive optimization (Williams, 2002). It acknowledges the inherent uncertainty and complexity of decision-making processes, recognizing that the search for the optimal solution may be endless, impractical, and costly. Instead, bounded rationality suggests that decision-makers are better served by accepting compromise solutions that adequately address the challenges they face, rather than endlessly seeking the elusive “best” solution (Ahmen et al., 2014; Elikwu & Mohammed, 2019).
2.5.2 Garbage-Can Theory
Cohen et al. (1972) were among the first to explore the garbage-can model within the realm of organizational decision-making (DM), aiming to refine and adapt prevailing theoretical frameworks to better understand empirical observations (Olsen, 2001). This model is widely regarded as the most unpredictable and fluid approach to strategic decision-making (SDM), typically manifesting in organizations grappling with high levels of uncertainty. Strategic decisions are triggered by participants’ attention to issues and opportunities, as well as their level of engagement in the decision-making process. These decisions unfold within environments characterized by incomplete rationality (Teasley & Harrell, 1996).
In complex environments, problems and solutions defy straightforward translation into a logical sequence of steps, as proposed by the rational decision-making model. Decision-making processes that deviate from the assumptions of traditional models are often labeled as “organized anarchies.” These environments typically exhibit three key traits. Firstly, decision-makers may possess ambiguous, inconsistent, or conflicting preferences. Secondly, there is often a lack of clarity regarding the technology or methodology employed in decision-making processes, leading to solutions being discovered through trial and error rather than through systematic analysis. Finally, decision-makers exhibit varying degrees of flexibility, and their alignment towards a common goal may be uncertain.
In relating this theory with the strategic decision-making, scholars have suggested that Cohen and his associates introduced the garbage-can model as a reaction to the perceived inadequacies of rational models in addressing decision-making challenges within complex and turbulent environments (Eisenhardt & Zbaracki, 1992). Olsen (2001) further elucidates that the garbage-can model aims to shed light on empirical observations, refining existing organizational DM theories to offer greater clarity. Unlike other models, it eschews a linear policy development process, as such an approach would be deemed overly rational (Tiernan & Burke, 2002).
2.6 Empirical Review
Malel and Kemboi (2019) determined the influence of strategic decision making on the performance of commercial banks in Eldoret town, Kenya which was reinforced by the theory of innovation diffusion. The study findings showed that innovation strategy have a positive and significant influence with (β=0.244, p< 0.05) on performance of commercial banks in Eldoret town. The study recommends that the management of commercial banks need to at all times evaluate and monitor the implementation of the decision reached for them to have an overview of their progress and if they are achieving their intended goals and objectives.
Asikhia and Mba (2021) evaluated the impact of strategic decision-making on organizational performance, highlighting those effective decisions stem from thorough information analysis. Through a systematic review of articles, the paper sheds light on factors affecting organizational performance, such as management, employee behavior, decision-making processes, and environmental dynamics. Drawing on Herbert Simon’s administrative behavior theory, the study concludes by affirming the vital role of strategic decision-making in enhancing organizational effectiveness.
Al-Hashimi et al. (2021) developed and evaluated an integrated model of the strategic decision-making process and its outcomes within public organizations. Their model incorporates procedural rationality, intuition, participation, and constructive politics as factors influencing the successful implementation of strategic decisions. The study found that successful implementation fully mediated the relationships between procedural rationality, participation, constructive politics, and the outcomes of strategic decisions.
Eromafunu et al. (2022) investigate the influence of strategic decision makers’ characteristics on effective strategic decision-making in various government agencies and commissions in Delta state, Nigeria. The findings reveal a significant positive relationship between strategic decision makers’ cognitive diversity and effective strategic decision-making. However, no direct relationship was found between cognitive complexity and effective decision-making. Interestingly, when cognitive complexity was considered alongside cognitive diversity, a positive correlation emerged.
Yılmaz and Ameen (2022) determined the impact of strategic decision-making in improving organizational performance and the relationship between strategic decision-making and organizational performance, identifying the demographic characteristics of manager and learn about decision-making approaches and their role in organizational performance. The study was a descriptive cross-sectional design. The findings indicated the existence of the relationship and correlation between the research variables, which stated that depending on strategic decision-making will lead to increase organizational performance and employee performance, this revealed an impact of strategic decision-making on organizational performance.
Muzanenhamo and Chikosha (2022) examined the effect of strategic decision-making context on organizational performance in culturally diverse occupational settings of Bindura Nickel Mine. Descriptive research design was adopted. It was established that leader psychological path and follower psychological path had a significant direct effect on organizational performance, while legislative context, economic context and firm resources had some weak association. It was concluded that strategic decision-making context is the predictor of organizational performance. Finally, recommends further research on the impact of strategic influence and strategic talent development on organizational performance.
Omenazu (2022) focused on presenting and discussing the relationship between strategic decision-making and organizational performance in greater depth. The findings shed light on the factors that influence managers’ decision-making and performance, such as the environment in which they work and the leadership style they employ. Strategic decisions involving the use of decision support systems, as well as internal and external environmental factors that influence the performance of managers in making them, have been shown to have an impact on the performance of strategic decisions that have a direct impact on the overall performance of the organization.
Sinnaiah et al. (2023) presented a conceptual framework for integrating strategic thinking factors, organizational performance and the decision-making process. This involves a synthesis of literature and proposes a framework that explores the relationship between strategic thinking enabling factors, organizational performance and the moderating effect of decision-making styles which includes strategic thinking enabling factors (systems perspective, focused intent, intelligent opportunism, thinking in time and hypothesis-driven analysis), organizational performance and the moderating effect of decision-making styles (intuitive and rational). From the results in conceptual model, it remains to be tested in actual practice.
2.7 Research Gap
The majority of management research tends to concentrate on decision-making within risky environments due to the feasibility of modeling and experimenting with expected utility maximization such as (Malel & Kemboi, 2019; Malecka 2020; Yilmaz & Ameen, 2022; Muzanenhamo & Chikosha, 2022). Academic scholars and practitioners emphasize the significance of strategic decision-making practices in evaluating organizational performance across various dimensions such as innovation, entrepreneurship, technology, knowledge, economics, healthcare, and overall organizational performance such as Ewah 2018; Sev et al. 2018; Alosani et al. 2020; Asikhia and Mba 2021; Al-Hashimi et al. 2021; Nauhaus et al. 2021; Sinnaiah et al. 2023 and revealed how strategic decision-making impacts on organizational performance.
Put differently, prior investigations into the characteristics or factors influencing the effectiveness of strategic decision-making have not produced widely applicable results or conclusions. Consequently, further empirical research is needed to ascertain which practices, characteristics or factors contribute to strategic decision-making effectiveness within organizations before definitive assertions can be made and this study aims to address this gap. Thus, the study investigated the relationship between strategic decision-making practices and organizational performance of selected pharmaceutical firms in Owo, Ondo state.
3.0 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Research Design
The study used a descriptive survey research design. Descriptive survey is restricted to factual registration and that there is no quest for an explanation why reality is showing itself this way (Voordt, 2014). This ensures objectivity and neutrality in drawing conclusions (Mugenda & Mugenda, 2003). This was appropriate for the study since it sought to create the actual understanding of strategic decision-making practices and organizational performance.
3.2 Population of the Study
The population of this study, consists of staff of selected pharmaceutical firms in Owo, Ondo State. Table 1 illustrates the selected pharmaceutical firms along-side with the number of staff.
Table 1: Distribution of staff of selected branches
S/N
NAME OF PHARMACY
NUMBER OF STAFF
1
Chinare Ani Pharmacy
12
2
Emmayemi Pharmacy
12
3
Femih Pharmacy Ltd
13
4
Godman Pharmacy
10
5
HealthWatch Pharmacy
23
6
Ifeoluwa Medicine Store
10
7
Jobath Pharmacy
14
8
N. O. Chrisval Pharmacy
11
9
Wellfast Pharmacy
10
10
Wondacare Limited Pharmacy
8
Total
123
Source: Field Survey, 2024
3.3 Sample and Sampling Technique
The sample size for the study is 94 staff of selected pharmaceutical firms in Owo, Ondo state. The sampling technique used for this study was stratified random probability sampling technique. The reason for the choice was due to the fact that the firms consist of different units (full and contract staff), the selection was done based on these categories to ensure that all employees are represented in the choice of the sample. The sample size for this study was arrived at using Taro Yamane formular which is illustrated below:
3.4 Research Instrument
The instrument used to gather information in this research work was primary data through the use of questionnaire. The questionnaire seeks information about the respondents’ demographic data and opinion on the impact of strategic decision-making practices on organizational performance of selected pharmaceutical firms in Owo, Ondo state. All statement items were measured on a five-point Likert scale ranging from Strongly Agree (SA) to Strongly Disagree (SD).
3.5 Validity and Reliability of Instrument
The validity of the research instrument used for this study was carried out, the questionnaire design was given to my supervisor for vetting and after series of corrections on the instrument, it was discovered to be valid based on the variables used for this study. Therefore, face and content validity were used for the research instrument. The result of the reliability test shows that each of the variables are reliable since they are more than 0.828 coefficient which is illustrated below.
Table 2: Result of Reliability Test (n=)
Construct
Number of Items
Cronbach’s Alpha Coefficient
PRD
5
0.821
ISDM
5
0.922
RSDM
5
0.810
PSDM
5
0.733
Overall Alpha
0.828
Source: Researcher’s Fieldwork, 2024.
3.6 Method of Data Analysis
Data analysis was in two parts. Frequencies, means and percentages were used to describe the characteristics of the sample. Further, regression analysis was used to infer meaning about the entire population from the sample findings. Analysis of variances, model summaries and regression coefficients were used to describe the characteristics of population of study. Statistical Package of Social Sciences (SPSS) version 26 and excel were used as the principal data analysis tools. The findings were presented in tables.
3.7 Model of Specification
This comprises of the elements used in measuring the independent variable (Strategic Decision-Making Practices) which are Intuition Strategic Decision-Making (ISDM), Rational Strategic Decision-Making (RSDM), Participatory Strategic Decision-Making (PSDM) on the dependent variable (Organizational Performance) which is measured by Productivity (PRD).
The model for the study is functionally state below:
ⅈ = Samples of Selected Pharmaceutical firms in Owo, Ondo State.
The apriori expectation for this study is stated that:
β1, β2, β3 > 0, the reason been that the variables used here is a process dimension
4.0 Data Presentation and Analysis
From the total number of 120 (one hundred and twenty) questionnaire distributed to all staff of selected pharmaceutical firms in Owo, Ondo state, 116 (one hundred and sixteen) questionnaire was retrieved representing 97% for analysis.
4.1 Demographic Characteristics
Table 4.1: Demographic Characteristics of Respondents
Demographic Characteristics
Categories
Frequency
Percentage
Gender
Male Female Total
44 72 116
38 62 100
Age
21 – 30 years 31 – 40 years 41 – 50 years 51 and above Total
48 32 26 10 116
41 28 22 9 100
aaMarital Status
Married Single Widow/Widower Divorced/Separated Total
41 52 5 18 116
35 45 4 16 100
Qualification
O’ Level ND/NCE HND/B.Sc. MBA/M.Sc. PhD Total
24 48 36 6 2 116
21 41 31 5 2 100
Work Experience
0 – 2 years 3 – 5 years 6 – 10 years Total
40 52 24 116
34 45 21 100
Designation
Chief Executive Officer Manager Pharmacist Laboratory Officer Front Desk Officer Secretary Cashiers Cleaners Total
8 10 12 14 34 8 18 12 116
7 9 10 12 29 7 16 10 100
Source: Researchers’ computation (2024)
From Table 4.1, 116 respondents’ staff of selected pharmaceutical firms in Owo, Ondo state were captured for gender, 44 representing (38%) were male while 72 representing (62%) were female. This indicates that staff of selected pharmaceutical firms in Owo, Ondo state are more dorminated with female. Out of 116 respondents captured for age, 48 staff representing (41%) ranged between 21-30 years, 32, (28%) of staff captured were between 31-40 years, 26, (22%) of staff ranged between 41-50 years while 10, (9%) were within the range of 51 years and above. This implies that most of the staff of these selected pharmaceutical firms are young and fit for responsibilities. Out of 116 respondents captured for marital status, 41 staff representing (35%) were married, 52, (45%) were single, 5, (4%) were stated as widows/widowers and 18, (16%) were recorded as divorced/separated. This implies that the majority of the staff working at these firms are single. 116 respondents recorded for qualification, 24 staff obtained Ordinary Certificate representing (21%), 48 of them obtained ND/NCE representing (41%), and 36, (31%) attained HND/B.Sc, 6, (5%) were having either MBA or MSc while 2, (2%) were PhD holders. This shows that these firms have more of ND/NCE certificates holders. For work experience, out of 116 respondents recorded, 40, (34%) have spent between 0 – 2 years, 52 (45%) have spent 3 – 5 years, 24 respondents representing (21%) have spent 6 – 10 years working experience in these firms. This indicates that they have more dedicated and competent staff who have been with them for long. Finally, 8 respondents representing (7%) are CEO of these selected firms, 10, (9%) recorded were managers, 12, (10%) are stationed pharmacist of these selected firms, 14, (12%) are laboratory staff, 34, (29%) are recorded as front desk officers of these selected firms, 8, (7%) are secretaries, 18, (16%) recorded are cashiers while 12, (10%) are cleaner of these firms. This implies that the selected pharmaceutical firms have more of front desk officers that other designated staff during the period under review.
The summary of descriptive statistics from the above table indicates that during the study under review, the average productivity (PRD) is 5.67 with a standard deviation of 1.42, a minimum of 2.64 and a maximum of 8.64, this implies that organizational performance is been determined based on how the top managers or decision makers made use of their essential resources effectively well in accomplishing their objectives in terms of quality and quantity during the period under review. Intuition strategic decision-making (ISDM) on average is 4.35, with a standard deviation of 2.21 and minimum of 6.31, maximum of 11.05 which shows that they were able to predict what might happen in the future by taking precaution steps to ascertain their expectations thereby nurturing ideas based on past experience in solving issues that may arise. Rational strategic decision-making (RSDM) on average is 4.121 with a standard deviation of 2.651, a minimum value of 10.51 and a maximum value of 11.44 this indicates that the decision makers were able to highlight issues thereby providing effective solutions by selecting the most important solutions to apply then evaluate the solution. Participatory strategic decision-making (PSDM) on average is 5.42 with a standard deviation of 2.55, a minimum value of 11.46 and a maximum value of 14.51 this shows that managers or decision makers allow employees to participate in providing ideas or solutions in solving issues concerning their firms. Thereby, providing opportunities in achieving agreed solutions, improvement in commitment and developing sense of ownership.
4.2.2 Correlation Analysis
Table 4.3: Pearson Correlation Matrix of the Dependent Variable and Independent Variable
Variable
PRD
ISDM
RSDM
PSDM
PRD
1.000
ISDM
.863**
1.000
RSDM
.681**
.641**
1.000
PSDM
.721**
.664**
.671**
1.000
**Correlation is significant at the 0.000 level (2-tailed). Sample size =116
Source: (SPSS Output Own Survey Result, 2024)
The table above present the relationship that exists between strategic decision-making practices variables (intuition strategic decision-making, rational strategic decision-making and participatory strategic decision-making as against organizational performance (productivity) of staff of selected pharmaceutical firms in Owo, Ondo state. It revealed that intuition strategic decision-making (ISDM) shows a positively and strongly relationship with productivity (PRD) at 0.863 representing 86%. Rational strategic decision-making (RSDM) shows a positive and average relationship with productivity (PRD) at 0.681 representing 68% while participatory strategic decision making (PSDM) indicates a positive and strong relationship with productivity (PRD) at 0.721 representing 72%. Therefore, the table presented shows that the variables tested were significant statistically at 0.000 which indicates that strategic decision-making has a direct relationship with organizational performance.
4.2.3 Regression Analysis
Table 4.4 Multiple Regression Results
Model Summary
Model
R
R Square
Adjusted R Square
Std. Error of the Estimate
1
.671a
.443
.316
1.84069
a. Predictors: (Constant), Productivity, Intuition Strategic Decision-Making, Rational Strategic Decision Making and Participatory Decision-Making
ANOVAa
Model
Sum of Squares
df
Mean Square
F
Sig.
1
Regression
254.640
63
68.361
14.132
.000b
Residual
1159.670
560
8.654
Total
1417.110
595
a. Dependent Variable: Productivity
b. Predictors: (Constant), Intuition Strategic Decision-Making, Rational Strategic Decision Making and Participatory Decision-Making
Coefficients
Model
Unstandardized Coefficients
Standardized Coefficients
t
Sig.
B
Std. Error
Beta
1
(Constant)
2.522
1.132
2.227
.000
Intuition Strategy Decision-Making
.236
.113
.246
2.088
.000
Rational Strategic Decision-Making
.150
.066
.163
2.272
.063
Participatory Strategic Decision-Making
.242
.057
.225
4.298
.001
a. Dependent Variable: Productivity
Source: Researcher’s Computation (2024).
Source: SPSS Version 26.0
4.2.4 Discussion of Findings
The study investigates the relationship between strategic decision-making practices and organizational performance of selected pharmaceutical firms in Owo, Ondo state. Three components of strategic decision-making practices were examined, intuition strategic decision-making, rational strategic decision-making and participatory strategic decision-making in relationship with the dependent variable organizational performance which was measured with productivity. From the findings intuition strategic decision-making (ISDM) shows a coeff-value of 0.236, t-value of 2.088 and P-value of 0.000 which is positive and significantly related to organizational performance. which implies that strategic managers or decision makers of the selected pharmaceutical firms under review were able to predict the issue that might arise in future thereby providing solutions based on their past experiences. This is related to the studies Al-Hashimi et al. (2021); Yilmaz and Ameen (2022); Sinnaiah et al. (2023) which indicates a positive and significant relationship with organizational performance. Rational strategic decision-making (RSDM) has a coeff-value of 0.150, t-value 2.272 and P-value 0.063 implying that RSDM is positively and insignificantly related to organizational performance during the study under review, which indicates that they were not able analyzed some of the possible solutions provided in solving their issues which might lead to these firms not actualizing their objectives if this option is opted for. The result of the findings did not aligns with the studies carried out by Al-Hashimi et al. (2021); Nauhaus et al. (2021); Asikhia and Mba (2021); Yilmaz and Ameen (2022); Sinnaiah et al. (2023) whose findings stated that rational strategic decision-making is positively and significantly related to organizational performance. Participatory strategic decision making (PSDM) has a coeff-value of 0.242, t-value of 4.298 and P-value of 0.001 which means that PSDM is positively and significantly related to organizational performance. This implies that the decision makers of these pharmaceutical firms provide opportunities for employees to participates in providing solutions or ideas thereby achieving agreed solutions, improvement of commitment and developing sense of ownership during the period under review. This study aligns with the studies carried Sev et al. (2018); Al-Hashimi et al. (2021); Asikhia and Mba (2021); Muzanenhamo and Chikosha (2022) which states that participatory strategic decision-making is positively and significantly related with organizational performance during the study under review.
From the study it reveals that strategic decision-making practices is positively and significantly related with organizational performance of selected pharmaceutical firms in Owo, Ondo state which aligns with the studies of Sev et al. (2018); Malel and Kemboi (2019); Aladesoun et al. (2020); Arend (2020); Al-Hashimi et al. (2021); Asikhia and Mba (2021); Muzanenhamo and Chikosha (2022); Bonnyventure et al. (2022); Yilmaz and Ameen (2022); Eromafunu et al. (2022); Sinnaiah et al. (2023); Gagan (2023) during the study under review.
5.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Conclusion
This study investigates the relationship between strategic decision-making practices and organizational performance of selected pharmaceutical firms in Owo, Ondo state. Three components of strategic decision-making practices examined which are intuition strategic decision-making, rational strategic decision-making and participatory strategic decision-making in determining the relationship with organizational performance (productivity). The results show that intuition strategic decision-making (ISDM) and participatory strategic decision-making (PSDM) were positively and significantly related with organizational performance while rational strategic decision-making (RSDM) was positively and insignificantly related with organizational performance during the study under review. Thus, the study revealed that strategic decision-making practices is positively and significantly related with organizational performance. Furthermore, it indicates that strategic managers or decision makers worked with these practices in determining and providing solutions of treating issues that they may or have encounter by adopting these practices in actualizing their aims and objectives during the study under review.
5.2 Recommendations
Based on the result above, the following recommendations are highlighted below:
That firms should encourage the use of these SDM practices such as intuition strategic decision-making, rational strategic decision-making and participatory strategic decision making as it enhances performance of both the employees and organization.
That firm’s decision makers should more conscious when adopting intuition strategic decision-making as it is based on steps in ascertaining expectations.
That decision makers should encourage the use participatory strategic decision-making as its one of the best method of motivating and providing opportunities of employees to showcase their abilities and capabilities in the organization for better commitment development of employee.
References
Abdullah, N. N., & Othman, M. B. (2019). Examining the effects of intellectual capital on the performance of Malaysian food and beverage small and medium-sized enterprises.
Technology, 10(2), 135-143.
Abubakar, A. M., Hamzah E., Maher Ahmad A., & Elçi A. (2019). Knowledge management, decision-making style and organizational performance. Journal of Innovation & Knowledge, 4(2), 104-114.
Acciarini, C., Brunetta, F., & Boccardelli, P. (2021). Cognitive biases and decision-making strategies in times of change: a systematic literature review. Management Decision, 59(3), 638-652.
Adam, A., Lindahl, G., & Leiringer, R. (2020). The dynamic capabilities of public construction clients in the healthcare sector. International Journal of Managing Projects in Business, 13(1), 153-171.
Adigbole, E., Osemene, O., & Fakile, O. (2019). Strategic management accounting and information for managerial decision making in selected manufacturing firms in Kwara State. Ilorin Journal of Management Sciences, 132-144.
Ahmen, A. Bwisa, H., & Otieno, R. (2014). Strategic decision making: process, models, and theories. Journal of Business Management and Strategy, 5(1), 78-104.
Aladesoun, C. B., Ayoade, A. A., Adegbola, M. M., Olaniyan, I. H., & Akinde, B. O. (2020). Role of strategic decision making on employees productivity. International Journal of Academic Information Systems Research, 4(8), 45-56.
Al-Hashimi, K., Weerakkody, V., Elbanna, S., & Schwarz, G. (2021). Strategic decision making and implementation in public organizations in the gulf cooperation council: the role of procedural rationality. Public Administration Review, 82(5), 905-919.
Al-Jaifi, H. A., & Al-Rassas, A. H. (2019). The financing decision puzzle of technology-based firms: evidence from Malaysia. International Journal of Business and Globalization, 22(2), 225-239.
Ali, M. S. (2019). Strategic thinking and strategic decisions-making. International Journal of Research in Social Sciences and Humanities, 9(3), 457-469. Retrieved from http://www.ijrssh.com
Alosani, M. S., Yusoff, R., & Al-Dhaafri, H. (2020). The effect of innovation and strategic planning on enhancing organizational performance of Dubai police. Innovation and Management Review, 17(1), 2-24.
Arend, R. J. (2020). Strategic decision-making under ambiguity: a new problem space and a proposed optimization approach. Business Research, 13, 1231-1251. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1007/s40685-020-00129-7
Asikhia, O. U., & Mba, C. N. (2021). The influence of strategic decision making on organizational performance. The International Journal of Business and Management, 9(1), 333-338. DOI No.: 10.24940/theijbm/2021/v9/i1/BM2101-050
Babatunde, A., & Sanusi, M. (2020). Impact of strategic planning on organizational performance in first bank Nigeria Plc, Osun state. Journal of Management and Social Sciences, 9(2), 23-30.
Barlach, L., & Plonski, G. A. (2021). The Einstellung effect, mental rigidity and decision-making in startup accelerators. Innovation and Management Review, 18(3), 276-291.
Battaglio, P., Paolo, B., Nicola, B., & Paola, C. (2019). Behavioral public administration Ad Fontes: a synthesis of research on bounded rationality, cognitive biases, and nudging in public organizations. Public Administration Review, 79(3), 304-320.
Bonnyventure S, N., Bwonya J., E., Owouri P. J., Mudany J O., & Ogutu M. (2022). The nexus b etween strategic decision-making, strategic communication and organizational performance: a critical literature review. Journal of Strategic Management, 6(3), 37-49. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.53819/81018102t2071
Bozhinov, V., Joecks, J., & Scharfenkamp, K. (2021). Gender spillovers from supervisory boards to management boards. Managerial and Decision Economics, 42(5), 1317-1331.
Camilleri, M. A. (2021). Using the balanced scorecard as a performance management tool in higher education. Management in Education, 35(1), 10-21.
Cohen, B. J. (1996). Is expected utility theory normative for medical decision-making ? Medical Decision-making , 16(1), 1-6.
Cohen, M. D., March, J. G., & Olsen, J. P. (1972). A garbage can model of organizational choice. Administrative Science Quarterly, 1, 1-25
Deslatte, A. (2020). Positivity and negativity dominance in citizen assessments of intergovernmental sustainability performance. Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, 30(4), 563-578.
Eisenhardt, K. M., & Zbaracki, M. J. (1992). Strategic decision-making. Strategic Management Journal, 13(S2), 17-37.
Elikwu, M. I., & Mohammed, M. N. (2019). Strategic decision making: effect on sustainable operational performance of small manufacturing businesses in Nigeria. Proceedings of the FMS 2019 International Conference on Managing Nigeria Economic Diversification: Lessons from other Climes, at the Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka, Anambra State, Nigeria, 13th-15th June, 2019, Scoa Heritage Publishers, pg. 875-889
Eromafunu, G. E., Akpoyibo, G., & Isaac, A. P. (2022). Effective strategic decision-making and strategic decision makers’ characteristics: the role of cognitive diversity and complexity. European Journal of Business and Innovation Research, 10(6), 18-33.
Ewah, S. (2018). Managing the dynamics of strategic decision making. International Journal of Social Sciences and Management Review, 1(1), 60-70.
Gagan, D. (2023). Strategic decision-making: a crucial skill for business managers. World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 20(3), 1639-1643.
George, B., Walker, R. M., & Monster, J. (2019). Does strategic planning improve organizational performance: a meta‐analysis. Public Administration Review, 79(6), 810- 819.
Hamidullah, M. F., Riccucci, N. M., & Lee, I. P. (2021). Citizens’ perceptions of closing the gender pay gap: an experimental study. Public Management Review, 23(7), 1032-1055.
Harappa, D. (2020). Strategic Decision Making: Harappa Learning Private Ltd.
Madume, W. C., Okereke, E. J., & Omojefe, G. O. (2024). Strategic planning and organizational performance of manufacturing firms in Rivers state, Nigeria. Asian Journal of Economics, Finance and Management, 6(1), 63-73.
Malel, S. K., & Kemboi, A. (2019). Influence of strategic decision making on performance of commercial banks in Eldoret Town, Kenya. Journal of Business and Management, 21(10), 58-66. DOI: 10.9790/487X-2110015866
Małecka, M. (2020). The normative decision theory in economics: a philosophy of science perspective: the case of the expected utility theory. Journal of Economic Methodology, 27(1), 36-50.
Muzanenhamo, L., & Chikosha, F. (2022). Strategic decision-making context and organizational performance in Bindura Nickel Mine. International Journal of Research Publication and Reviews, 3(10), 2304-2310.
Nagtegaal, R., Tummers, L., Noordegraaf, M., & Bekkers, V. (2020). Designing to debias: measuring and reducing public managers’ anchoring bias. Public Administration Review, 80(4), 565-576.
Nauhaus, S., Luger, J., & Raisch, S. (2021). Strategic decision making in the digital age: expert sentiment and corporate capital allocation. Journal of Management Studies, 58(7), 1934- 1961. doi:10.1111/joms.12742
Olsen, J. P. (2001). Garbage cans, new institutionalism, and the study of politics. American Political Science Review, 95(1), 191-198.
Omenazu, S. (2022). Strategic management, decision making and organizational performance: case study of construction industry Malaysia. Journal of Positive School Psychology, 6(3), 6100-6113. Retrieved from http://journalppw.com
Osazevbaru, H. O. (2021). Empirical examination of top management characteristics and strategic decision making. Trendy v podnikání – Business Trends, 11(2), 35-49. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.24132/jbt.2021.11.2.35_49
Williams, S. (2002). Making better business decisions: Understanding and improving critical thinking in problem-solving skills. London: Sage Publications Incorporation.
Sarraf, F., & Nejad, S. H. (2020). Improving performance evaluation based on balanced scorecard with grey relational analysis and data envelopment analysis approaches: case study in water and wastewater companies. Evaluation and Program Planning, 79, 101762
Sev, J. T., Faajir, F., & Emakwu, J. (2018). The impact of managerial decision making process
on organizational performance: a study of Nigerian breweries Plc and Guinness Breweries Nigeria Plc Lagos. Nigerian Journal of Management Sciences, 6(2), 20-35.
Simon, H. A. (1957). Models of man: social and rational. Mathematical essays on rational human behavior in a social setting: New York, John Wiley.
Sinnaiah, T., Adam, S., & Mahadi, B. (2023). A strategic management process: the role of decision-making style and organisational performance. Journal of Work-Applied Management, 15(1), 37-50. DOI 10.1108/JWAM-10-2022-0074
Taofeeq, D. M., & Adeleke, A. Q. (2019). Factor’s influencing contractors risk attitude in the Malaysian construction industry. Journal of Construction Business and Management, 3(2), 59-67.
Teasley III, C., & Harrell, S. W. (1996). A real garbage can decision model: Measuring the costs of politics with a computer assisted decision support software (DSS) program. Public Administration Quarterly, 479-492.
Tiernan, A., & Burke, T. (2002). A Load of Old Garbage: Applying Garbage–Can Theory to Contemporary Housing Policy. Australian Journal of public administration, 61(3), 86-97.
Tsai, F. M., Bui, T. D., Tseng, M. L., Wu, K. J., & Chiu, A. S. (2020). A performance assessment approach for integrated solid waste management using a sustainable balanced scorecard approach. Journal of Cleaner Production, 251, 119740.
Ur Rehman, S., Bhatti, A., & Chaudhry, N. I. (2019). Mediating effect of innovative culture and organizational learning between leadership styles at third-order and organizational performance in Malaysian SMEs. Journal of Global Entrepreneurship Research, 9(1), 1- 24.
Yılmaz, V. A., & Ameen, S. S. H. (2022). The role of strategic decision-making on organizational performance among managers of organizations in Iraq. Türk Kamu Yönetimi Dergisi, 3(2), 120-130.
Emmanuella, O., & Oluwasola, I. J. (2026). Leadership Styles and Employees’ Performance of Private Tertiary Institutions in Ibadan, Oyo State. International Journal of Research, 12(4), 559–588. https://doi.org/10.26643/ijr/2026/21
The study investigates the relationship between leadership style and employees’ performance of tertiary institutions in Ibadan, Oyo state. Four (4) variables of leadership style were examined, autocratic leadership style, democratic leadership style, transformational leadership style and transactional leadership style in relationship with the dependent variable employees’ performance. Cross sectional survey research design was used for this study with population of 585 using stratified random probability sampling technique and a sampling size of 238 while 205 respondent’s questionnaire were retrieved for analysis. From the result of the analysis carried out using Robust Ordinary Least Square Regression (ROLS), it was discovered that Democratic Leadership Style (DELS) and Transformational Leadership Style (TFLS) were positively and significantly related to Employees’ Performance (EP) while, Autocratic Leadership Style (AULS) shows a positive but insignificant relationship with Employees’ performance (EP) and Transactional Leadership Style (TSLS) shows a negative and insignificant relationship with Employees’ Performance (EP) of private tertiary institutions in Ibadan, Oyo state. The study concludes transformational leadership style should be practiced because of its creativity as well as performance and supportive nature also, knowledge can easily be shared amongst employees when organizations are using a transformational leadership style and thus promoting organizational culture and improving overall performance.
Adekunle (2020) posited that leadership is an important factor in every human activity and the realization of human aims and objectives but, Zamin and Hussin (2021) argue that the adopted leadership style and work climate impact commitment levels of the employees and influence job performance. Anyaegbunam and Anekwe (2021) posited that the success or failure of any organization depends on the leadership and the styles. Different leadership styles contribute to improving organizational performance and the capacity to overcome leadership challenges encountered in organizations. These styles include autocratic, bureaucratic, charismatic, laissez-faire, participative, transformational and transactional leadership styles which allow a leader to connect employees’ or organizational performance (Onwuegbuna, 2022). Leadership style is the most important factor for the development of any private or governmental organization or any educational institution. Thereby creating influence, and motivation to lead employees to achieve pre-determined goals and objectives (Wase & Jeyaprabha, 2022).
1.1 Statement of the Problem
In today’s business world, the flow of life depends mostly on the effectiveness of leadership styles such as survival of the organization, development as well as effective performance. Though, the present global economy is driven by profitability, innovation and performance (NawoseIng’ollan & Roussel, 2017). The Nigerian university system has been overwhelmed with numerous challenges which have seen the nation’s universities being ranked below 100th worldwide. Also, despite all these challenges, administrative and leadership direction have continually gathered these challenges (Yusuf-Habeeb & Yusuf, 2017). Currently, most organizations stress creating the workflow and team to improve efficiency in their organizational performance (Al-Malki & Wang, 2018).
According to Agarwal (2020) Leadership style is an important area as it enables employees to work effectively and efficiently in an organization and leadership styles adopted by managers in an organization promote organizational objectives and goals. Although, there are progress and understanding of leadership styles in Nigeria and especially the impacts of democratic leadership style on employees’ performance at tertiary institutions in Nigeria and how some tertiary institutions are yet to realize goals due to challenges related to leadership style (Idowu, 2019; Manza, et al., 2020; Onwuegbuna, 2022). Though the issue leading to this study may be listed as rising from unsuitable applications of leadership styles responsible for a poor working relationship that ties employees and management of tertiary institutions. And most studies have been carried out as regards leadership style and employees’ performance in developed countries but in Africa especially Nigeria studies carried out are mostly in the area of banking, and companies but research carried out in Nigeria on tertiary institutions is not much.
Though, most researchers have worked on leadership style and employees performance in Nigeria such as Ajibade, et al., (2017); Orji, et al. (2017); Kalu and Okpokwasili (2018); Ekpenyong (2020); Amussah, et al. (2020); Nwagbala, et al. (2021); Adegboyega and Awolusi (2021); Akpoyibo (2022) and Onwuegbuna (2022). But few researchers have been able to work on tertiary institutions in Nigeria recently such few scholars are Yusuf-Habeeb and Yusuf (2017); Odunlami, et al. (2017); Kalu and Okpokwasili (2018); Idowu (2019); Manza, et al. (2020); Onwuegbuna (2022). It was observed that these researchers mainly used transformational, transactional, charismatic, participatory, and laissez-faire as components of leadership style while autocratic, and democratic amongst others were not used in measuring leadership style and employees’ performance of tertiary institutions in Nigeria. Another aspect is the methodology where the questionnaire was not measured based on a multi-factor leadership questionnaire. Therefore, this study made use of this scaling factor by Bass (1995) and Yousef (2000) scale of measuring employee performance. Also, the study emphasized an understanding of leadership style the underlying factors, issues and influence on employees’ performance at private tertiary institutions in Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria.
1.2 Research Questions
The study investigates the following
What is the impact of autocratic leadership style on employees’ performance at private tertiary institutions in Ibadan, Oyo State?
Does democratic leadership style influence employees’ performance at private tertiary institutions in Ibadan, Oyo State?
What is the relationship between transformational leadership style and employees’ performance at private tertiary institutions in Ibadan, Oyo State?
How does transactional leadership style impact employees’ performance at private tertiary institutions in Ibadan, Oyo State?
1.3 Research Hypotheses
To provide answers to the research questions derived from this study, the following hypotheses were formulated:
H01: There is no significant impact of autocratic leadership style on employees’ performance at private tertiary institutions in Ibadan, Oyo State.
H02: There is no significant influence of democratic leadership style on employees’ performance at private tertiary institutions in Ibadan, Oyo State.
H03: Transformational leadership style has no relationship with employees’ performance at private tertiary institutions in Ibadan, Oyo State.
H04: There is no significant impact of transactional leadership style on employees’ performance at private tertiary institutions in Ibadan, Oyo State.
1.4 Scope of the Study
The study investigated the relationship between leadership styles and employees’ performance at private tertiary institutions in Ibadan, Oyo State. The choice of Lead City University, Ibadan was conceived because of the closeness of the area to the researcher and the fact that it is one of the largest private universities in Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria. The population was based on the academic and non-academic staff of the school. The study used four (4) leadership style components (autocratic, democratic, transformational and transactional leadership styles) which serve as the independent variables and described their impact on employees’ performance which is the dependent variable. The study used a stratified random probability sampling technique in selecting the sampling size of the population while Robust Ordinary Least Square regression analysis was carried out in determining the significance level of each variable and the timeframe for the study was September 2023 to January, 2024.
2.0 Literature Review
2.1 Employees’ Performance
Employee performance is important for an organization as a measure of success in running any business, because the higher the performance, the higher the chance to achieve organizational goals (Pradana, et al., 2020). Though the company expects employees to have good performance given the importance of employee performance, it can be said that performance improvement is one of the important aspects of human resource management for the company which can be carried out if employees have good quality work so that employees can work competently and can complete work on time according to predetermined standards (Fakhri, et al., 2020). Organizations as well need to pay massive attention to their employees and their welfare, because happy and motivated employees are the sole channel through which organizations can become successful organization (Insan & Masmarulan, 2021). Furthermore, employee performance is focused on examining how well an individual employee performs at their job over a given period. Employee performance is also a critical review of the jobs that have been done and completed by an employee over some time by analyzing how the job is done either promptly or otherwise (Alheet, et al., 2021; Amegayibor, 2021).
Belete (2020) argued that leadership styles refer to the pattern of leaders’ behaviour that characterize a given leader or various patterns of behaviour favoured by the leader during the process of directing and influencing employees (Efendi & Graduate, 2020; Amussah, 2020). It is a style that invites and directs followers or employees to achieve common goals by creating a work environment that is more authoritative, controlled, effective and directed (Abadiyah, et al., 2020). Bastari, et al. (2020) stated that a leader’s influence is known to make improvements to employees in achieving company goals. while, leadership style is associated with the actions of a leader when leading and providing guidance (Rohman et al., 2020). Through leadership style, an effort can be formed to influence or direct employees or followers by mobilizing available human and material resources effectively and efficiently throughout the management process to achieve the desired objectives or goals (Purnomo et al., 2020). Leadership style in an organization is one of the factors that play a significant role in enhancing the interest and commitment of employees in the organization (Zamin & Hussin, 2021; Clinton & Ogbor, 2021). Leadership styles determine the level of employee participation in decision-making and the way an organization is run administratively (Akpa, et al., 2021; Wase & Jeyaprabha, 2022). For this study, autocratic, democratic, transformational and transactional leadership styles are used in measuring leadership style.
2.1.3 Autocratic Leadership Style
This type of leadership is often best used in situations where crisis arises when decisions must be made quickly and without dissent. It is valuable when organizations face a crisis or when an urgent problem arises that requires immediate attention (Al-Khajeh, 2018). This kind of style sometimes irreparably hinders organizational growth because there is a tendency to force their direct reports to perform tasks in a constricted manner (Belete, 2020). Also, in this leadership style, there is no collective vision and slight motivation among leaders and employees. Also, commitment, innovation and creativity are eliminated (Amussah, 2020; Wase & Jeyaprabha, 2022). Thus, the autocratic leadership style is a classical leadership approach, and the corporate equivalent of dictatorship or tyranny and which is marked by the leader having complete authority and the subordinates obeying the instructions of the leader without questioning and without receiving an explanation or rationale for such instructions (Khudhair, et al., 2022).
2.1.4 Democratic Leadership Style
According to Priarso, et al. (2018) in a democratic leadership style, leaders dynamically encourage and stimulate group decisions and group discussions. Some characteristics of the democratic leadership style are the fact that group members are encouraged to share ideas and opinions, even if the leader retains the final say over decisions, members of the group feel more engaged in the process and innovative ideas are welcome and encouraged as well as rewarded. And because it yields a lot of benefits, employees are encouraged to share their thoughts which can lead to better ideas and more innovative solutions to issues (Sadia & Aman, 2018). This type of leadership style is the opposite of the autocratic leadership style and in this leadership style, the leaders are generally more people-oriented and the feelings of their subordinates or employees (Derese, 2020). Democratic leadership style is a very open and collegial style of running a team and researchers have found that this learning style is usually one of the most effective and leads to higher performance (Belete, 2020; Saputra, & Mahaputra, 2022).
2.1.5 Transformational Leadership Style
Transformational leadership style according to Idowu (2019) is the process of influencing major changes in attitudes and assumptions of organizational members and building commitment to the organization’s mission or objectives (Eliyana, et al., 2019). Transformational leaders or managers do encourage their subordinates or employees to view the problem from a new point of view, provide support and encouragement communicate vision, and stimulate emotions and identification (Bastari, et al., 2020; Derese, 2020).
Amussah (2020) stated that transformational leaders motivate their followers in such a way that it goes beyond the usual rewards and monetary exchanges (Alheet, 2021; Patzelt, et al., 2021; Udin, 2021; Baig, et al., 2021). Osano (2022) opined that the importance of this leadership style, leaders in an organizational workplace cannot be over-emphasized as this set of leaders have the capacity and needed skills to solve problems, transform the organization and take the organization to greater heights to achieve better results for the organization (Dey et al., 2022). Thus, the transformational leadership style creates valuable and positive change in the followers with the end goal of developing followers into leaders (Wase & Jeyaprabha, 2022; Weber, et al., 2022).
2.1.6 Transactional Leadership Style
The transactional leadership styleentails the interchange process that results in the compliance of employees or subordinates. Though the leader made the request, it is unlikely to inspire excitement for or devotion to the mission’s goal and concentrates on having internal players complete the necessary duties to enter the organization’s desired outcomes (Idowu, 2019). Transactional leaders exhibit behaviours related to both corrective and constructive aspects where the constructive behaviour style is labelled contingent reward and the corrective style is labelled management by exception (Chang, 2019). Managers in this leadership style fulfil their obligations solely by creating good working conditions, without paying attention to meeting objectives or goals (Daniels et. al., 2019). Transactional leader work according to the principle of good performance and the employee will receive a sufficient reward (Aun, et al., 2019). The transactional leadership style involves an exchange relationship between managers and employees in the direction of establishing goals thereby clarifying the role and task required (Udovita, 2020). Transactional leaders focus mainly on maintaining the status quo and they are oriented to enhance the present way of doing things (Wahyuni, et al., 2020). Therefore, the transactional leadership style is the process whereby leaders can entice subordinates to perform and thereby achieve desired outcomes by promising rewards and benefits for the accomplishments of tasks and administering punishments when the task is not well accomplished (Kabiru & Bula, 2020; Holbert, et al., 2021).
AUTOCRATIC LEADERSHIP STYLE
DEMOCRATIC LEADERSHIP STYLE
TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP STYLE
TRANSACTIONAL LEADERSHIP STYLE
EMPLOYEES’ PERFORMANCE
LEADERSHIP STYLE
2.4 Conceptual Framework
Figure 2.1: Conceptual Framework of the Study
(Researchers Computation, 2024)
Based on the review of available literature, a conceptual framework is shown in Figure 2.1. The focus of the framework is to investigate the relationship between leadership style and employees’ performance. Where leadership style is the independent variable which is measured with autocratic leadership style, democratic leadership style, transformational leadership style and transactional leadership style while the dependent variable is employees’ performance.
2.5 Theoretical Review
2.5.1 Transformational Leadership Theory
This theory (also known as relationship theory) focuses on the connections formed between leaders and followers (Bass & Avolio, 2000). This theory is premised on a leadership style that inspires followers to improve performance by focusing on the wants and needs of the organization as well as the personal concerns of its members (Munir & Aboidullah, 2018). Leadership effectiveness under this theory is dependent on individualized consideration, intellectual stimulation, inspirational motivation and idealized influence (Ewell, 2018; Getachew & Erhua, 2018). Idealized influence refers to when transformational leaders act as role models to their subordinates such that the followers identify themselves with a high level of morale and enthusiasm to fulfil the demands of leader whom they respect, admire and trust (Bass & Avolio, 2000). Leaders using this approach can motivate others, to want to change, improve and be led (Hall, 2002; Ewell, 2018) and possess high ethical and moral standards (Getachew & Erhua, 2018),
2.5.2 Path-Goal Theory
The path-goal theory was developed by Martin Evans in his 1970 paper, “The Effects of Supervisory Behaviour on the Path-Goal Relationship” and was refined by Robert House in his 1971 paper, “A Path-Goal Theory of Leader Effectiveness”. The theory is based on specifying a leader’s style or behaviour that best fits the employee and work environment to achieve a goal (Malik, 2013). Also, this theory can be explained as a leadership style whereby a leader exhibits certain contextual behaviours that align the follower’s goals with the organization’s goals and direct the followers to choose the best paths to achieve these goals (Malik, 2013). The goal of this leadership style is the improvement of employee productivity by focusing on employee satisfaction and motivation (House, 2015). The Path-Goal leadership theory is based on the Vroom expectancy theory in which an individual will act in a certain way based on the expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual (Ghiasi & Limoni, 2015). The Path-Goal theory posits that leaders may not only use varying behaviours with different subordinates but might use different behaviours with the same subordinates in different situations (Rego et al., 2012; Malik, 2013).
In relating this theory with leadership style, leaders that lead utilizing a Path-Goal leadership style reward and encourage their followers for goal achievement and also provide their followers with the necessary direction, clarity and assistance with the elimination of obstacles for them to attain their goals (Malik, 2013). House (2015) identified four leadership styles namely directive, supportive, participative and achievement-orientated leadership (Ewell, 2018). The directive leader is a type of leader that schedules the tasks of the followers and directive leaders also provide guidance to the followers and let them know exactly what is expected from them (Rohman et al., 2018). Achievement-oriented leaders expect their followers to perform at their highest level by setting goals for them to reach (House, 2015). Supportive leaders aim to show concern for the needs of the followers by employing friendly interaction and participative leaders use collective decision-making by consulting the followers and using their suggestions before making any decisions (Priyashantha, 2016). The theory posits that leaders may use different behaviours with subordinates in a similar situation and or employ varying behaviours with the same subordinate in different situations and this theory suggests that depending upon subordinates, and situations, different leadership behaviours will increase acceptance of leader by subordinates, level of satisfaction and motivation to improved performance (Ghiasi & Limoni, 2015).
2.6 Empirical Review
Clinton and Ogbor (2021) examined the impact of a strategic leadership approach on organizational performance. The findings reveal that democratic and laissez-faire leadership styles have a significant relationship with the performances of staff while the autocratic leadership style has no significant relationship with the performances of staff of GTB in Asaba. Anyaegbunam and Anekwe (2021) examined the effects of leadership styles on employee performance with particular reference to Life Breweries Plc, Onitsha. The study revealed among others that there is a positive and significant relationship between the leadership style in the organization and employees’ performance. Nwagbala, et al. (2021) examined the relationship that exists between transformational leadership style and participatory leadership style on employee performance in Stanel World, Awka, Anambra State. The findings were that there is a significant relationship between leadership style and employee performance by showing a positive relationship between participative leadership style and employee while showing a positive relationship between transformational leadership style and job satisfaction. Adegboye and Awolusi (2021) examined the effect of leadership style on employee productivity in the Nigerian oil and gas industry using Chevron Nigeria Limited as a case study. Results of the descriptive and regression analysis indicate that the autocratic leadership style is the most predominant in the Nigerian Oil and Gas followed by laissez-faire, bureaucratic, transactional, democratic and charismatic leadership styles. Udin (2021) provides new insights into uncovering the black box related to the relationship between transformational leadership and employee performance. Using a literature review from various previous studies in the last five years (2017-2021), the result of this study justifies that transformational leadership, in various organizational settings and sizes, has a significant effect on employee performance. Iman, et al. (2021) explained the influence of leadership and work motivation on employee performance at private universities within the province of Southeast Sulawesi which is mediated by knowledge-sharing behaviour. A survey approach and explanatory research method were used. The results obtained showed that leadership has a positive and significant effect on employee performance and knowledge-sharing behaviour. Negash, (2021) examined the effect of leadership styles such as transformational, transactional, laissez-faire, democratic and autocratic on employees’ performance at Debre Berhan wood processing PLC. Descriptive and explanatory research designs were applied to cross-sectional data collected from 202 sample respondents. Results revealed that transformational leadership exerted the highest positive influence on employee performance followed by democratic, transactional, and laissez-faire leadership styles respectively, while autocratic leadership style had a negative significant effect on employee performance. Amegayibor (2021) explored the association between leadership styles and employee performance in a family-owned manufacturing business. A quantitative approach and a correlational design were adopted with a census technique of sampling 400 employees, an interview schedule, multiple linear regression, and SPSS 16.0 version were carried out for analysis. The results revealed that autocratic, charismatic, and paternalistic leadership styles influence employees’ performance. Also, autocratic, charismatic and visionary leadership styles influence error reduction. Furthermore, paternalistic and visionary leadership styles influence employees’ quality of work. Osano (2022) investigated the influence of leadership style on employee performance in Kenya. A descriptive design and survey design were adopted for the study. The result indicated that the transformational leadership style influences employee performance, the transactional leadership style showed that it has a positive and significant influence on employee performance, the participatory leadership style influences employee performance and the autocratic leadership style influences employee performance. Wase and Jeyaprabha (2022) assessed the practices of leadership styles that influence employees’ job performance. The results of the research were mixed which revealed positive results and negative results. The result of the analysis carried out showed that transformational and servant leadership behaviours positively and significantly influence employees’ performance at the workplace. While autocratic and transactional leadership behaviours are not significant in influencing employees’ performance. Khudhair, et al. (2022) identified the impact of leadership style on employee performance using a sample size of 100 from one private organization in Selangor, Malaysia conducted with a convenience sampling technique. From the result, regression coefficient analysis shows that there is a significant and positive impact of democratic and laissez-faire leadership styles on employee performance. While autocratic leadership style shows a negative significant impact on employee performance. Imam and Sopiah (2022) explored a systematic literature review on the influence of leadership style on employee performance. The results of the study revealed that the leadership style of a leader is to solve the problem by approaching each employee to build an emotional approach so that the relationship between leaders and employees can run well.
Onwuegbuna (2022) examined the impact of the democratic leadership style on employees’
performance in selected private universities in Ota, Ogun State, Nigeria. The findings show that the democratic leadership style has an impact on employees’ performance in Nigerian private universities. Akpoyibo (2022) investigated leadership style and employees’ performance in the Nigerian banking industry with particular reference to GTB Plc. Survey design was carried out using both primary and secondary sources. It was resulted that the staff of GTB are familiar with different leadership styles of which several are practiced by management towards employees and that the leadership styles practiced at GTB include the participatory style, democratic as well as the charismatic leadership style that the team leaders GTB create a conducive work environment which that helps employees do their jobs also, that the management of GTB provides sufficient assistance to employees who go through hard times and that the type of leadership style adopted by top management at GTB motivates employees in performing their jobs.
2.7 Research Gap
Most studies have been carried out as regards leadership style and employees’ performance in developed countries but in Africa especially Nigeria studies carried out are mostly in the area of banking, and manufacturing companies but research carried out in Nigeria on tertiary institutions is not much. Though, most researchers have worked on leadership style and employees performance in Nigeria such as Ajibade, et al. (2017); Orji, et al. (2017); Kalu and Okpokwasili (2018); Ekpenyong (2020); Amusa, et al. (2020); Nwagbala, et al. (2021); Adegboyega and Awolusi (2021); Akpoyibo (2022) and Onwuegbuna (2022). But few researchers have been able to work on tertiary institutions in Nigeria recently such few scholars are Yusuf-Habeeb and Yusuf (2017); Odunlami, et al. (2017); Kalu and Okpokwasili (2018); Idowu (2019); Manza, et al. (2020); Onwuegbuna (2022). It was observed that these researchers mainly used transformational, transactional, charismatic, participatory, and laissez-faire as components of leadership style while autocratic, and democratic amongst others were not used in measuring leadership style and employees’ performance of tertiary institutions in Nigeria. Another aspect is the methodology where the questionnaire was not measured based on a multi-factor leadership questionnaire. Therefore, this study made use of this scaling factor by Bass (1995) and Yousef (2000) scale of measuring employee performance. Also, the study emphasized an understanding of leadership style the underlying factors, issues and influence on employees’ performance at tertiary institutions in Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria.
3.0 METHODOLOGY
This study makes use of a cross-sectional survey research design to investigate the relationship between leadership style and employees’ performance at private tertiary institutions in Ibadan, Oyo state. The main reason for this survey was to gather the proper information to provide insight into leadership style and employees’ performance of private tertiary institutions in Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria. This study focused on Lead City University because it is one of the largest, most populated and most well-known private universities in Ibadan amongst other private universities. The population of this study consists of a staff of Lead City University in Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria. The total population for this study is 585 (five hundred and eighty-five). Table 3.1 illustrates the selected outcome alongside the number of staff of both academic and non-academic staff of the school.
3.1: Distribution of staff of selected branches
S/N
ITEM
NUMBER OF STAFF
1
Academic Staff
347
2
Non-Academic Staff
238
TOTAL
585
Source: Field Survey, 2023
The sample size for this study was approximately 238 using the Slovin’s formula which is illustrated below.
3.1 Reliability of Instrument
Table 1: Alpha Test for Reliability, Consistency and Validation
The table above shows Cronbach Alpha test for reliability, consistency and validity of the study instrument which is the questionnaire. The minimum acceptable value for Cronbach’s alpha is 0.50; Below this value the internal consistency of the common range is low. Meanwhile, the maximum expected value is 0.90; Above this value is perceived as redundancy or duplication. Alpha values between 0.55 and 0.90 is usually preferred. In this study, the Cronbach Alpha test results as seen from the table above shows a value of 0.61 which makes the instrument for this study reliable and valid.
3.2 Method of Data Analysis
The method of data analysis was of two parts. The first part consists of the frequencies, means and percentages which were used to describe the characteristics of the sample. The second part was the regression analysis used to infer meaning about the entire population from the sample findings. Also, analysis of variances, model summaries and regression coefficients were used to describe the characteristics of the population of study while STATA version 14 and Microsoft Excel were used as the principal data analysis tools.
3.3 Model of Specification
This comprises the elements used in measuring the independent variable (Leadership Style) which are Autocratic Leadership Style (AULS), Democratic Leadership Style (DELS), Transformational Leadership Style (TFLS) and Transactional Leadership Style (TSLS) on the dependent variable which is employees’ performance.
The model for the study is functionally stated below:
β1 – β3 > 0 = Coefficient of AULS, DELS, TFLS and TSLS
Ɛⅈ = Error term
ⅈ = Samples of Lead City University Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria.
The a priori expectation for this study is stated:
β1, β2, β3, β4 > 0, the reason is that the variables used here are a process dimension
4.0 Data Presentation and Analysis
Particularly, a total of 240 questionnaire were sent out to the respondents for data generation as shown in the table below:
Table 1: Analysis of Questionnaire
Questionnaires
Copies
Percentage
Retrieved
205
85%
Un-retrieved
35
15%
Sent copies
240
100%
Source: Author Compilation from field work, 2024
The result from the analysis of the retrieved questionnaire shows that out of the 240 questionnaire that were sent, 205 of them were retrieved. This represented 85% of the total questionnaire sent and this was the number that was used for analysis in the subsequent sections that will follow. 35 of the questionnaires could not be retrieved, representing 15% which is not significant.
4.1 Data Analysis
Correlation Analysis
In examining the association among the variables, we employed the Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficient (correlation matrix), and the results are presented in the table below.
Table 4.7: Correlation analysis
| ep auls dels tfls tsls
————-+———————————————
ep | 1.0000
auls | 0.1418 1.0000
dels | 0.5966 0.0306 1.0000
tfls | 0.6561 0.2370 0.4046 1.0000
tsls | -0.0431 -0.0089 -0.0701 0.0144 1.0000
Author’s computation (2024)
In the case of the correlation between leadership styles and employee performance, the above results show that there exists a positive and weak association between autocratic leadership style and employee performance (0.1418). There exists a positive and moderate association between democratic leadership style and employee performance (0.5966). There exists a positive and high association between transformative leadership style and employee performance (0.6561). There exists a negative and weak association between transactional leadership style and employee performance (-0.0431). However, to test our hypotheses a regression results will be needed since correlation test does not capture cause-effect relationship.
Regression Analysis
Particularly, to examine the cause-effect relationships between the dependent variables and independent variables as well as to test the formulated hypotheses, we used a robust regression analysis since our results reveal the presence of heteroskedasticity. The robust regression and the OLS results obtained is presented and discussed below.
Table 2: Regression Result
EP Model(OLS)
EP Model(Robust Regression)
CON
0.42{0.549}
0.86{0.239}
AULS
0.10{0.452}
0.18{0.216}
DELS
0.44{0.000} ***
0.40{0.000} ***
TFLS
0.50{0.000} ***
0.44{0.000} ***
TSLS
-0.01{0.945}
-0.09{0.536}
F-statistics Wald Statistics
20.32 (0.00) ***
14.95 (0.00) ***
R- Squared
0.53
0.53
VIF Test
1.14
Heteroscedasticity Test
5.62 (0.0177) **
Note: (1) bracket {} are p-values
(2) **, ***, implies statistical significance at 5% and 1% levels respectively
In the table above, we observed from the OLS pooled regression that the R-squared value of 0.53 shows that about 53% of the systematic variations in employee performance for the period of interest was jointly explained by the independent variables in the model. This implies that employee performance cannot be 100 percent explained by the leadership style variables. The unexplained part of employee performance can be attributed to the exclusion of other independent variables that can impact on employee performance but were excluded because they are outside the scope of this study. However, there are captured in the error term. The F-statistic value of 20.32 and its associated P-value of 0.00 shows that the OLS regression model on the overall is statistically significant at 1% level, this means that the regression model is valid and can be used for statistical inference.
Test of Hypotheses
Following the above, the discussion of the robust regression results became imperative in testing our hypotheses. The below is a specific analysis for each of the independent variables using the robust regression for the models.
Hypotheses 1: There is no significant impact of autocratic leadership style on employees’ performance at private tertiary institutions in Ibadan, Oyo State.
The results obtained from the robust regression reveals that the variable of autocratic leadership {0.18 (0.216)} as an independent variable to employee performance appears to have a positive insignificant impact on employee performance. This therefore means we should accept the null hypothesis and reject the alternate hypothesis. Hence, there is no significant impact of autocratic leadership style on employees’ performance at private tertiary institutions in Ibadan, Oyo State. This implies that autocratic leadership style insignificantly improves employees’ performance at private tertiary institutions in Ibadan, Oyo State during the period under study.
Hypotheses 2: There is no significant influence of democratic leadership style on employees’ performance at private tertiary institutions in Ibadan, Oyo State.
The results obtained from the robust regression reveals that the variable of democratic leadership style {0.40 (0.000)} as an independent variable to employee performance appears to have a positive significant influence on employee performance. This therefore means we should reject the null hypothesis and accept the alternate hypothesis. Hence, there is no significant influence of democratic leadership style on employees’ performance at private tertiary institutions in Ibadan, Oyo state. This implies that democratic leadership style significantly improves employees’ performance at private tertiary institutions in Ibadan, Oyo state during the period under study.
Hypotheses 3: Transformational leadership style has no relationship with employees’ performance at private tertiary institutions in Ibadan, Oyo State.
The results obtained from the robust regression reveals that the variable of transformational leadership style {0.44 (0.000)} as an independent variable to employee performance appears to have a positive significant impact on employee performance. This therefore means we should reject the null hypothesis and accept the alternate hypothesis. Hence, transformational leadership style has no relationship with employees’ performance at private tertiary institutions in Ibadan, Oyo State. This implies that transformational leadership style significantly improves employees’ performance at private tertiary institutions in Ibadan, Oyo State during the period under study.
Hypotheses 4: There is no significant impact of transactional leadership style on employees’ performance at private tertiary institutions in Ibadan, Oyo State.
The results obtained from the robust regression reveals that the variable of transactional leadership style {-0.09 (0.536)} as an independent variable to employee performance appears to have a negative insignificant effect on employee performance. This therefore means we should accept the null hypothesis and reject the alternate hypothesis. Hence, there is no significant relationship of transactional leadership style on employees’ performance at private tertiary institutions in Ibadan, Oyo State. This implies that transactional leadership style insignificantly decreases employees’ performance at private tertiary institutions in Ibadan, Oyo State during the period under study.
5.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The managing style of a leader is essential to the success of teamwork which leads to organizational growth. In many cases, leaders are not aware of the essential wants and needs of their employees or subordinates, or they fail to understand the difference between the individuals involved in the team. A successful organization is a reflection of excellent leadership. Hence, we investigate the relationship between leadership styles on employees’ performance in private tertiary institutions in Ibadan, Oyo State. Based on the findings of the study, we conclude that autocratic leadership style insignificantly improves employees’ performance at private tertiary institutions in Ibadan, Oyo State during the period under study. However, we also conclude that democratic leadership and transformation leadership style significantly improves employees’ performance at private tertiary institutions in Ibadan, Oyo State during the period under study. Finally, we conclude that transactional leadership style insignificantly decreases employees’ performance at private tertiary institutions in Ibadan, Oyo State during the period under study.
5.3 Recommendations
This study has sufficiently established different positions on the impact of leadership styles on employees’ performance in private tertiary institutions in Ibadan, Oyo state. Based on the findings of this study, we carefully recommend that:
Transformational leaders as well as democratic set of leaders have the capacity and needed skills to solve problems, transform the organization and take the organization to greater heights to achieve better results for the organization.
REFERENCES
Abadiyah, R., Eliyana, A., & Sridadi, A. R. (2020). Motivation, leadership, supply chain management toward employee green behavior with organizational culture as a mediator variable. International Journal of Supply Chain Management, 9(3), 981-989.
Adegboye, O., & Awolusi, O. D. (2021). The effect of leadership styles on employee’s productivity in the Nigerian Oil and Gas Industry. Information Management and Business Review, 13(1), 47-64.
Adekunle, O. A. (2020) The effects of leadership styles on organizational behavior and performance in some selected organizations in Nigeria. Journal of Public Affairs, 7(3), 45-57.
Ajibade, O. E., Ajayi, T. O., & Shobowale, O. (2017). Leadership style and employees’ performance in Nigerian Federal Polytechnics: a study of Federal Polytechnic, Ilaro, Ogun State. Journal of Public Administration, Finance and Law, 11, 17-30.
Akpa, V. O., Asikhia, O. U. & Okusanya, A. O. (2021). Leadership styles and organisational performance in Nigeria: qualitative perspective. International Journal of Engineering and Management Research, 11(1), 46-53.
Akpoyibo, A. G. (2022). Leadership style and employee performance in Guaranty Trust Bank Plc, Abraka, Delta State, Nigeria. International Journal of Business and Law Research, 10(4), 47-56.
Alheet, A., Adwan, A., Areiqat, A., Zamil, A., & Saleh, M. (2021). The effect of leadership styles on employees’ innovative work behavior. Management Science Letters, 11(1), 239-246.
Al Khajeh, E. H. (2018). Impact of leadership styles on organizational performance. Journal of Human Resources Management Research, 2(1) 20-26.
Amussah, A. (2020). Leadership styles and its impact on employee performance. (Published Master’s Thesis), Graduate School of Social Sciences Business Administration Program, Near East University, Nicosia, Cyprus.
Amegayibor, G. K. (2021). Leadership styles and employees’ performance: a case of family- owned manufacturing company, Cape Coast. International Journal of Financial, Accounting, and Management, 3(2), 149-164.
Anyaegbunam, C. E., & Anekwe, E. A. (2021). Investigate the effect of leadership style on employee’s performance. International Academy Journal of Management, Marketing and Entrepreneurial Studies, 8(2), 175-184. Retrieved from: asasubmitpaper@gmail.com
Aun, I. I., Olota, O. O., Ajayi, O., & Sanusi, S. I. (2019). Effect of leadership styles on employees’ performance: a study of seven-up Plc. Global Management Review, 13(1), 10-23. Doi:10.34155/GMR.19.1301.02
Baig, S. A., Iqbal, S., Abrar, M., Baig, I. A., Amjad, F., Zia-ur-Rehman, M., & Awan, M. U. (2021). Impact of leadership styles on employees’ performance with moderating role of positive psychological capital. Total Quality Management and Business Excellence, 32(9-10), 1085-1105.
Bass, B. M., & Avolio, B. J. (2000). MLQ Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire. Redwood City: Mind Garden.
Bastari, A., Eliyana, A., & Wijayanti, T. (2020). Effects of transformational leadership styles on job performance with job motivation as mediation: a study in a state-owned enterprise. Management Science Letters, 10(12), 2883-2888.
Belete, J. (2020). The effects of leadership style on employee’s performance in case of Kaffa Zone Government Offices, South West Ethiopia. International Journal of Engineering Science and Computing, 10(7), 26756-26773.
Clinton, E., & Ogbor, J. O. (2021). Strategic leadership approach and employee performance in the banking sector in Nigeria. International Journal of Economic Perspectives, 15(1), 265-284. Retrieved from https://ijeponline.org/index.php/journal/article/view/46
Chang, H. (2019). Does leadership matter: study of leadership style, job performance and job satisfaction. Business Economics, 11(2), 1-28. doi: 10.5937/poseko12-16191
Derese, S. (2020). The impact of leadership style on employee performance: the case of EPUC. International Journal of Academic Multidisciplinary Research, 4(8), 49-69.
Dey, M., Bhattacharjee, S., Mahmood, M., Uddin, M. A., & Biswas, S. R. (2022). Ethical leadership for better sustainable performance: the role of employee values, ethical behavior and climate. Journal of Net Production, 337(1), 130527. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.130527
Efendi, M. N. R. S. R., & Graduate. (2020). The performance of employees influenced by leadership styles and compensation. International Journal of Multicultural and Multireligious Understanding, 292-299.
Ekpenyong, J. N. (2020). The impact of leadership style on employees performance in a business organization: a case study of Guarantee Trust Bank Plc, Abuja. (Master’s Thesis), Department of Human Resource Management, National College of Ireland, Ireland.
Ewell, J. (2018). Revitalizing a student organization by applying transformational leadership. Journal of Leadership Education, 17(3), 208-218.
Fakhri, M., Pradana, M., Syarifuddin, S., & Suhendra, Y. (2020). Leadership style and its impact on employee performance at Indonesian national electricity company. The Open Psychology Journal, 13(1), 321-325.
Getachew, D. S., & Erhua, Z. (2018). The influences of transformational leadership on collective efficacy: the moderating role of perceived organizational support. International Journal of Organizational Innovation, 10(4), 7-15.
Ghiasi, M., & Limoni, S. T. 2015. Investigating the factors affecting the level of job satisfaction among the librarians at central library of Islamic Azad University of District 3. Library Philosophy and Practice, 1350, 1-3.
Holbert, J., Madhakomala, R., Saparuddin, S., & Timotius, E. (2021). The influence of leadership styles on employees’ job satisfaction in public sector organizations in Indonesia. Management Science Letters, 11(4), 1393-1398.
House, R. J. (1971). A path-goal theory of leader effectiveness. Journal of Administrative Science Quarterly, 16(1), 321-338.
House, J. (2015). Leadership Styles. Encyclopedia of Educational Leadership and Administration. California: Sage Publications.
Idowu, S. A. (2019). Impact of leadership styles on employees’ work performance in some south-western Nigerian private universities. Economics Insights-Trends and Challenges. 8(4), 27-46.
Imam, S., & Sopiah, A. (2022). The influence of leadership style on employee performance: systematic literature review. International Journal for Multidisciplinary Research, 4(6), 1-13.
Iman, N., Nurwati, Hatani, L., & Juharsah. (2021). Effect of leadership and work motivation on employee performance through knowledge sharing behavior. Archives of Business Research, 9(11), 34-50.
Insan, A., & Masmarulan, R. (2021). Effects of leader-member exchange and organizational culture on work engagement and employee performance. Management Science Letters, 11(3), 879-886.
Kabiru G. K., & Bula, H. (2020). Influence of transactional leadership style on employee performance at selected commercial banks in Nairobi city county, Kenya. International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science, 4(9), 520-524.
Kalu, D. C., & Okpokwasili, N. P. (2018). Impact of autocratic leadership style on job performance of subordinates in academic libraries in Port-Harcour, Rivers state, Nigeria. International Journal of Research – Granthaalayah, 6(10), 212-220. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.1486215.
Malik, S. H. (2013). Relationship between leader behaviors and employees’ job satisfaction: a path-goal approach. Pakistan Journal of Commerce & Social Sciences, 7(1), 209- 222.
Mamza, I. Y., Abdullahi, S., & Usman, M. (2020). Effect of leadership styles on employees’ performance in Nigeria Institute for Trypanosomiasis Research, Kaduna State. African Scholar Journal of Management Science and Entrepreneurship, 18(7), 23-44.
Munir, F., & Aboidullah M. (2018). Gender differences in transformational leadership behaviors of school principals and teachers’ academic effectiveness. Bulletin of Education & Research, 40(1), 99-113.
NawoseIng’ollan, D., & Roussel, J. (2017). Influence of leadership styles on employees’ performance: a study of Turkana County, Kenya. International Journal of Business and Social Science, 8(7), 82-98.
Negash, B. W. (2021). Effect of leadership style on employees’ performance: the case of Debre Berhan wood processing Plc. (Doctoral Thesis), Department of Management, college of Business and Economics, Debre Birhan University, Ethiopia.
Nwagbala, S. C., Ifureze, P. C., & Agbo, S. (2021). An assessment on leadership styles and employee performance in Stanel World, Awka, Anambra State. International Journal of Business and Management Research, 2(3), 1-17.
Odunlami, S. A., Awosusi, O. O., & Awolusi, O. D. (2017). The influence of leadership styles on employees’ performance: a study of selected private universities in Ogun State, Nigeria. Global Journal of Commerce and Management Perspective, 3(2), 26-32.
Onwuegbuna, G. N. (2022). Democratic leadership style and employees’ performance in the Nigerian educational sector: a study of Bells University of Technologsy, Ota and Crawford University, Igbesa, Ogun State, Nigeria. International Journal of Management, Social Sciences, Peace and Conflict Studies, 5(1), 155-164.
Orji, M. G., Olowu, D. M., Boma, S. A., & Akhimien, E. (2017). Leadership styles and employee performance in Nigerian higher educational institutions. American Journal of Environmental and Resource Economics, 2(1), 12-21. doi: 10.11648/j.ajere.20170201.12
Osano, M. P. (2022). Influence of leadership style on employee performance: a case of membership associations in Kenya. (Master’s Thesis), Chandaria School of Business, United States International University, Africa. South Africa.
Patzelt, H., Gartzia, L., Wolfe, M. T., & Shepherd, D. A. (2021). Managing negative emotions from failed entrepreneurial projects: when and how can supportive leadership help employees. Journal of Business Venturing, 36(5), 106129. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusvent.2021.106129
Pradana, M., Pérez-Luño, A., & Fuentes-Blasco, M. (2020). Innovation as the key to gain performance from absorptive capacity and human capital. Technology Analysis & Strategic Management, 32(7), 822-834.
Priarso, M. T., Diatmono, P., & Mariam, S. (2018). The effect of transformational leadership style, work motivation, and work environment on employee performance that in mediation by job satisfaction variables in Pt. Gynura Consulindo. Business and Entrepreneurial Review, 18(2), 165-176.
Priyashantha, K. G. (2016). The impact of leadership styles on employee performance: analysis of the intervening effect of employee retention to the relationship of leadership styles and employee performance. (Published MBA Thesis), Faculty of Management and Finance, University of Ruhuna, Matara, Sri Lanka. Retrieved: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/359420981
Purnomo, B. R., Eliyana, A., & Pramesti, E. D. (2020). The effect of leadership style, organizational culture and job satisfaction on employee performance with organizational commitment as the intervening variable. Systematic Reviews in Pharmacy, 11(10), 446- 458.
Rego, A., Sousa, F., Marques, C., & Cunha, M. (2012). Authentic leadership promoting
employees’ psychological capital and creativity. Journal of Business Research, 65(1), 429-437.
Rohman, A., Eliyana, A., Purwana, D., & Hamidah. (2020). Individual and organizational factors’ effect on knowledge sharing behavior. Entrepreneurship and Sustainability Issues, 8(1), 38-48.
Sadia, A., & Aman, A. (2018). Transformational leadership and organizational performance; the mediating role of organizational innovation. SEISENSE Journal of Management, 1, 59-75.
Saputra, F., & Mahaputra, M. R. (2022). Effect of job satisfaction, employee loyalty and employee commitment on leadership style: human resource literature study. Dinasti International Journal of Management Science, 3(4), 762-772.
Udin, U. (2021). Transformational leadership and employee performance inside the black box. International Journal of Management Studies and Social Science Research, 3(6), 82-87.
Udovita, V. (2020). Conceptual review on impact of leadership style on employee performance. International Journal of Business and Management Invention, 9(9), 16- 23.
Wase, D. M., & Jeyaprabha, R. B. (2022). The influence of leadership styles on employees performance in Bole sub city education sectors Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. International Journal of Innovative Research in Engineering and Management, 9(4), 109-113. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.55524/ijirem.2022.9.4.18
Weber, E., Buttgen, M., & Bartsch, S. (2022). How to take employees on a digital transformation journey: an experimental study of complementary leadership behaviors in managing organizational change. Journal of Business Research, 143(1), 225-238. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2022.01.036
Yousef, D. (2000). Organizational commitment: a mediator of the relationships of leadership behavior with job satisfaction and performance in a non-western country. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 15(1), 6-24.
Yusuf-Habeeb, M., & Yusuf, I. (2017). Effects of leadership style on employee performance in Nigerian Universities. Global Journal of Management and Business Research, 17(7), 26-33.
Zamin, S. A., & Hussin, F. (2021). Effect of leadership styles and work climate on job performance: a mediating role of organizational commitment among university lecturers in Pakistan. Ilkogretim Online, 20(2), 24-31.
International Journal of Research (IJR) 