The Relationship between Risk Management Committee Characteristics and Modified Audit Opinion in Malaysia

Suhaimi Ishak

Abstract

The purpose of the study is to examine the relationship between risk management committee (RMC) characteristics and modified audit opinion in Malaysia among the non-banking and financial companies listed in Bursa Malaysia. Data is collected from the annual reports of a sample of 300 companies for a period of 2004 until 2009. Both descriptive and multivariate analyses are employed to address the research objectives. The results indicate that separate RMC is negatively related with acceptance of modified audit opinion. Besides, the larger the size of RMC and the higher number of overlapping status for RMC’s members, it probably will higher the acceptance of modified audit opinion. Further, modified audit opinion that has been received at prior financial year is likely to receive the same opinion at current financial year. However, the status of auditor whether big or small firm is not related to modified audit opinion. The findings provide empirical evidence on the development and importance of RMC and its characteristics for the quality of companies’ financial reporting.

Keywords: risk management committee; risk; modified audit opinion; Malaysia

 

ntroduction

The global economic downturn has exposed the poor risk management practices of many companies and organization (Baker, 2011). At the Corporate Governance Week 2010 and 2011 which jointly hosted by Security Commission (SC) of Malaysia and Bursa Malaysia (BM), the both chairmen of these regulatory bodies stressed about the risk management process and board’s awareness on that process as a key element in the corporate governance practices in a company. The remark was pointed to the board as a key person in establishing and implementing well of risk management process in the company. The remark also is a signal to the board of director (BOD) to give more attention to the company’s risk management profile and the formation of committee at the board level that concentrate on the risk management profile is one of the good initiatives. Again, the deputy executive of SC at the ASEAN Audit Regulators Group Forum 2013 in Kuala Lumpur has stressed about the auditors to consider seriously when assessing the risks surrounding clients’ financial statements. Meanwhile, the objective of the study is to examine the relationship between the risk management committee’s characteristics (separate RMC, RMC size and RMC overlapping) and modified audit opinion issued by the auditors in Malaysia. We seek to ascertain whether RMC enhance the quality of financial reporting particularly on risk profile of the organization. We apply the modified auditor opinion as measure to the quality of financial reporting. In Malaysia, under the best practices in corporate governance of Malaysian Code on Corporate Governance (MCCG) (2007) and (2012) (Revised) clearly stated the board has principle responsibility for “identifying principal risks and ensuring the implementation of appropriate systems to manage these risks”. BOD has the responsibility in setting the strategies and creating the environment for effective risk management system in a company and the existence of RMC is a good step for the effective of the system (Yatim, 2010). The formation of RMC with focusing on the broad areas of risks including internal and external risks will help company in managing those risks without depending only on the audit committee. Some expertise on the company business’s external environmental are needed in RMC rather than depending on audit committee members which have expertise in internal control and accounting transactions. For example, RMC members with expertise on business opportunity and investment will evaluate the company’s viability in future and reducing the risks of going-concern. This situation will reduce the acceptance of modified audit report by the company. The job profile of RMC with focusing on broad areas of risks can reduce the exposure of risks by the company including the external risks such as going-concern risks and competition risks. Consequently, the probability of receiving the modified audit report particularly on risks issue is less due to the effective managing the risks exposure to the company. Theoretically, this situation creates a linkage between RMC and modified audit report and further on the quality of financial reporting.

To be an effective committee, RMC as a board committee should has the strong attributes whether in term of its composition (board size and director’s type), board process (frequency of meetings) and board characteristics (knowledge, skill, experiences, academic qualification, relevant training and multiple directorships). The strong composition of RMC, its process and characteristics is parallel with the argument in resource dependency theory. The theory as proposed by Preffer and Salancik (1978) argued that board (RMC) as a crucial resource to the organization and also acted as a bridge between organization and external link.

The formation of separate RMC is still voluntary in most countries in the world including Malaysia and the function of risk management sometimes is combined with Audit Committee (AC) or directly under the Board of Director (BOD) of the company (Subramaniam, McManus & Zhang, 2009). This study tries to relate whether the existence of separate RMC probably will reduce the issuance of modified audit opinion by auditor. Board size is prominently used in corporate governance studies (Dalton, Daily, Johnson & Ellstrand, 1999) and viewed as an important element of company’s governance quality (Musteen, Datta & Kemmerer, 2010). For the risk issues, the smaller board is expected to gain better oversight function due to the less difference of ideas and approaches. Ong and Wan (2008) argued that larger board may have conflicting in executing and maintaining the board effort norms as the oversight function. They may have conflicting among them for the monitoring and decision made. However, for the company’s business and industry risk oversight function, the vast knowledge and experiences of board’ members are needed (Dalton et al., 1999) and the knowledgeable and experienced directors would be gained through outside as the independent non-executive directors who are not involved with the company’s management function and duty. Some companies have limited members of BOD. The same directors might hold several positions as members of some sub-committee of BOD. The member of RMC might be a member of remuneration or audit committee and the overlapping of directorship by directors is view as the insight to the corporate governance mechanism (Zajac & Westphal, 1996).

The structure of this paper is as follows. The next section provides a brief review of past research and hypotheses development. Followed by research methodology section, analysis of result and discussion. The conclusion and recommendation is presented in last section.

Previous Research and Hypotheses Development

The study on the association between risk management committee’s characteristics and modified audit opinion remains scant and limited. However, some previous study have examined the relationship between board’s characteristics or audit committee composition and audit opinion (see Carcello & Neal, 2000; Farinha & Viana, 2009; Masyitoh & Adhariani, 2010; Wenyao & Qin, 2007; Pucheta-Martinez & Fuentes, 2007). The role of RMC in risk management is relatively unexplored and the literature on that field is limited and scant. Tufano (1996) added the lack of research in risk management committee was due to the lack of meaningful data on risk management practices. Again, Subramniam and Carey (2011) reported that the establishment of formalized system of risk management in organization is more recent development. The establishment of RMC is seen to be a complement to the oversight function of board of director and might be able to reduce the burden of task by audit committee. Zaman (2001) suggested it is impossible to expect the audit committee to implement more than high level review given their lack of expertise and time. It was also supported by Fields and Keys (2003) that RMCs have gained popularity as an important oversight committee. The argument is parallel with agency theory that RMC as a board committee should acted on behalf of the shareholders at all. Furthermore, Subramaniam et al. (2009) added that the existence of separate RMC with focusing on the risk profile was also able to increase the quality of internal monitoring in relation to risk management. Thus, the probability of the company to receive modified audit opinion is less and the first hypothesis is generated as follow:

H1:      The existence of separate or distinct RMC is negatively associated with the probability that the company will receive modified audit report.

A smaller board size is seem to be better for oversight responsibility to monitor financial reporting and related internal control (Farinha & Viana, 2009). However, in their study, the result showed the insignificant relationship between board size and the company to receive modified audit report. It means a board size seems to have no influence on modified opinion. The result is consistent with the earlier study by Wenyao and Qin (2007) which found insignificant relationship between board size and audit opinion and the characteristic of board size was irrelevant to the determinant of audit opinion issued. However, Xie, Davidson and Dadalt (2003) reported the negative relationship between board size and earning management activities. In term of accounting fraud, Beasley (1996) found a positive relationship between the number of board members and the occurrence of accounting fraud. In resource dependency perspective, Boyd (1990) argued that sometimes the small board size is due to the scarcity of resource or competitive uncertainty. The earlier study by Pucheta-Martinez and Fuentes (2007) found a positive relationship between the audit committee size and the company to receive qualified audit opinion. Therefore, the study suggests that RMC size can influence on the probability that modified audit report will be issued by the auditor. A smaller RMC size is better for directors’ monitoring functions and less probability that the auditor will issue modified audit report. This situation leads to the second hypothesis:

H2:      RMC size is positively associated with the probability that the company will receive modified audit report.

One director might be a member of twice or more boards’ committees. A member in the audit committee might be a member of RMC. The overlapping of directorship by directors is view as the insight to the corporate governance mechanism (Zajac & Westphal, 1996). Bettenhausen and Murnighan (1985) argued that the experience and knowledge from the other board membership can be brought to the other board committees and the focal and change can be performed. While Alderfer (1986) mentioned that the multiple board membership experience leads to the affecting board decision it is consistent with resource dependency perspective that board as resource in organization should has a pool of experiences. Most importantly and in agency view, several board membership experiences increased the board oversight control on behalf of shareholders (Mizruchi, 1992). The overlapping of members among boards’ committees gives advantages to the BOD entirely because all the committees are the board committee and not related to management function (Carcello & Neal, 2000). The result of each of committees is needed each other. The poor performance of a company is caused by the less directorship member of directors (Gilson, 1990) and the argument was supported by Kaplan and Reishus (1990) that the less directorship member by directors contribute to the emergence of financial distress company. Thus, the next hypothesis is as follow:

H3:      RMC overlap is negatively associated with the probability that the company will receive modified audit report.

 

 

Research Methodology

We use the logistic regression analysis to examine the relationship between modified audit opinion and the variables proposed for the characteristics of RMC. The model used to test the hypotheses is as follows:

MA= β0 + β1 SEPRMC + β2 RMCSIZE + β3 RMCOVER + β4 PRAUREP + β5 BIG4 + ε

where :-

 

 

Variable Definition and Measurement

According to Aren et al. (2009) there are five types of audit reports, namely standard unqualified or clean audit report, unqualified with explanatory paragraph or modified wording, qualified, adverse and disclaimer audit report. For the purpose of this study, the unqualified with explanatory paragraph (modified wording), qualified (except for), adverse and disclaimer audit report are classified as modified audit opinion. If a company received modified audit report, the data is valued as ‘1’ in the worksheet and if a company received the audit report other than modified audit report, the value of ‘0’ is coded accordingly.

Researcher considers the existence of separate RMC if the committee has a single committee with title of ‘risk management committee’ without any combination with any other committees including audit committee. Any combination of task and responsibility of risk management with other committees’ task are considered no existence of separate RMC (Combined RMC). For the purpose of this study, if the company has a separate RMC, it is coded as ‘1’ and if a company has not a separate RMC, the value of ‘0’ is coded. This criterion has been used by previous studies such as Subramaniam et al. (2009) and Yatim (2009).

RMC size is the total number of RMC’s members sitting on the committee until the end of financial year. A member will be considered as a RMC’s member if the appointment as member is at least six months and above. If the appointment as RMC’s member is below six months or the resignation is above six months from the financial year end, he or she can not be considered as RMC’s member. (see Farinha & Viana, 2009; Pucheta-Martinez & Fuentes 2007).

RMC overlaps refer to the dual or more functions of RMC’s members on the different board committees. A Member of RMC might be a member of audit committee or other board committees at the same time. For a company, a member of RMC or any other board committees has become a member of other board committees such as remuneration committee and audit committee at the same time but not all the members having such situation. For the measurement purpose, researcher compares the composition of RMC with all the other board committees’ composition to identify the members of RMC with dual or more functions at the same time. Then, the total numbers of RMC’s members with dual or more function are divided by the total number of RMC’s members. The figure is used for this study. This measurement has been applied by Carcello and Neal (2000).

Prior audit report refers to the audit report that a company has received for prior financial year. The researcher has read the independent auditor report that is located at the end of the annual report booklet. The researcher has carefully read the report starting from the first sentence until the last sentence of the report in order to identify the type of the audit report. For the measurement purpose, the researcher coded a dummy of ‘1’ if the company received modified audit opinion for prior financial year audit and a dummy of ‘0’ if the company received clean audit report for prior financial year audit. This measurement has been used by previous study (Pucheta-Martinez & Fuentes, 2007; Carcello & Neal, 2000).

Big 4 refer to the four largest international audit firms in the world. They are PricewaterhouseCooper, Deloitte Touche Tohmatsu, Ernst & Young and KPMG. The researcher looks at the bottom of auditor report sheet to identify the audit firm audited the company. The name of auditor and audit firm stated at that side. If the audit firm is one of the Big 4, the data is coded as ‘1’ and if the other audit firms or not a Big 4 audited the company, the data is as ‘0’. More studies have used this criterion for their researches (Yatim, 2010, Kabir, Sharma, Islam, & Salat, 2011; Farinha & Viana, 2009; Pucheta-Martinez & Fuentes, 2007).

Data Collection and Sampling Procedure

The population frame for this study is all the public-listed companies excluding banking and financial institutions listed in Bursa Malaysia’s website from the period of financial year ended 2004 until 2009. Based on the data gathering through the Bursa Malaysia’s website, there are approximately more than 130 companies with modified audit report for the same period (2004-2009) and there are more than 200 companies which have a separate or a stand-alone RMCs disclosure for the said period (Bursa Malaysia’s website, 2012; Yatim, 2009; 2010). Banking and financial institutions are omitted from the sample as the nature and regulations of these firms are significantly different from non-financial companies. The public-listed companies are chosen for this study. Public-listed companies have published the annual report that publicly available and can be accessed through the Bursa Malaysia’s website.

A match sampling approach is adopted as a control procedure (see Ballesta & Garcia-Meca, 2005; Wenyao & Qin, 2007; Sekaran, 2003). Firstly, the researcher selects the companies with modified audit report for the period of study (2004-2009). Then, they matched to the control samples which have the clean audit report based on the conditions that paired companies are in the same industry, most similar in companies’ size (total assets) and in the same period of financial year (Ballesta & Garcia-Meca, 2005; Wenyao & Qin, 2007). To keep reliable and independence, once a control company has been matched to the corresponding company in the test sample in particular year, it is not allow to be matched again with another company (test sample) in another year (Ballesta & Garcia-Meca, 2005). Besides, any company with never stated of whether separate or combined RMC or risk management matters, it is dismissed as the subject in the sample’s list. Lastly, in this study, there are 150 samples with modified audit opinion are gathered and are matched with 150 samples with clean audit opinion. Therefore, the total number of samples in this study is 300 samples.

 

 

 

 

Analysis of Result and Discussion

Descriptive Statistics for Samples

Table 1 presents the descriptive statistics result for all the companies, modified audit opinion companies and clean audit opinion companies together with the result of t-test. For variable of Separate RMC (SEPRMC), the result shows an average of 13 per cent from the samples have the separate RMC for all companies but in modified audit opinion companies, the result shows only 6 per cent of the samples have separate RMC while for clean audit opinion companies the result shows an average of 20 per cent of the samples have the separate RMC. As expected earlier, the percentage of companies with separate RMC is larger in clean audit opinion companies due to the characteristic of this separate RMC and its function. For the result of Independent t-test, it shows statistically significant for variable of Separate RMC with level of p < 0.01. It is means that there is a significant difference in average for this variable between two different sets of samples (modified and clean audit opinion companies).

Variable Definition:

For RMC Size (RMCSIZE), the result for three categories of companies (all, modified and clean companies) reveals quite similar with average three members. However, in the modified audit opinion companies, two members are recorded in minimum and maximum with seven members of RMC. It is different in clean audit opinion companies, the result states between three and six RMC members. The difference result indicates that in modified audit opinion companies sometimes have very small members of RMC and maximum can be with quite high. Yet, in t-test, the result reveals statistically insignificant for variable of RMC Size.

The result of descriptive analysis also reports for the variable of RMC Overlapping (RMCOVER). All the groups of samples including all companies have minimum with zero per cent of RMC members have overlapping status or do not hold some other board committee members in the same company. While 100 per cent in maximum for the RMC members with overlapping status for all the categories of samples. In average, the modified audit opinion companies recorded with 77 per cent of RMC members with overlapping status and only 72 per cent recorded in group sample of clean audit opinion companies. This difference is statistically significant at weak level (p < 0.1) as showed in the result of t-test.

For the control variable of Prior Audit Report (PRAUREP), the group of all companies recorded 34 per cent in average for the companies received modified audit report for prior year. The descriptive analysis also shows a larger value for the modified audit opinion companies with average of 67 per cent of the samples have received modified audit report for prior year whereas only 0.7 per cent of samples have experienced the said situation for the group of clean audit opinion companies. The huge difference is already expected by the researcher and the result of t-test also reveals the statistically significant at strong level (p < 0.01) for this difference of mean.

Lastly, for Big4 (BIG4), the result of mean for the sample of modified audit opinion companies is at 47 percent whereas for the sample of clean audit opinion companies is at 41 per cent which mean that 41 per cent of the companies in clean audit opinion companies audited by Big 4 audit firms. However, the mean difference for this variable is not statistically

(Pearson Correlation Matrix) for Variables

Table 2 reports the result of correlation among the variables. The correlations are quite low, generally below 0.3 except for a pair of Modified Audit Opinion (MA) and Prior Audit Report (PRAUREP) which are correlated at 70 per cent with significant at level of 0.01. It is means that MA and PRAUREP have strong relationship with assumption of that PRAUREP has major effect on MA. Besides, Separate RMC also has an effect on MA with correlation by 21 per cent and it is significant at 0.01 levels. The other variables that correlated are between Separate RMC and RMC Size, Separate RMC and PRAUREP, RMC Size and RMC Overlap, RMC Size and Big4. The result also reveals that there is no higher correlation with more than 0.85 which means no multicolinearity problem exist in the samples.

 

 

 

Logistic Regression Analysis

Table 3 reports the logistic regression result. The model consists of independent variables (characteristics of RMC) and control variables with Modified Audit Opinion as dependent variable. The result reports the level of correct classification (the percentage of correct predictions) at 83 per cent while Cox & Snell R Square and Nagelkerke R Square report at 49 per cent and 66 per cent respectively. The Chi-square’s test reports at 203.123 and the model is significant at level of 0.00 (p < 0.01). All the independent variables (characteristics of RMC) are statistically significant while for the control variables, only the variable of PRAUREP is significant.  All the variables are significant at expected direction except for variable of RMCOVER which is significant at positive direction.

 

SEPRMC          = 1, if the existence of separate RMC, otherwise 0

For hypothesis of Separate RMC (SEPRMC), it is statistically significant at level of 5 per cent and following the proposed direction with negative sign. For coefficient, SEPRMC reports at more than 200 per cent and it means that if a company has separate RMC, the probability of the company wills not to receive modified audit opinion is at 200 per cent. The examples of companies that have separate RMC are Opcom Holdings Berhad, Bolton Berhad and Genetec Technology Berhad. The result supported the argument by Subramaniam et al. (2009) that the existence of separate RMC with focusing on the risk profile is also able to increase the quality of internal monitoring and quality of financial reporting in relation to risk management. Consequently, the likelihood of the company to receive modified audit report particularly for risk issues is less. Meanwhile, Harrison (1987) reported that RMC is seen to specifically enhance the accountability of the board as it provides an independent oversight of various board activities especially on the risk issues. Due to the contribution of the RMC, Fields and Keys (2003) argued that RMC has gained popularity as an important oversight committee even though most of the countries in the world are still not to reserve as mandatory requirement to form the separate RMC in a company. The result is supported the proposition of first hypothesis (SEPRMC) that the existence of separate RMC will influence the company not to receive modified audit report. This result is also consistent with the requirement under MCCG 2007 and 2012 which clearly stated that the board has principal responsibility on the risk process including the identification of principal risk until the implementation of appropriateness system to manage those risks. Consequently, the formation of separate RMC as a board committee is able to enhance the effectiveness of risk oversight function by BOD as reported in the result of this study which the existence of separate RMC give impact on the company not to receive modified audit opinion.

For second hypothesis (RMCSIZE), the result also shows a statistically significant at level of 10 per cent with positive direction as expected earlier. For coefficient, the result present at 69 per cent with indication that if a company with higher number of RMC size, the probability it will receive modified audit opinion is at 69 per cent. The result is consistent with the earlier study by Beasley (1996) which found a positive relationship between the number of board members and the occurrence of accounting fraud. However, the result is inconsistent with the finding study done by Xie et al. (2003) that there is a negative relationship between board sizes and earning management activities. While Wenyao and Qin (2007) found insignificant relationship between board size and audit opinion. A big size of committee cause some members ignore their responsibility and assume the other members will look for the duty and responsibility. As a conclusion for this hypothesis, the size of RMC has influence on modified audit opinion.

Besides, there is also a significant (p < 0.05) positive association between RMC Overlapping (proxy by RMCOVER) and modified audit opinion received by the company. The statistical result shows more than 170 per cent for beta coefficient for this variable meaning that if there are RMC members with overlapping status, more than 170 per cent of the company will receive modified audit opinion. However, the expected sign is negative association between RMC overlapping and modified audit opinion. Some reasons would explain the situation and even though the experience and knowledge from the other board membership can be brought to the other board committees and the improvement can be performed as reported by Bettenhausen and Murnighan (1985) but the burden of tasks should be borne by the RMC members. They might not be able to perform well at a board committee (RMC) even they have successful at the other board committees. They also have to spend a lot of time to the several board committees and the concentration on a RMC that focus on risk profiles is at a minimum of time. The other reason might be due to the knowledge gained through multiple board membership that lead to the board oversight control (Mizruchi, 1992) and they have more aware on the risk issues. The highest awareness on risk issues probably gives highest attention by auditor before the modified audit opinion will be issued. As a conclusion, the result provides support to this hypothesis

For control variable, Prior Audit Report (proxy by PRAUREP) is statistically significant (p < 0.01) and with a positive sign as proposed earlier. For coefficient, it is recorded more than 600 per cent and it indicates if a company got modified audit report at prior year, it is 600 per cent likelihood of the company will receive modified audit report in current year. The result is consistent with some previous researches as performed by Pucheta-Martinez and Feuntes (2007) and Mutchler, Hopwood and McKeown (1997). They found that modified audit opinion that has been received at prior year has higher potential to be received at the same in current year. For companies those received modified audit opinion at prior year, they might not be able to solve the issues at current year. Hence, they have probability to receive the same modified audit opinion at current year. This situation leads to the issuance of same modified audit opinion by the auditor which the old issues are concerned by them. As conclusion from this result, Prior Audit Report has a strong association with modified audit opinion that issued by the auditor.

For Big 4 (BIG4), the result states statistically insignificant and there is no relationship between Big 4 audit firms and modified audit opinion. The finding indicates that Big 4 audit firms have no influence on the issuance of modified audit opinion by the auditor. This situation is consistent with study done by Farinha and Viana (2009) that Big 4 audit firms have no significant relationship with modified opinion issued by the auditor.

Conclusion and Limitations

The result from the statistical analysis has shown some significant findings. Firstly, the result documented that the existence of separate risk management committee (RMC) affects the issuance of modified audit opinion by the auditors. The finding contributes to the knowledge and literature that the existence of separate RMC has implication on modified audit opinion specifically for Malaysian environment. The existence of separate RMC probably will reduce the issuance of modified audit opinion. Consequently, the formation of separate RMC as a board committee is able to enhance the effectiveness of risk oversight function by BOD as reported in the result of this study which the existence of separate RMC give impact on the company not to receive modified audit opinion. The regulators and policy makers have to consider for this situation. The formation of separate RMC should be mandatory in future as to perform the risk oversight function at board level.

Secondly, the size of RMC probably affects the issuance of modified audit opinion. The big size of RMC probably the issuance of modified audit opinion is high. The company and regulators have the choice whether to form the big or small RMC since this board committee has influence on modified audit opinion.

The regulators and policy-makers should also be aware on the overlapping status of board members. They have to look at the number of board committees sited by the board members. Some board members sited for more than two or three board committees in the same company at the same time. They also have to spend a lot of time to the several board committees and the concentration on RMC that focus on risk profiles is at a minimum of time. The result of this study shows the higher status of board overlapping will probably higher in acceptance of modified opinion.

Lastly, the acceptance of modified audit opinion by a company at prior accounting year has effect on the acceptance of same modified opinion at current year.  For companies those received modified audit opinion at prior year, they might not be able to solve the issues at current year. Hence, they have probability to receive the same modified audit opinion at current year.

This study is like as the other studies which has the limitations. This study used the secondary data as the samples which the company’s annual reports are used as the main source. May be in the future, the researcher can use the different method in data collection such as interview with auditors and risk officers. Questionnaires also can be used by the researcher in order to collect the primary data. These type of data collection methods are important to the researcher to know some others implicit information that rose up by the auditors or other respondents. The formation of RMC is till voluntary and not mandatory in most countries in the world. The study for the efficiency of this board committee is limited and scant. Future study should be done on its efficiency in term of other indication like the company market share, profit and investment opportunity. The study should also examine the roles played by this board committee for said indication besides the characteristics of RMC. In term of research framework, this study used modified audit opinion as the dependent variable. May be the other researchers will use qualified audit opinion or going-concern opinion as the dependent variable in the framework. The scope is different for qualified or going-concern audit opinion compared to modified audit opinion. The treatment for each type of auditor report is different and some different results would be produced if different type of auditor report is used as dependent variable in the study.

References:

Alderfer, C. P. (1986). The invisible director on corporate boards. Harvard Business Review, 64(6), 38-52.

Arens, A. A., Elder, R. J., Beasley, M. S., Amran, N. A., Fadzil, F. H., Mohamad Yusof, N. Z., Mohamad Nor, M. N., & Shafie, R. (2009). Auditing and assurance services in Malaysia: an integrated approach (3rd ed). Kuala Lumpur: Prentice Hall.

Baker, N. (2011). Managing the complexity of risk. Internal Auditor, 68(2), 35-38.

Ballesta, J. P. S., & Garcia-Meca, E. (2005). Audit qualifications and corporate governance in Spanish listed firms. Managerial Auditing Journal, 20(7), 725-738.

Beasley, M. S. (1996). An empirical analysis of the relation between the board of director composition and financial statement fraud. The Accounting Review, 71(4), 443-465.

Bettenhausen, K., & Murnighan, J. K. (1985). The emergence of norms in competitive decision making groups. Administrative Science Quarterly, 30(3), 350-372.

Boyd, B. (1990). Corporate linkages and organizational environment: a test of the resource dependence model. Strategic Management Journal, 11(6), 419-430.

Carcello, J. V., & Neal, T. L. (2000). Audit committee composition and auditor reporting. The Accounting Review, 75(4), 453-467.

Dalton, D. R., Daily, C. M., Johnson, J. L., & Ellstrand, A. E. (1999). Number of directors and financial performance: A meta-analysis. Academy of Management Journal, 42(6), 674-686.

Farinha, J., & Viana, L. F. (2009). Board structure and modified audit opinions: evidence from the Portuguese stock exchange. International Journal of Auditing, 13, 237-258.

Fields, M. A., & Keys, P. Y. (2003). The emergence of corporate governance from Wall St to Main St: outside directors, board diversity, earning management and managerial incentives to bear risk. The Financial Review, 38(1), 1-24.

Gilson, S. C. (1990). Bankruptcy, boards, banks and block-holders: evidence on changes in corporate ownership and control when firms default. Journal of Financial Economics, 27(2), 355-388.

Kabir, M. H., Sharma, D., Islam, M. A., & Salat, A. (2011). Big-4 auditor affiliation and accruals quality in Bangladesh. Managerial Auditing Journal, 26(2), 161-181.

Kaplan, S. N., & Reishus, D. (1990). Outside directorships and corporate performance. Journal of Financial Economics, 27(2), 389-410.

Masyitoh, O. C., & Adhariani, D. (2010). The analysis of determinants of going concern audit report. Journal of Modern Accounting and Auditing, 6(4), 26-37.

Mizruchi, M. S. (1992). The structure of corporate political action: inter firm relationships and their consequences. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Musteen, M., Datta, D. K., & Kemmerer, B. (2010). Corporate reputation: do board characteristics matter? British Journal of Management, 21(2), 498-510.

Mutchler, J. F., Hopwood, W., & McKeown, J. C. (1997). The influence of contrary information and mitigating factors on audit opinion decisions on bankrupt companies. Journal of Accounting Research, 35(2), 295-310.

Ong, C. H., & Wan, D. (2008). Three conceptual models of board role performance. Corporate Governance, 8(3), 317-329.

Pfeffer, J., & Salancik, G. R. (1978). The external control of organizations: A resource dependence perspective. New York: Harper & Row.

Pucheta-Martinez, M. C., & Fuentes, C. D. (2007). The impact of audit committee characteristics on the enhancement of the quality of financial reporting: an empirical study in the Spanish context. Corporate Governance: An International Review, 15(6), 1394-1412.

Security Commission of Malaysia. (2007). Malaysian code on corporate governance (Revised 2007). Kuala Lumpur: Malayan Law Journal Sdn Bhd.

Security Commission of Malaysia. (2010). Corporate governance week 2010. Kuala Lumpur: SC.

Security Commission of Malaysia. (2011). Corporate governance week 2011. Kuala Lumpur: SC.

Security Commission of Malaysia. (2012). Malaysian code on corporate governance (Revised 2012). Kuala Lumpur: Malayan Law Journal Sdn Bhd.

Security Commission of Malaysia. (2013). ASEAN Audit Regulators Group Forum 2013. Kuala Lumpur: SC.

Sekaran, U. (2003). Research methods for business: A skill building approach (4th ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Subramaniam, N., & Carey, P. (2011). Risk management, governance and assurance. Managerial Auditing Journal, 26(7).

Subramaniam, N., McManus, L., & Zhang, J. (2009). Corporate governance, firm characteristics and risk management committee formation in Australian companies. Managerial Auditing Journal, 24(4), 316-339.

Tufano, P. (1996). Who manages risk? An empirical examination of risk management practices in gold mining industry. Journal of Finance, 51(4), 1097-1137.

Wenyao, L., & Qin, L. (2007, Sept). Board of director composition and audit opinions. Paper presented at the international conference on wireless communication, networking and mobile computing, Shanghai.

Xie, B., Davidson III, W. N., & DaDalt, P. J. (2003). Earnings management and corporate governance: the role of the board and the audit committee. Journal of Corporate Finance, 9(3), 295-316.

Yatim, P.  (2009). Audit committee characteristics and risk management of Malaysian listed firms. Malaysian Accounting Review, 8(1), 19-36.

Yatim, P. (2010). Board structure and the establishment of a risk management committee by Malaysian listed firms. Journal of Management & Governance, 14(1), 17-36.

Zajac, E. J., & Westphal, J. D. (1996). Director reputation, CEO-board power and dynamics of board interlocks. Administrative Science Quarterly, 41(3), 507-529.

Zaman, M. (2001). Turnbull-generating undue expectations of the corporate governance, role of audit committee. Managerial Auditing Journal, 16(1), 5-9.

 

Delineation of watershed in Amravati tehsil using geomorphological investigations through Remote Sensing and GIS techniques

Khadri S.F.R*, Sachin Thakare and Pooja Surkar

  Abstract:

In this study an attempt has been made to understand various geomorphological factors controlling the various landforms which in turn helpful in the delineation of watershed in Amravati tehsil through remote sensing and GIS techniques. The study area exposes part of Pedhi River and Kholad River which is a part of Wardha Watershed. The present investigations have helped to understand the groundwater potential as well as nature of the watershed with the help of detailed geomorphological investigations. Satellite remote sensing data as well as topographic data has been widely utilised in this study to identify the watershed and groundwater potential zones with the help of latest available techniques.

The results of the present study demonstrate the presence of various hydro geomorphological zones showing their groundwater potentialities which vary from excellent to poor. The study area covering Pedhi watershed shows excellent to good ground water quality whereas the Kholad and Kapasi watersheds show moderate to poor ground water quality. Overall, the present study demonstrates the useful ness of remote sensing and GIS techniques in the delineation of potential aquifers in the region which plays a major role in the sustainable   management of water resources in the Amravati region.

Key Words: Remote Sensing, GIS, Geomorphology, Watershed, Satellite, Topography.

 ——————————————————————*******—————————————


Introduction:

A watershed can be defined as the area of land that drains to a particular point along a stream. Each stream has its own watershed. Topography is the key element affecting this area of land. The boundary of a watershed is defined by the highest elevations surrounding the stream. A drop of water falling outside of the boundary will drain to another watershed (Sewickley Creek Watershed Conservation Plan, 2003). From a planning standpoint, watershed is considered the most ideal unit for analysis and management of natural resources. For optimal use of environmental resources in a region, integrated watershed development approach is still viewed by many to be the most ideal as it helps in maintaining the ecological basis of resources utilization (Sahai 1988). Geomorphology is defined as the science of landforms with an emphasis on their origin, evolution, form, and distribution across the physical landscape. The science that deals with surface features of the earth, their forms, nature, their origin and development is termed as geomorphology. DAVIS (1912) first projected the concept of geomorphic cycle. According to bauling (1950), the role of factors that are important the geomorphology are lithology, stratigraphy, climatic variation and the regional basis for the development of landforms. The use of remote sensing technology for Geomorphological studies has definitely increased its Importance due to the establishment of its direct relationship with allied disciplines, such as geology, soils, vegetation/Land use & hydrology.

Geomorphological mapping involves the identification and characterization of various landforms and structural features. The various landforms can influence a conservation area in many ways like slope gradient, elevation and aspect, affect the quantity of solar energy, water, nutrients and other materials, while the slope affect the flow of materials. Slope is also the deciding factors of intensity of disturbance, such as fire and wind, which are strongly influenced by the pressure of vegetation (Swanson et al 1988).

Study Area:

Amravati Tehsil basically part of Amravati city and the villages around it lying between 220 45” N to 210 20” N and 770 32” E to 780 02” E. Amravati is District place and major city in Vidharbha region. Amravati names comes from Hindu goddess “Ambadevi”, in Mahabharata epic Amravati is a capital of Vidarbha Naresh, and it is a part of Varhad (Berar).

Geography:

Amravati Tehsil is bordered with Achalpur tehsil as well as Murtizapur Tehsil in North direction and Chandur Bazar Tehsil touches the boundary in east and west direction. Wardha River is naturally separate Amravati District from Wardha District. Wardha River is a major River of Vidarbha region which is join Painganga River in the boundary of Marathwada. Pohra Malkhed is protected forest area in Amravati. The average elevation is 543m from MSL.

Climate:

Climate of Amravati Tehsil is hot and dry, April to June Month having extremely heat and temperature goes to 450 C as well as winter season temp goes down 110 C which shows temperature variation, Rainy season start from end of June Month to September in an average.

Soil:

There are three main types of soil present in Amravati Tehsil which is-

  • Deep Black Soil b) Medium Black Soil           c) Shallow black Soil

Crop pattern:

Amravati Tehsil is having different types of Crop Pattern such as Cotton, Sorghum (Jawar), Green Gram (Moong), Soybean etc. but Amravati tehsil as well as whole District is famous for Orange (Citrus Spp.)

 Rail/Road:

In Amravati tehsil Badnera is Major Railway Station of Central Railway. National Highway 6 is passed through the Amravati Tehsil.Fig.1 shows the location of Amravati Tehsil.

Fig. 1 Location Map of Study Area

Materials and Method:

Data Used

  1. Toposheet Approved by Survey of India Having 1:50000 scale
  2. Satellite Imagery LISS data having 23.5m resolution
  • ERDAS Imagine Remote sensing Software
  1. ARC GIS Software

 

 

Methodology

 

 

Fig.2: Flowchart showing the methodology used for Watershed

Software used:

  • Arc GIS 10: This software has been developed by ESRI Inc. it is one of the leading software for desktop GIS and mapping. Arc GIS gives the power to visualize, explore, query, and analyze data geographically. In this project Arc GIS has been used to display raster map, digitizing different features and querying the data for finding the attributes for any feature on map. Arc GIS Spatial Analyst is a tool which helps in analysis and understanding of spatial relationships in our data. Reclassify tool has been used to reclassify different data and raster calculator has been used for overlay analysis and calculation of final results.
  • Generation of contour map: Contours are polyline that connect points of equal value of elevation. The elevation points were prepared from toposheets on a scale of 1:50000 collected from Survey of India (SOI). The collected toposheets were scanned and registered with tic points and rectified. Further, the rectified maps were projected. All individual projected maps were finally merged as a single layer. The contours were digitized with an interval of 10m. The contour attribute table contains an elevation attribute for each contour polylines. The contour map was prepared using Arc Map of Arc GIS 10. Contour map is a useful surface representation because they enable to simultaneously visualize flat and steep areas, ridges, valleys in the study area.

Fig. 3: Contour Map of Amravati Tehsil

  1. Generation of digital elevation model (DEM): A DEM is a raster representation of a continuous surface, usually referring to the surface of the earth. The DEM is used to refer specifically to a regular grid of spot heights. It is the simplest and most common form of digital representation of topography. The Digital Elevation model for the study area was generated from the Tin.

Fig. 4: Digital Elevation Model of Amravati Tehsil

  1. Generation of slope map: The Slope function in Arc GIS 10 calculates the maximum rate of change between each cell and its neighbors. Every cell in the output raster has a slope value. The lower the slope value indicates the terrain is flatter and the higher the slope value, the steeper the terrain. The output slope raster was calculated in both percent of slope and degree of slope. Slope map was prepared from the DEM.

Fig. 5: Slope Map of Amravati Tehsil

 

  1. Generation of watershed: Watershed of the study area was demarcated using the software Arc GIS. Drainage pattern was taken as the input data.

Fig. 6: Drainage Map of Amravati Tehsil

 

Fig. 7: Water body of Amravati Tehsil

Fig. 8: Watershed of Amravati Tehsil

  1. Ground Potential zones map: Ground Water Potential Zones map of Amravati Tehsil Shown in fig. 9 having four different types of zone, they are Excellent, Good, Moderate and Poor. The Ground Water Potential Zone of Study area generated with the help of drainages, geomorphology and land use land cover with integration of Remote Sensing and GIS technique as well as Geology of that area plays an important role. Geomorphology of the study area having alluvial plain, Denudation Hills and Platues. During weighed overlay analysis, the ranking has been given for each individual parameter of each thematic map and weights of 25%, 35%, 30% and 10% were assigned according to their influence for Soil, Hydro-geomorphology, Land use/Land cover, and Slope themes respectively and obtained the ground water potential zones in terms of Excellent, Good, Moderate and Poor zones in the form of a GIS map.

Fig. 9: Ground Water Potential Zone of Amravati Tehsil

 

  1. Geomorphology Map: Geomorphology as a science developed much later than geology although several aspects of geomorphology are embedded in geological processes. Geomorphology deals with the genesis of relief forms of the surface of the earth’s crust. Geomorphological mapping and necessary supporting data are crucial to developing countries that are usually under severe environmental and demographic strains. Approaches and methods to map the variability of natural resources are important tools to properly guide spatial planning. In this paper a comprehensive and flexible new geomorphological combination legend that expands the possibilities of current geomorphological mapping concepts. The piece-by-piece legend forms a “geomorphological alphabet” that offers a high diversity of geomorphological information and a possibility for numerous combinations of information. This results in a scientific map that is rich in data and which is more informative than most previous maps but is based on a simple legend. The system is developed to also be used as a basis for applications in GIS.
  2. 10: Geomorphological Map of Amravati Tehsil

Results and Discussion

Five major watersheds were identified in the area. The area occupied by the largest watershed is 167 Sq.km and it falls under the Sub-watershed category which covers around 66.01 % of the area under study, the second watershed has an area of 37 sq km and this also falls in the sub-watershed category and covers around 14.62 % of the study area, the third watershed has an area of 35 Sq.km and falls in the category of Micro-watershed occupying about 13.83 % of the study area. There are two small watersheds having an area of 5 Sq. Km. and 9 Sq. Km respectively falling in the category of Mini-watershed and covers around 4% of the study area

  • DEM is the 3-D presentation of the surface derived by the interpolation of contour map. It represents x, y and z-axes in pixel size of the order 23.5 meters. The altitude or z axis ranges from 291 meters to 466 meters above sea level
  • Digital slope was derived from DEM on pixel size of order 23.5 meters
  • Ground water potential zones were identified on the basis of slope of the area. Five classes i.e. very good, good, moderate, poor, very poor, were identified. Most of the area comes under very good and good ground water potential zones. The area which has 1-3% slope has very good ground water potential due to nearly flat terrain, area having 3-5% slope has good ground water potential due to slightly undulating topography and some run-off, area with 5-10% slope has moderate ground water potential because these areas have relatively steep slope leading to high run-off, areas with 10-15% and 15-35% slope has poor ground water potential due to steep slope and higher run-off

Geomorphology:

Geomorphology as a science developed much later than geology although several aspects of geomorphology are embedded in geological processes. Geomorphology deals with the genesis of relief forms of the surface of the earth’s crust. Certain Natural Processes are responsible for the forms of the surface of the earth. The earth’s surface forms are primarily due to hypo gene or endogenous processes, which include diastrophism, leading to geologic structure, tectonic activity and volcanism leading to volcanic landforms.

Alluvial Plain:

An alluvial plain is a relatively flat landform and created by the deposition of highlands eroded due to weathering and water flow in study area. The sediment from the hills is transported to the lower plain over a long period of time. It identified on the imageries dark reddish moderate to fine texture due to agriculture activities. Alluvial deposits of the area constitute gravel, sand, silt or clay sized unconsolidated material. The area under alluvial plain cover in geomorphological map is 246 sq km.

Denudational Hills

Denudetional hills are the massive hills with resistant rock bodies that are formed due to differential erosional and weathering processes. These hills are composed of Vindhyan sediments which are fractured, jointed having no soil cover moderate to steep slope. On the satellite image, these landforms were identified by light or dark brownish with mix green color due to thick forest cover. The area under Denudetional hills cover in geomorphological map is 32 sq km.

Structural Hills

Structural hills are representing the geologic structures such as- bedding, joint, lineaments etc. in the study area. They are located in the eastern parts of the study area having greenish and reddish tone with rough texture on the satellite image. The area under structural hills cover in geomorphological map is 3 sq km.

Flood Plain

A flood plain is an area of land that is prone to flooding. People realize it is prone to flooding because it has flooded in the past due to a river or stream overflowing its banks. A flood plain usually is a flat area with areas of higher elevation on both sides. The area under flood plain cover in geomorphological map is 1 sq km.

Habitation Mask:

A habitation Mask is an area of land that is occupied by human being. It is human settlement area. It is defined as an area of human habitation developed due to non-agricultural use and that which has a cover of buildings, transport, communication utilities in association with water, vegetation and vacant lands. The area under Habitation Mask cover in geomorphological map is 118 sq km.

Plateau:

A plateau is an elevated land. It is a flat topped table standing above the surrounding area. A plateau may have one or more sides with steep slopes. The area under plateau cover in geomorphological map is 458 sq km.

Water Body:

It is an area of impounded water, areal in extent and often with a regulated flow of water. It includes man-made reservoirs/lakes/tank/canals, besides natural lakes, rivers/streams and creeks. The area under water body cover in geomorphological map is 32 sq km.

References:

  1. Bolstad P.V., and Stowe. An Evaluation of DEM Accuracy: Elevation, Slope, and Aspects. Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing. 1994. 60 (11) 1327-1332.
  2. Ramaswamy S.M. (2011) “Remote Sensing in Geomorphology”
  3. Felicísimo A.M. Parametric Statistical Method for Error Detection in Digital Elevation Models. ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing. 1994. 49 (4) 29-33.
  4. Heal G. (2000) “Nature and the marketplace Washington, DC”, Island Press.
  5. Goudie, A. S., 2004, Encyclopaedia of Geomorphology, vol. 1. Routledge, New York. ISBN 0-415-32737-7
  6. Karunali Vora (2011), “Application of RS and GIS in Watershed Land use Development of Sabarmati River of Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India”, National Conference on Recent Trends in Engineering and Technology.
  7. Krishnamurthy J and Srinivas G, Role of geological and geomorphological factors in groundwater exploration: a study using IRS LISS data, International Journal of Remote Sensing 16(14), 1995, pp 2595–2618.
  8. Neha Nagraj (2012) Geomorphological Study of Walgaon-Achalpur Region, Amravati District Maharashtra using remote sensing and GIS Techniques. International Journal of Science, Environment and Technology, Vol. 1, No 5, 2012, 473 – 478
  9. Simon P (2010), “Remote Sensing in Geomorphology,” Oxford Book Company, Jaipur, 2010.
  10. Rajashree V Bothale, Vinod M Bothale, J R Sharma (2011) “Delineation of Eco watersheds by Integration of Remote Sensing and GIS Techniques for Management of Water and Land Resources”, ISPRS Commission IV Symposium on GIS ‘IAPRS’, Vol. 32/4,
  11. Richard John Huggett (2007) “Fundamentals of Geomorphology”
  12. Sahai (1988), “Coastal Environment”,
  13. Sewickely Creek Watershed Conservation Plan (2003) “The Pennsylvania Rivers Consevation program”
  14. Welch R. 3-D Terrain Modeling for GIS Applications. GIS World. 3 (5) 26-30. 1990
  15. Yaw A. Twumasi & Edmund C. Merem (2007) “Management of Watersheds with Remote Sensing and GIS: A case study of River Niger delta Region in Nigeria”, International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, Vol.4, No. 2, ISSN: 1661-7827.
  16. Yongheng MA (2004), “GIS application in Watershed Management”, Nature and Science, Vol.2

The Study on Influence of Psychological and Socio Cultural Factor on the Share Market Operations. Reference to Batticaloa District, Eastern Province, Sri Lanka.

Revathy 

Stock market is an important part of the economy of a country. The stock market plays a pivotal role in the growth of the industry and commerce of the country that eventually affects the economy of the country to a great extent. That is the reason why, the government, industry and even the central banks of the country keep a close watch on the happenings of the stock market. The stock market is important from both the industry’s point of view as well as the investor’s point of view.

This study focuses the influence of psychological and socio cultural factors to implement on stock market in Batticaloa District in the Eastern part of Sri Lanka. This study was conducted with two research objectives: to find out the degree of psychological characteristics of potential investors regarding the stock exchange and to evaluate the level of support of socio culture environment to implement in share market.Self motivation, perception and attitude is the dimension of identifying the psychological characteristics. Social culture factors are including language skill, brokers support and culture support to mature the socio culture supportive.The study was conducted among the potential investors reside in the various part of the Batticaloa District. The data were collected from the 100 sample of people. The proportionate stratified random sampling method was used to select the sampling units and the structured questionnaire was used to collect the data. The data were analyzed using Univariate Analysis and Bivariate analysis techniques. The unit of analysis was individual person.

Finding of the study revealed that respondents (potential investors) were moderate level supportive to implement the stock exchange as indicated by the degree (measured as mean value) of their psychological characteristics (Self motivation 3.5), perception (3.4), and attitude (3.4). Socio cultural environment (3.17) was moderate level influence. In overall this study was find out moderate level supportive to implement the stock exchange in Batticaloa.

Keywords: Investment, Psychology, Stock Exchange, Investor, and Socio Culture Environment

 

 

  1. INTRODUCTION

An island nation situated at the Southern tip of India, Sri Lanka is often referred to as the Pearl of the Indian Ocean. With the end of a bitter three decade long civil conflict, the country is taking advantage of new found peace and stability and growing economic prosperity to make its mark as a global logistics center.

Increased political stability is laying the way for strong growth on investment as the Government formulates long term robust development plans to drive economy wide sustainable growth.

Our nation is developing nation and agricultural one for hundred years due to our capability of resources, gain knowledge and technology requirements even we greater than some nations. If we want to become leading one we should change our habits of investment.

Eastern province is a one of the nine provinces in Sri Lanka. The Batticaloa is a one of the district in Eastern Province. Our society based on knowledge income and saving has an essential role and making the most valuable effects by using financial system at an economic entity level.

The fundamental factors such as economy, industry and company analysis play a key role in investment decision process. In earlier there are few ways to invest their money for more money such as purchasing land and gold, invest in education and business ,life insurance, bank deposit share market etc.. But now there are twenty sectors for investment in stock exchange. Each and every sector is important to develop the nation.

The word Investment refers to the deployment of surplus funds either in the financial assets or in the physical assets with the expectation of getting an optimum return in future. R.Jayaraman, Dr.G.Vasanthi, M.S.Ramaratnam, (JBM&SSR Volume 3 ,2014).

These are under the stock exchange there are twenty sector to invest the money which is functioning under the capital market. First we understand the capital market. The Financial Market, which is the market for credit and capital, can be divided into the Money Market and the Capital Market. The Money Market is the market for short-term interest- bearing assets with maturities of less than one year, such as Treasury bills, commercial paper, and certificates of deposits. The major task of the Money Market is to facilitate the liquidity management in the economy. The main issuers in the Money Market are the Government, banks and private companies, while the main investors are banks, insurance companies and pension and provident funds. The Capital Market is the market for trading in assets for maturities of greater than one year, such as Treasury bonds, private debt securities (bonds and debentures) and equities (shares). The main purpose of the Capital Market is to facilitate the raising of long-term funds. The main issuers in the Capital Market are the Government, banks and private companies, while the main investors are pension and provident funds and insurance companies.

 The Financial Market can be also be classified according to instruments, such as the debt market and the equity market. The debt market is also known as the Fixed Income Securities Market and its segments are the Government Securities Market (Treasury bills and bonds) and the Private Debt Securities Market (commercial paper, private bonds and debentures). Another distinction can also be drawn between primary and secondary markets. The Primary Market is the market for new issues of shares and debt securities, while the Secondary Market is the market in which existing securities are traded. (http://www.cse.lk/static/introduction

Investment, first of all we will learn here that what Investment is? Is Investment just a money or capital? Is Investment just a part of your salary or Income? We will answer all these questions in a single line that Investment is that part of your money whose nominal value increases along with the inflation or time to increase its real value. We will learn some benefits of investing which you must know before investing in stock market.

The part of money which you park in some avenues like Bank Deposits, Real Estate, Jewellery or Stock Market to get some return on that capital in future is also known as Investing or Investment.

There are many Instruments of Stock Market called Securities like Shares, Bonds, Debentures etc. and this stock market have its own benefits in his own way for every person who invest in stock market. We will discuss here the advantages and the benefits of investing in Stock Market which you must know before Investing in stock market.

Easy Liquidity: It is the very first benefits of investing, In stock market shares and securities are traded in very high volume which make it a volatile market so there is very easy liquidity in stock market, like if you want to turn your investment in stock market into cash then you can do that very easily. Flexibility: Investing in stock market is very flexible like the market has ups and downs in prices at every trade session, price of stock market moves with the rapidity and flexibility of this market.

Regulatory Framework: Stock Market works under some regulatory framework to protect and safeguard all its investors. For example: In Sri Lanka the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) works as a Regulatory Framework Body to safeguard all investors. Maximum Returns: According to the long term perspective it is found that Investing in Stock Market gives maximum returns. For example:

Business Taste: Well, According to me it is the best benefits of investing in stock market you can ever have, here from Business Taste I mean that when a person trades or invest in stock market everything is here works like a business a modern style business. Sole Proprietorship: If you invest in stock market then you are starting your own business where your investment is your capital, like the more your trade is in profit the more your business grows and you are the only person to run this business that is why investing in stock market is your sole proprietorship business.

While in the midst of important transformation to an industrialized economy, its traditional stronghold in the service industry is growing with simultaneous speed. The change in the mindset of the investor’s leads to change in the trend of investment ways. The investor’s sentiment may either be optimistic or pessimistic. The people sentiment and socio culture sentiment are complimentary to each other. Any change in social change lead to a substantial change in the investor’s behavior similarly any change in the investors’ sentiment leads to a substantial change for social culture environment.

At presently telecommunication, bank and industry and food & beverage sectors are very popular one in the capital market and several advantages on investing shares even in the Batticaloa district still there is so many traditional ways are following by the people on investment. Here share investment way is infancy investment way. It should be encourage due to globalization and survive in future change.

Therefore, I have intended to study the influence of social and psychological factors on implement in share Market in Batticaloa District.

  1. PROBLEM STATEMENT

The Sri Lankan share market continues to shine as one of the best performing ones. According to Bloomberg news service in 2009.CSE is one of the most modern stock exchange in South Asia a fully automated trading platform and market capitalization of over US$ 23 billion, it has been one of the best performing stock market in the world, with average daily turnover US$ 18 million. http://kenangasl.com/why-sri-lanka/colombo-stock-exchange-cse/

Batticaloa is one of the districts in Sri Lanka, Still now Stock Exchange did not located in Eastern Province. There are huge amount of lands, higher education institutes, big amount of population who are knowledgeable and so many financial institutions.

If the stock exchange will be establish in Batticaloa district, that gives great investment opportunity to public and it will lead to economic development.

Therefore this present study aims to find out the influence of psychological and socio culture environment to establish the stock market in Batticaloa district.

  1. RESEARCH QUESTIONS
  2. What is the degree of psychological characteristic of potential investors in stock exchange?
  3. To what extent the socio culture environment is favorable to implement in the stock exchange?

4.OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

  1. To find out the degree of psychological characteristic to implement in Stock Exchange.
  2. To evaluate the level of favorable of Socio Culture environment to implement in stock exchange.
  3. SCOPE OF THE STUDY

This research is possible to study level influence of psychological and Socio culture factors to implement the share market, based on gender, education, ethnic group, designation, monthly income level, and investors’ behavior of particular people who are living in Batticalo district.

Therefore the researchers have scope of this study to the Batticaloa district and also selected 100 people which use in proportionate stratified random sample size in Divisional Secretariat Divisions in Batticaloa district to carry out this research study.

 

 

  1. LITERATURE REVIEW

Psychological Characteristic

Investors are normally assumed to make their financial decisions rationally according to classical economic theories but some novice investors make unsuitable investment decisions based on irrational exuberance (Ricciardi, 2008).

The investor sentiment is primarily based on investor’s psychology. Individual expectation, Individual optimism, individual ability and individual confidence are the four major psychological components of investor sentiments. On other words the investors sentiments are run by individual expectation, individual optimism, individual ability and individual confidence (R.Jayaraman,Dr.G.Vasanthi.M.S.Ramaratnam, JBM&SSR 2014)

Psychological factors operating within individual partly determine people’s general behavior and thus influence their behavior as consumer. Primary psychological influence their behavior as consumer are perception, motives, learning, attitudes and personality and self concept. Even though these psychological factors operate internally, they are also very much affected by social factors outside the individual. (Pride M Ferrell .O. C, 2006)

Emotional development of children and is part of developmental psychology, the study of changes in behavior that occur through the life span. Cognitive psychology deals with how the human mind receives and interprets impressions and ideas. Social psychological looks at how the actions of others influence the behavior of an individual.

(http:/www.medterms.com/script/main/art.asp/articlekey)

The persons buying choices are also influenced by four major psychological factors motivation, perception, learning, and beliefs and attitudes. (Philip Kottel, 2005)

Consumer attitudes are composite of a consumer’s beliefs about feelings ,about behavioral intentions towards some “object “ – within the context of marketing , usually a brand, product category, or retail store. These components are viewed together since they are highly interdependent and together represent forces that influence how the consumers will react to the object.

 Consumer attitude are considered by many marketers to be accurate predictors of consumer behavior, making the study of attitude formation and change an important topic. Attitudes are learned tendencies to perceive and act in a consistent way toward a given objective or idea, such as a product, services, brand, company, store or spoke person. This definition emphasizes the impact on attitude of several of other concepts.

The attitude is a person’s enduring favorable or unfavorable evaluation, emotional feeling, and action tendencies toward some object or idea. People have attitudes towards almost everything: religion, politics, clothing, music and foods. Attitudes put people into a frame of mind: liking and disliking an objects, moving towards or away from it (Phillip Kottler

Socio Culture Environment

According to Kottler views culture factors exert the broadest and deepest influences on consumer behavior. Culture, subculture and social class, reference group, family and social roles and particularly important in buying behavior.

  1. METHODOLOGIES

Sample of the Study

 

The total population for the study was in Batticaloa district people. There are 100 people were  selected who are resident of Divisional Secretariat division in Batticaloa District (100%) as sample by using stratified random sampling method.

Data Collection Method

In considering objectives it was a cross – sectional one in the time horizon because data were collected in a one single time from the respondents but the unit of analysis was the people of the selected area in the Batticaloa district.

The questionnaire is a structure technique for data collection. The primary data were collected through questionnaires and interviews from the respondents. The questionnaire developed based on three parts, namely research information, personal information and investor’s behavior. In this research questionnaire is closed ended. In general closed questions are considered as more efficient and reliable than open ended questions. In the research one of the ordinal measures called “Likert’s five points rating scale” is used to require respondents to order their answers.

  1. Methods of Data Analysis

Data Presentation and Analysis

The data were analyzed by using univariate analysis and bivariate analysis techniques. In this case, the unit of analysis was individual person of selected area in Batticaloa district.

Method of Data Evaluation

Each variable is given a scale from 1-5 to show the extent of agreement, based on responses, univariate measures were calculated for each of variables. The mean value is lying in the range of 1-5. The range is explore the particular result of this study the range between 1 and 0.25 is express the low level influence for this study. The range between 2.5 and 3.5 is assumed moderate level influence on this study. The range above 3.5 to 5 is considered high level influence on this study. This decision rule is used to measure the level of influence. It shown in the table.

  1. Implication and conclusion

Psychological characteristic of people on Share Market operations in Batticaloa district.

Psychological Characteristic variable with three dimension including self motivation, perception and attitude are evaluated the influence of Psychological Characteristic of people on the share market operations in Batticaloa. We test through univariate analysis and bivariate analysis techniques. This outcome express the mean value is 3.4733 and standard deviation is 0.4524. It is shown in the table 3

If we want to invest in share market we should wish on the activities. That desire depends on our mind likewise involvement on share market operations also leads by our mind. The society should be support to run the business.

The first objective is obtained through the psychological characteristic variable. It is moderate level supportive on this study.

Extent of Social Cultural Environment Supportive to Invest on Share Market Operations.

Socio Culture variable with three dimensions are knowledge on share market, stock brokers support and cultural support. Those dimensions help to identify the influence of socio culture environment. We test through univariate analysis and bivariate analysis techniques. This outcome express the mean value is 3.1733 and standard deviation is 0.23915.

The second objective is obtained through the socio culture factors. It is moderate level supportive on this study.

Overall Result

 

Eventually when we observe the influence factors for an establishment of the stock exchange in Batticaloa district. Table 4   clearly discloses that influence factors are moderate level to establish the stock exchange in Batticaloa district.

  1. CONCLUTION AND RECOMMENTATION

To examine two variable of research we have used six dimensions. All research variables have been measured due to the nature of measurement and research objectives have been investigated with using of mean and standard deviation that summarized in Tables.

It is commonly believed that the investment decision of the investors is driven by the sentiment of investors. Investor’s psychological characteristic and socio culture trends were carefully indentified with the help of existing review of literature. The study has revealed that image factor has appeared as the most influence factor in determining investors decision making. Similarly individual optimism has become the key factor in influencing the sentiment of the investors.

In Batticaloa district there are many educational institutes those are higher education as university, college of education, teacher’s training college, international school and vocational training center even it is distant from share investment, there are low level of awareness and lack of stock brokers firm and information center on this type of investment. In any type of education should change the people and their society. These institutions can be change through subject of finance and investment. We can revolve the people’s investment pattern through provide psychological training as skill, attitude and knowledge development. This step change social culture environment due to most of them are more believe on educated people so if we change the educational society’s investment pattern other type of society also change into share market. Those are possible; the stock exchange will be established in Batticaloa district because visible services are more invited by the people. Based on this type of investment way some are known well some are unknown therefore, we assume this is a childhood investment way  in Batticaoloa, We state without building we cannot run the business perfectly based on our research.

Finally this study convey people are mostly involved all type of investment even experientially traditional investment is well known by the people than share investment because inadequate resources and deepest knowledge on this field. Psychological and socio cultural motivational factors are motivated the people to invest in share market so implementation is necessary one in Batticaloa district.

Reference 

  1. Alexander William, Gordon. J, Sharpe. F, Feffery v,bailey, Fundamental of investment ,3rd ed
  2. Barnewall,M.M(1987) Psychological characteristic of individual investors.
  3. Bhole L.M, (2004) Financial institution and market, 4th ed, publish by Tata Mcgrow –hill, New   Delhi,    5, 17.2-19.12
  4. Central Bank of Sri Lanka, (2008), Recent Economic Development -Highlight of 2008 and Prospect for 2009, Central Bank Publication
  5. Cornett and Saundress, (1998), Fundamentals of Financial Institutions Management, Irwin McGraw-Hill, New Delhi, pp26-29
  6. Daily news , Thursday November 5 2009
  7. Gary .Armstrong, Plip Kotler , Principal of marketing 5th ed
  8. E,(Oct 2000) Sri Lankas Securities market ,1st ed
  9. Kiran D. and Rao U.S. (2004), “Identifying Investor Group Segments Based on Demographic and Psychographic Characteristics”, MBA Project Report, Sri Sathya Sai Institute of Higher Learning
  10. Naresh,k.malhotra,satyabhusan Dash Marketing Research an Applied Orientation, ,5th edition,
  11. M, Ferrell, marketing 10th ed 2000, all Indian publisher & distributors Regd
  12. Peter S.Rose, (1986), Money and Capital Market, Printice Hall, London, pp 330-423
  13. Valarie A,Zeithul mary J Bitner , Ajoy Pandit Dwayne D gremler 2008 Service Markiting.
  14. Jayaraman, Dr.G.Vasanthi, M.S.Ramaratnam, A Study on influence of psychological factors on Investment Behaviour in Equity Investment,Journal of Business Mangement &Social Science Research(JBM&SSR Volume 3 ,2014)
  15. S, saravavel.P, (2005/2006) marketing research and consumer behavior

 

HRD and Management in Banking Sector

BHARTI VIJ

Abstract: Management of an organization plays an important role in designing Human Resource policies and their execution. It reflects the attitude of the top management about the ‘people’. Human Resource Development (HRD) has assumed considerable importance in the recent years. Be it a business organization, or a bank or an office, the development of human resources is necessary for its efficient and effective working. In an evolutionary process when developing economy struggles to attain higher levels of living. It can hardly over look the need of developing its human resources to meet bigger and developing new challenges of raising the quality of life of the masses. Human Resource development is a continuous process to ensure the development of employee competencies, dynamism, motivation and effectiveness in a systematic and planned way. HRD has been given due importance by all the organizations in India as it aims at developing all the employees of an organization in a planned manner to acquire and apply their existing capabilities as well as their inner potentials. The present study has been made to analyse and interpret HRD and Management in Banking Sector Industry in India. Major public sector bank SBI has been chosen for the study. The results show that the relationship between management and HRD quite good in this bank and improve in efficiency.

Key Words: HRD, management, People as Assets, Willingness, Commitment, Trust etc.

INTRODUCTION

‘People’ is the most important and valuable resource every organization or institution or institution has in the form of its employees. Dynamic people can build dynamic organizations. Effective employees can contribute to the effectiveness of the organization. Competent and motivated people can make things happen and enable an organization/institution to achieve its goals. Therefore, organization should continuously ensure that the dynamism, competency, motivation and effectiveness of the employees remain at high levels. Human Resource development is thus a continuous process to ensure the development of employee competencies, dynamism, motivation and effectiveness in a systematic and planned way.

T V Rao  (1991) in his work on Human Resource Development has defined HRD in organizational context as a process by which the employees of an organizational are helped in continues planned way to a) acquire or sharpen capabilities required to perform various functions associated with their performance or future expected roles b) develop their general capabilities as individuals & discover & exploit their inner potentials for their own and/or organizational development purposes and c) develop an organizational culture in which superior – subordinate relationship, teamwork & collaboration among the sub-units are strong & contribute to the professional well-being, motivation & pride of the employees.

HRD is concerned with the development of human resource in an organization. Development means improving the existing capabilities & helping them to acquire new capabilities required for the achievement of the corporate as well as individual goals.

Leonard Nadler of George Washington University (USA) who is acclaimed as the originator of the concept of HRD sometimes in the early seventies  defines it as a series of organized activities (such as training, education & development) conducted within specified period of time & designed to produce behavioral change.

HRD in Banking Sector

The core function of HRD in the banking industry is to facilitate performance improvement. Factors like skills, attitudes and knowledge of the human capital play a crucial role in determining the competitiveness of the financial sector. The quality of human resources indicates the ability of banks to deliver value to customers. HRM strategies include managing change, creating commitment, achieving flexibility and improving teamwork. Liberalisation has not only triggered changes in the whole economy, including the banking sector, but has also thrown up challenges for banks, in general, and public sector banks, in particular. Whether Human Resource Management (HRM), an important element in the business process evolution, post-liberalisation, has given a strategic telescopic focus is subject to debate. The primary emphasis needs to be on integrating human resource management strategies with the business strategy. HRM strategies include managing change, creating commitment, achieving flexibility and improving teamwork.

‘State Bank of India (SBI), with a 200 year history, is the largest commercial bank in India in terms of assets, deposits, profits, branches, customers and employees. SBI provides a range of banking products through their vast network of branches in India and overseas, including products aimed at NRIs. The State Bank Group, with over 16,000 branches, has the largest banking branch network in India. The Government of India is the single largest shareholder of this Fortune 500 entity with 61.58% ownership. SBI is ranked 60th in the list of Top 1000 Banks in the world by “The Banker” in July 2012.

Review Of Literature

A number of studies have been conducted with respect to Large Scale Industries on HRD practices in this bank. However, little effort has been made to study HRD practices in state bank of india.

Abraham 1988: 48-64, in his studies on HRD practices have been made in the past. A review of literature has been made to highlight the type of practices, other organizations are making so that a linkage could be established. HRD climate is an integral part of organizational climate.

Raman (1989:342-365) in his study on HRD experiences in State Bank of India underlines the main objectives of HRD for the bank is to create a climate of openness and trust, build a collaborative culture whereby everyone is an important member of an effective team, promote human capabilities and competencies in the organization, bring integration of individual and organizational goals, improve quality of life.

Usha Krishna (1986) explores the HRD sub-systems in the Sundram Fasteners Ltd. (SFL). The HRD unit there started working on organizational structure (focusing on clarifying reporting relationships, outlined key responsibility areas), manpower planning, placement, development oriented performance appraisal system, training and development, rewards and career planning.

Rao (1989: 210-25), Discussing the HRD initiatives in Steel Authority of India Ltd (SAIL) has mentioned that the areas were identified as ‘Priority of Action’ include- improvement in work culture, optimum use of installed capacity, increase in productivity, generate profits through control of costs, customer satisfaction.

Rao (1992: 350-371), in his analysis of 14 organizations, mentioned that L & T was the first to start integrated HRD system, inspiring other organizations to do so. Several organizations, however, made some innovations in the HRD Sub-systems. A Study conducted by XLRI centre for HRD in 1984 shows that HRD climate data was available for 6 organizations including Voltas , Jyoti Ltd. SBI, L& T , CGL, SBP and ICC. Examining the results, Rao and Abraham (1986: 73-85) reveal that L & T and Voltas have HRD climate to the extent of 60 per cent on 100 point scale and remaining 5 are in the middle range (around 50 percent).

Objectives of the Study

The study aims at achieving the following objectives.

  1. To study HRD and management in public sector bank in India i.e., State Bank of India.
  2. To study the subsystem relation to management and HRD.
  3. To study the role of management in developing human resources of their organizations.

Research Methodology

Banking sector is large one spread ever length and breadth of the country so we are constrained to limit our study to public sector banks i.e., State Bank of India.

For the purpose of the study the date has been collected on the basis of questionnaire which included questions on the perception of top management about its human resources and creating HRD climate in its organization. A sample of 120 respondents on random basis includes employees from both the selected banks. For the present study respondents were drawn from the various branches of the banks located at Ambala, Kurukshetra and Panchkula.

Statistical Analysis

The data was converted into scores by using 5- point scale. The data was tabulated and summarized by adding the scores of all the respondents and classified in two parts: The perception of the top management about its human resources and HRD Climate of the organization resulting there from. For the 1st part i.e. perception of the top management about its human resources, the opinions of the respondents have been presented on the 5 point scale by converting the respondents for each point of the scale into percentage. For the second part i.e. HRD Climate, the opinions of the respondents were sought on 13 parameters were added together to observe as to what type of developmental climate existed in the public sector undertakings under study. The opinions were converted into scores on 5 point scale. Average scale of 3 and around indicated a moderate tendency on that dimension existed in the organization where as score around 4 denotes „good‟ HRD climate on htat dimension. To make the interpretation easier, the mean score was converted two percentage score by using the formula: (Mean Score -1) x 25 = Percentage Score (Rao, 1991: 39). This was done by assuming that a score of 1 represents 0 percent, a score of 2 respondents 25 percent, a score of 3 respondents 50 percent, a score of 4 respondents 75 percent, and a score of 5 residents 100 percent. The percentage score thus indicated the degree to which the particular dimension existed in the company out of 100.

Limitations

As the study is limited to one public sector bank, its results cannot by generalized due to different management perception and HR practices in different organizations. Despite these limitations, the study provides insight into perception of the management about HR which can be used for further research in this area and can help the bank employees to improve HRD in their organizations and thereby increase their productivity and efficiently.

Analysis and Interpretation

The policy and philosophy of the management plays an important role in the development of Human resources in any organization. Effective management policy is, therefore, viewed as a subsystem of HRD. As indicated earlier, the opinions of the respondents have been analyzed to study the Perception of the Management about its Human Resources.

1 The Perception of the Top Management about its Human Resources

The opinions of the respondents on this subsystem on a number of variables including the importance given to Human Resources by the top management, management’s commitment to ensure employee development, willingness of the management to invest their resources for employee development, readiness of the people to help each other, team spirit, developing employee potentials, using employee potentials for career planning, enhancing inter-group competence, encouraging people to improve their capabilities, creating climate of trust, openness, collaboration, pro-activity, its commitment to bring in organizational change, and its awareness to the environment changes were obtained and analyzed as under:-

  1. A) Importance given to Human Resources by the Top Management

Top Management believes that human resources are extremely important and are needed to be treated more humanly in the organizations. Opinions of the respondents on this variable (Table-1: a) indicate that more than 33.83 per cent of the respondents sometimes true with the statement whereas 19.83 per cent of the respondents mostly true and rarely true with the statement. It indicates that the managements of this public sector undertaking consider the human resources in their organization to be extremely important to them. Further, 15.70 per cent of the respondents partially mostly true and partially not at all true with the statement indicating that some of the employees or the departments are not fully aware of the management policies or do not agree with them.

  1. B) Management gives importance to Human Resources

Top Management in State Bank of India believes that human resources are extremely important and are needed to be treated more humanly. More than 27.27 per cent of the respondents described the statement (Table-1: b) as almost always true; whereas 31.40 per cent of the indents expressed the statement to be sometimes true’.

  1. C) Development of Subordinates by the Superiors

Top Management in State Bank of India believes that human resources are extremely important and are needed to be treated more humanly. More than 27.27 per cent of the respondents described the statement (Table-1: c) as almost always true; whereas 31.40 per cent of the indents expressed the statement to be sometimes true’.

  1. D) Willingness of the Management to Invest their Resources for Employee Development

The management of State Bank of India seems to be willing to invest their time and resources for employee development. This view has been confirmed by 31.40 per cent of the respondents expressing it to be ‘sometimes true’(Table-1: d) where as 36.36 per cent of the respondents considered it to be ‘Mostly true’.

  1. E) Management helps juniors to learn their job

from the opinion of the respondents (Table-1: e), in State bank of India, seniors in this bank take active interest in their juniors and help them learn their job. There was good relationship between senior and juniors and they help each other in their job. 31.40 per cent of the respondent viewed this statement as ‘mostly true’ and 14.05 per cent of the respondents considered it to be ‘almost always true’.

  1. F) Creating Atmosphere of Trust and Openness

  From the opinion of the respondents (Table-1: f) it can be inferred that management of the organizations are creating an atmosphere of trust and openness. The employees in State bank of India are not afraid to express or discuss their feeling with their superiors. It appears that superior and subordinate relationships are good. 13.23 per cent of the respondents fully agreed with this view point where as 30.16 per cent the respondents considered the statement to be ‘Mostly true’. . In the opinion of the respondents of this bank, 56.44 per cent considered the statement to be ‘mostly true’, whereas 23.76 per cent considered is to be sometimes true and another 11.57 per cent felt it to be rarely true.

  1. G) Freedom to take Initiative (Pro-activity)

“Pro-activity” seems to exist in these units as evident from the opinions of the respondents State Bank of India, it appears that the organization partially allows the employees to take initiative and do things on their own without having to wait for instructions from superiors as 25.62 per cent of the respondents considered this statement(table-1: g) to be ‘mostly true’ and another 30.58 per cent of the respondents considered it to be ‘sometimes true’ indicating that in some of the departments there is lesser degree of freedom to take initiative. It may be due to the nature of work requiring precision and quality in these departments.

  1. H) Identification of Employee Potentials for Career Planning

The top management of Punjab National Bank makes efforts to identify and utilize the potential of the employees. In the opinions of the respondents of State Bank of India, were divided as 19.83 per cent of the respondents considered the statement (Table-1:h) to be ‘almost always true’ whereas 33.06 per cent of respondents considered the statement to be ‘sometimes true’. It can be inferred that employee potentials play an important role in their career development.

  1. I) Management guide and prepare for future responsibilities

In the opinion of the respondents, managers guide their juniors and prepare them for future responsibilities/roles they are likely to take up as 37.19 percent mostly true and 25.62 percent sometimes true in this statement(Table-1:i). The management helps them to find proper path for their role play in the future.

  1. J) Enhancing Inter-group Competence

A study of the Table-1(j) shows that a sizable number of respondents about 36.36 per cent of the respondents of State Bank of India were of the opinion that ‘manager’ in this organization believe that employees behaviour can be changed and people can be developed at any stage of their life by viewing the statement to be ‘mostly true’ whereas 26.45 per cent of them were of the opinion that the statement is ‘sometimes true’ (Table-1: j). This view indicating that management does not pay attention to the developmental needs of all the employees in the organization.

  1. K) Encouragement to Improve Employee Capabilities

  Employees are encouraged to improve their capabilities by the managements of the public sector undertakings. The managements believe that this will result in enhanced employee competencies, better performance and achievement of organizational goals. Employees are encouraged to experiment with new methods and try out creative ideas in State Bank of India. In the opinion of the respondents of this bank, 27.27 per cent considered the statement to be ‘mostly true’ where as 30.58 per cent considered is to be sometimes true and another 21.49 per cent felt it to be rarely true.(Table-1:k)

  1. L) Creating Team-spirit

‘Team spirit’ is of high order in State Bank of India as evident from the seems to be in the opinions of 34.71 per cent of the respondents who termed it as ‘mostly true’ another 17.36 per cent considered it to be ‘almost always true’. However, 27.27 percent of the respondents ‘sometimes true’ (Table-1:L) to it indicating that more efforts are needed in some of the employees or departments in these organizations.

                                                                        Table-1

From the above discussion, it can be inferred that in the present economic scenario of globalization, the public sector undertakings seem to be quite aware of the changes taking place in the world market. The increasing competition from the MNCs has necessitated improving employee competencies, efficiency and professionalism in their approach. The public sector undertakings are trying to develop employee potentials and creating a climate of change and development in their organizations. Much more is needed on their part to cut costs and build quality and efficiency. In the succeeding discussion efforts have been made to analyse the existing HRD in this organizations.

Conclusion

The following conclusions can be drawn on the basis of above analysis and discussion:

  1. Management policy is an important sub-system of HRD in both banks. In view of the respondents, the management of both public sectors in general believes that its human resources are important to them. In SBI, management policy is better than PNB. Further, it is evident from the opinions of the respondents that the management makes efforts to ensure that employees enjoy their work. It appears that development of subordinate is considered to be an important part of the job of the superiors in most of the cases. Further, management also invests its time and money for employee development to some extent as evident from the views expressed by the respondents.
  2. More than 60 per cent of the respondents in general agreed that the managements are making efforts for identifying and developing employee potentials. Further, these potentials are used for career planning of the employees. Employees are also encouraged to improve their competencies and management enables them to enhance their inter-group competence.
  3. The management is trying to build up developmental climate as evident from the opinions of the respondents. Nearly 65 per cent of the respondents stated that there exists climate of trust, co-operation, proactivity, openness and team work. It indicates that the HR development practices in these organizations are picking up due to the philosophy of the management.
  4. A study of the parameters indicates that the opinions of the respondents are closely associated on all these aspects which again strengthen conviction of the top management about its commitment for the development of its human resources.
  5. Existence of good HRD was observed in this public sector undertaking. It indicates that the management is building congenial atmosphere for all round development of the employees.

On the whole, the study reveals that the top management has a strong perception about the importance of its human resources that the organization cannot grow without the development of the people working in it and therefore, it is committed to invest its resources for their development. However, there is still a good scope for improvement as indicated earlier. The changing paradigms in HR need to be incorporated for better development of the HR and the organization. New concepts are to be practiced and new policies need to be framed for further growth of the organization.

References

Aurora Rajinder and VaziraniNitin G. (2001): “Management and Human Resource Development”, Pune: Everest Publications.

Bansal, M.P. (1991): “HRD in Public Enterprises”, RBSA Publishers, Jaipur.

Chauhan Daisy & Chauhan S.P. (2002): “Future directions for HRD: Aligning the HR Function To Organizational Goals”, Management & Change, Vol.6 No. 2 (Winter 2002)]

Jain, V K, Singhal, K C, Singh, UC (1995), “HRD Sub-Systems at the top Management Level”, South Asian Journal of Management, April-June.

Jain, V. K., HRD Practices in Indian Industries, Anmol Publications, New Delhi, 1996.

  1. K. Jain, “HRD Climate Factors in Indian Industries – A Case Study”, International Journal on Development Research, December, 2013.

Rao, T.V., Readings in Human Resource Development, Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 1991.

Reddy A. Jagan Mohan (2006): “HRD: Origin, Concept and Future”, PJMR, Vol.10, No.1 & 2, April-Oct. 2006.

Sadri Jayashri (2006): “HRD in the Era of LPG”, Personnel Today, Oct-Dec. 2006.

Singh, Anil Kumar (2005), “HRD Practices and Philosophy of Management in Indian Organizations”, Vikalpa, Vol. 30 No. 2, April-June.

Swarajya, Laxmi C. (2005): “HRD in select public enterprises in Andhra Pradesh”, Discovery Publishing House, New Delhi.

 

Human Resources Management in Nigerian Tertiary Institutions: The Obafemi Awolowo University Experience

 

Jegede Charles Temitope 

 

ABSTRACT

Human Resources are the life blood of an organization. They are endowed with discretionary decision-making power and thus have competitive advantages over other resources. This paper examined human resources management in Nigerian tertiary institutions with a view to examining the challenges facing human resources management in Obafemi Awolowo University Ile-Ife of Nigeria. This study was necessitated by the need to ensure improved organizational performance and attainment of objectives as higher institutions of the 21st century. Both primary and secondary sources of data were utilized for the study. Primary sources of data were collected through structured questionnaires. Secondary sources of data were from internet sources, journals, books, unpublished theses among others on the field of human resources management and higher education administration.  A total of 180 questionnaires were distributed to members of staff drawn from all the four unions in Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria. Data were analysed using descriptive statistics The findings from empirical studies revealed that they are many challenges of human resources management in Nigerian tertiary institutions such as inadequate funding, violent trade unionism among staff, ambiguity in policy interpretations, low productivity, poor quality of work life, poor health and safety at work among others. The study concluded that these challenges of human resources management in higher institutions should be addressed in order for Nigerian tertiary institutions to attain their objectives as institutions of the 21st century.

Keywords: Challenges, Human Resources Management, Organizational Performance, Tertiary Institutions.

INTRODUCTION

Human resources are the life-blood of any enterprise or institution. They combine other resources in the right mix to formulate appropriate strategies for the accomplishment of the desired objectives of the enterprise. This important attribute of HR assist the enterprises to make rightful decisions and respond effectively to the threats and opportunities within the environment of the organization (Farant, 1982: Gerald, 1995; Hanif, 2002). Thus the enterprise depends highly on its HR for success and survival. This dependence continuously   increases the complex and turbulent nature of the business environment of this century (Anyim and Ikemoria 2011).

According to Ogunsaju (2006), human resource management is the effective mobilization of human resources based upon appropriate recruitment, selection, training and placement of appointed staff in order to achieve the organizational set down goals and objectives. Human resources are useful tools employed in harmonizing the needs of the employees with goals and objectives of the organization on a continuous basis (Akintoye et al, 2008).

The success of an organization is not only determined by the quality of personnel available but how well these human resources harnessed and coordinated towards, realizing the goals of the organization (Vance, and Paik, Y. 2006).

It is on this note that the study examined human resources management in Nigeria tertiary institutions with a view to understanding the challenges facing human resources management in Obafemi Awolowo University Ile-Ife, Nigeria.

Objectives of the study

The objectives of the study are to

  1. review literature on human resources management
  2. examine the challenges facing human resources management in Nigeria tertiary institutions; and
  • suggest ameliorative measures to alleviate the challenges of human resources management in Nigeria tertiary institutions.

Literature Review

Nakpodia (2010) defined human resource management as part of management, which is concerned with people at work and with their relationship within the organization. London Institute of personal Management (1963) described human resource management as “the responsibility of those who manage people as well as descriptive specialists in management. This recognition acknowledged that human resource management is a distinction function of management in any public or private organization. The Personnel and Industrial Relations defined human resource management as “the process of developing, applying and evaluating policies, procedures, methods and programmes relating to the individual in an organization.

Human resources are saddled with the responsibility of designing and implementing policies and programmes that will enhance human abilities and improve the organizations overall effectiveness. The human resources practitioners play four critical rules in an organization or institution. They are to

  1. create and implement policies of an organization
  2. offer advice and counsel the employees on matter ordering on productivity, safety at work,

    or career among others.

iii. control of human resources programmes and laid down procedures; and

  1. provide services that assist line managers in performing their job or serving the organizational

     units.

Challenges of Human Resources management in Nigerian Tertiary Institutions

Anyim et al. (2011) identified the major factors militating against effective human resource management in Nigerian higher institutions. They include

  1. Poor productivity of workers in Nigeria
  2. Poor quality of work life
  • Insecurity and hazardous environment
  1. Quota system in employment
  2. Labour dissatisfaction at work
  3. Changing role of government or state in industrial relations
  • Economic recession; and
  • Diversity of workforce

Owojori and Asaolu (2010) maintained that the problems of human resources management in Nigeria higher institutions include inadequate financing, violent trade unionism among staff, disagreement on policy matters, lack of trust and ambiguity in policy interpretations.

From the foregoing discussion, it can be deduced that the problems militating against effective  of human resources management in Nigeria tertiary institutions include the following:

Inadequate finance: – Lack of finance could be responsible for inadequate facilities such as office furniture and fittings, instructional materials, delay in salary delay/non-payment of allowances etc. which could result in face-off taking a variety such as confrontation and strike.

Violent trade unionism among staff: – Misinformation, misinterpretation or lack of good communication network could cause trade unions to be aggressive and get out of hand. This is one of the hindrances to human resource management in Nigeria higher institutions.

Lack of trust: – There is usually lack of trust between management and members of staff in higher institutions. This could result in poor communication or ambiguity in communication content and selection in our union.

Staff recruitment and selection: – According to Ogunruku (2010), the principle of recruiting the best staffs into higher institutions have been compromised, this has impacted negatively into the human resource management in Nigerian higher institutions.

 Dictation from the political class: – There have been worries over time about this the type of people that are appointed to represent the external community on the governing councils of higher institutions in Nigeria. Often times, they are basically and prepondently politicians without cognate knowledge of the higher institution culture and ethos. This political class could dictate policies to the disinterest staff. This causes internal conflicts in higher institution community.

Disagreement on policy matters:  Policy matters could be source or disagreement. Instances abound when discrepancy in salary/remuneration among staff of different unions (e.g. ASUU and NASU) have created problems for university management.

Methodology

A total of 180 questionnaires were distributed to members of staff drawn from all the four unions in Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics. All hand was on deck to ensure that are the accurate number of questionnaires distributed to respondents were collected accordingly.

The results of the findings from general profile of the members or staff and problems of managing human resources are illustrated in table 1 and 2 below.

The results of the findings from Table 2 show that majority of the respondents attest to the fact that human resource management face serious challenges which include inadequate finance, violent trade unionism, lack of trust, politicization of staff recruitment, dictation from the political class, disagreement on policy matters, insecurity and hazardous environment.

Conclusion

The study examined the challenges facing human resources management in Nigerian tertiary institutions. It also reviewed literature on human resources and problems of human resources  management in Nigeria tertiary institutions. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics.

The study concluded that the problems facing human resources management in higher institution should be addressed in order for them to attain their stipulated objectives as institutions of the 21st century.

 

Recommendations

In the light of the crucial issues discussed, the paper recommends as follows:

  1. The government should provide adequate funding to higher institutions for proper maintenance of equipment, facilities and other expenditures of emergent need.
  2. There should be democratization of administrative processes in the Nigerian higher institutions.
  • Nigerian higher institutions must employ ICT in order to provide better human resource management service to their constituents and stakeholders.
  1. University autonomy on policy making matters should be encouraged and a consistent and effective communication network should actually be maintained.
  2. Staff welfare should be given priority to enhance greater productivity and cooperation.
  3. Management of higher institutions must ensure that there is good rapport and human relation between heads of the various departments, sections, units and their staff.
  • Higher institutions in Nigeria must look inward on ways of generating or improving on its internally generated revenue to complement government efforts.
  • Regular trainings should be organized for head of the various faculties, directorates, units, institutes, departments and sections in the art of personnel management.
  1. Finally, professional administrators should master their areas competently in order for

 higher institutions to have effective and efficient  human resources management.

References

[1] Akintoye, I.R., Adidu, F.I. Owojori, A.A. (2008). “Management and organization: A Book of

Reading” Akure: Tonygay Educational Publishers Ltd.      

[2]Anyim, F. C., Ikemefuma, C. O., Mbah, S. E. (2011) “Human Resource Management Challenges in Nigeria Under Published Economy” International Journal of Economics and

Management Sciences, Vol. 1, pp. 01-11.

[3] Farant, J. S. (1982) “Management or Higher Institutions” Lagos: Macmillan Publishers

[4 ]Gerald, P. B. (1995) ‘‘Administration of Higher Education’’ New York: Harper and Row

 Publishers

[5]Hanif, A. and Saba, K. (2002) “A Study of Effectiveness of Human Resources at Elementary

 Levels: Master Degree Thesis, Unpublished, Lahore: University of the Punjab.

[6] London Institute of Personnel Management, (1963) “Human Resource Management:An

Overview” An Address at Golden Jubilee of Institute of Personnel Management London.

[7]Nakpodia, E. D. (2010) “Human Resource Management in School Administration in Delta State,         Nigeria, Journal of Social Science 23 (3): pp-179-187.

[8] Ogunruku, A. O. (2010) “Excellence in University Administration in the 21st century: Nigerian Universities in Perspective” Birthday Lecture in honour of Chief Deji Adegbite (first

Registrar University of Ado-Ekiti).

[9] Ogunsaju, T. O. (2006) “Human Capital Management for Effective Corporate Governance” Paper      presented at a Workshop titled: Corporate Governance for Sustainable and National Development.

[10]Owojori, A.. A.. and Asaolu T .O. (2010), “Critical Evaluation of Personal Management Problems in the Nigerian School System” International Journal of Education Science, 2(1) pp.1-11.

[11] Vance, C.M. and Paik, Y. (2006) “Managing A Global Workforce: Challenges and Opportunities     in International HRM”. New York: Sharpe Publishers.

Observation on Social, Economical and Political status of Dalit Christians: A study in Puthukottai District.

                                 Mr. S. Yesu Suresh Raj                               

Mr. N. Sivasekaran

Abstract                                              

              This paper reviews the empirical study on Excluded people (Dalit Christians) in Indian Society. Dalit Christian is more painful and humiliating to compare than other communities because of the Caste of the society. Dalits who converted to Christianity did not escape the caste system which has a strongly fixed presence in Indian society.  The problem of Dalit has elicited considerable interest in the minds of researchers in recent times.  In this study main objectives is to identify the Justice, Social, Economical and Political status of Dalit Christians in Puthukottai District and to suggest a suitable action plan for their sustainable development. Tools for Data Collation In the present study data were both ‘primary’ as well as ‘secondary’ sources. The dates were collected primary sources constituted of the respondent of all age groups and the sample size was study has been drawn by using census method.  Total sample selected for the study are 9310 respondents, in this study would used family census method. The researcher was selected four Taluks in Puthukottai District and each four Taluks, ten areas have selected based village, urban, semi – urban in this method were selected areas. Design of the Study here, descriptive design will be used to describe the data. The collected data were analysed with the help of descriptive and simple percentage.  The collected data were analyzed to get a better understanding of the Justice, Social, and Economical and Political statues of Dalit Christains in Puthukottai district.

 

 

Key words:  

                Christians, people, Society, Dalit, conversion. Discrimination

  Introduction:

The word “Caste” originates from Spanish word ‘Casta’. Caste means ‘breed, race, and complex of hereditary qualities.’ The English word ‘Caste’ is an adjustment of the original term ‘Casta’.  According to Anderson, Parker and Williams “Caste is that extreme form of social class organisation in which the position of individuals in the status hierarchy is determined by basis of birth into a particular group”. Martindale and Monochest defined Caste as “an aggregate of persons whose share of obligations and privileges are fixed by birth, sanctioned and supported by religion and usage.

According to Henry Maine “Castes started as natural division of occupational classes and eventually upon receiving the religious sanction became solidified into the existing caste system. The caste system comes into being when it becomes an integral part of religious dogma which divides the people into superior and inferior groups with different responsibilities, functions and standards of living.”

According to Magasthens “It is not permitted to contract marriage with a person of another caste or to undertake an occupation other than ancestral nor for the same person to undertake more than one, except if he is of the Caste of Philosophers, when permission is given on account of dignity”.  The Indian caste system is systematically divided people bases on birth, the status of birth only give the richest life for all. Any one born in out of caste his definitely suffer untouchability.  No one could not escape the caste system. The Indian caste system is desired person life. This is give one sight pleasure life anther side burden or painful life.

Jatis /Varnas:

In ancient India, society member was systematically divided that each group performed a specific job. Each group is necessary for society. According to Mahatma Gandhi “each group is same at all, there is no different in low and high”. In 1000 B.C.E., the earliest known the society described the metaphor (symbol) of human body.

According the Rig Veda, the ancient Hindu book, the primal man – Purush – destroyed himself to create a human society. The different Varnas were created from different parts of his body. The Brahmans were created from his head (scholars, teachers, fire priests), the Kshatrias from his hands (kings, warriors, law enforcers, administrators), the Vaishias from his thighs (agriculturists, cattle raisers, traders, bankers), the Sudras from his feet (artisans, craftsmen, service providers). Untouchables (Certain people like foreigners, nomads, forest tribes and the chandalas, who dealt with disposal of the dead were excluded or prohibited altogether and treated as untouchables). The Indian caste system is not only follow the Hindu people even it follow Muslims and Christians etc.

According to Sir H. Risley: “A caste may be defined as a collection of families or groups of families bearing a common name which usually denotes or is associated with specific occupation, claiming common descent from a mythical ancestor, human or divine, professing to follow the same professional calling and are regarded by those who are competent to give an opinion as forming a single homogeneous community”. According to Hindu tradition, Indian societies are scientifically divided and obviously classify castes (jatis). Caste is order one’s occupation, food habits, dress codes, marriage, dine and interaction with members of other castes. The high caste people enjoy more wealth and opportunities while low caste people live with more difficulties.  There is very rare upward mobility in the caste system.

Untouchables / Dalit Christians:

According to orthodox rules anyone who does not belong to the four Varnas, meaning foreigners, are untouchables. According to Manu Smritis, the people who follow the lowest kind of occupations include scavenging, leather work, removal of the carrion etc, are to be regarded as untouchables.

The Indian Caste systems divided people unequal and hierarchical order. The out of caste people or bottoms of consider ‘impure, polluting, untouchable and lesser human beings’ by upper caste people. The untouchables called the different names in different periods. In Vedic era, they were known as ‘Chandala’. In Medieval period, they were addressed as ‘Achhuta’. In the British Government period, they were known as ‘Exterior Caste’. In the present time, they were known as the ‘Scheduled Caste’ by the Indian Constitution. According to Dr.D.N Majumdar “Untouchables castes are those who suffer from various social and political disabilities many of which are traditionally prescribed and socially enforced by higher castes.”

The first impact is the harsh fact of social stigma. The untouchables are considered polluting and are therefore kept at a distance. Their mere presence as well as their belongings are discarded or avoided. They are made to live separately and often cannot share such common village amenities as the well. The stigma of untouchability is attributed to the traditional occupation of the jati and affects all members of that jati regardless of actually being engaged in that occupation or not. Those jatis who clean up, deal with dead animals or eat their meat, are ritually unclean and beyond the pale. The vast majority of so called untouchables are actually engaged in agricultural labour. For many, their traditional occupation is simply a supplementary and temporary work over and above their main agricultural occupation.

Untouchables are very poorly compensated for their labour and thus forced to live a life of constrains. Their diet is poor; their clothes are few and rarely clean; their homes are small, fragile and unhealthy; and they are hopelessly overwhelmed with debts. Poverty and indebtedness means bondage to and dependence on the village strong man of the moment.

Mahatma Gandhi, the father of nation, says “Untouchability is the hate fullest expression of Caste System and it is a crime against God and man”. Mahatmas want to relief the caste problem to SCs. But he was favour of caste hierarchy, that is affected SCs.

“According to Dr. B. R. Ambedkar: untouchables form an entirely new class i.e. the fifth varna apart from the existing four varnas. Thus, untouchables are not even recognized under the caste system of Hindus”. The social reformers, freedom fighter, genuineness persons are considered out of caste because they are not accept the Indian caste system. The punishment of caste order was to produce lot of caste problem in India.

They were forbidden entry to many temples, to most schools, and to wells from which higher castes drew water. Their touch was seen as seriously polluting to people of higher caste, involving much remedial ritual. In southern India, even the sight of some untouchable groups was once held to be polluting, and they were forced to live a nocturnal existence. These restrictions led many untouchables to seek some degree of emancipation through conversion to Christianity, Islam, or Buddhism. However, caste systems and the ensuing discrimination have spread into Christian, Buddhist, Muslim and Sikh communities. The Dalit change the religions but not change the status. The statement of Dr. B. R. Ambedkar and Mahatma Gandhi said Dalit remains a Dalit which ever religion he embraces in India. The Indian government appointed various commissions for to find out the reality of Dalit Christians. According to Government commission: The backward class commissions like Kaka Kalekar Commission (1951), Kumar pillai Commission (1965), Elayaperumal Commission (1969), Sattanathan Commission (1970), Chidambaram Commission (1975),  Mandal Commission (1982), and Mandal Case Judgment (1992) found the socio – economical, educational, employment, and political disabilities of Dalit Christians in the society and Church. Dr. Jose Kananaikil conducted National sample survey of Indian Social Institute (1986) identified that Scheduled Caste convert Christianity suffer more socio – economical, educational, employment, and political disabilities than the Hindu Dalits.

Statement of the problems:

 

  • Untouchability practices still exist in the church and the positive changes have not taken place.
  • There is no monitoring committee of the laity to monitor the admissions and the employment is taking place as said in the ten points program. The habitat of the Dalits still looks miserable and the church of the Dalits.
  • Equality is a dream. There is a long way to move further.
  • Educated become alienated from their community and there is least instance of the educated coming back to the hamlet and work for the development.
  • Dalit Christians bargaining power is weak due to lack of various capitals.
  • The Dalits Christians are not appointed in the powerful positions in the hierarchy of the church.
  • The Dalit youth are discouraged from becoming clergy or religious.

 

Research Methodology

 

Objectives of the study

  • To identify the Justice, Social, Economical and Political status of Dalit Christians in Puthukottai District.
  • To suggest a suitable action plan for their sustainable development.

Tools for Data Collation

            In the present study data were both ‘primary’ as well as ‘secondary’ sources. The dates were collected primary sources constituted of the respondent of 6 months and above and were by Participatory scientific observation, Interview schedule, and Secondary sources include census reports, articles, newspaper reports, journals and books.

Sample Size

            The study has been drawn by using census method.  Total sample selected for the study are 9310 respondents, in this study would used family census method. The researcher selected four Taluk in Puthukottai District and each four Taluk ten areas have selected based on village, urban, semi – urban, in this method selected area total respondents data have collected.

Design of the Study

           Here, descriptive design will be used to describe the data. Descriptive research design is a scientific method which involves observing and describing the behaviour of a subject without influencing it in any way.

Collection of Data    

            The collected data were analysed with the help of descriptive and simple percentage. Census method of tools used to collect data. The collected data were analyzed to get a better understanding of the Justice, Social, Economical and Political statues of Dalit Christians in Puthukottai district.

Analysis and Interpretation

Figure: 1 Personal detail of the respondents

From the above table, it is clearly found that 26.32 per cent of the respondents belonged to the age group of below 20 years. 48.25 per cent belonged to the age group of 30 – 40 years, and were 25.43 per cent belonged to the age group of above 60 years.

       The respondents were enquired about their Residence 65.34 per cent of the respondents are from rural area, 14.47 per cent are from urban area, and 20.19 Per cent are from Sub – urban area.

The respondents were enquired about their family type, 82.42 per cent respondents are reported that, they are from nuclear family, 17.58 per cent are from joint family.

        The respondents were asked about marital status 40.32 per cent of the respondents are married, 59.68 per cent are unmarried.

The respondents were asked about their monthly income of their family 27.26 per cent are earning money below Rs.4000, 2.64 per cent are earning Rs.4000 – 6000, 1.16 per cent are earning money above Rs.6000 and 68.93 percent of the respondents are not earning but  depend on family earning members.

            From the above table, it’s clearly found educational status 3.83 per cent of the respondents were Higher Secondary studied (+2), 4.79 per cent are studying Degree and Technical Education, 5.08 per cent were completed Degree and Technical Education, and 86.30 per cent were qualified ( 0 – 10th standard)

          The respondent were asked about employment status 28.08 per cent of the respondents are Daily cooly, 0.11 per cent Teacher are working on Christian Institution, 0.39 per cent are working on Government employee, 0.13 per cent teacher working on Government school, 2.34 per cent working on private institution, 1.47 per cent unemployment, 67.48 per cent dependents on family members (Children, Home Maker, Old age)

          The respondents were enquired about Religious Father and Religious Sister 0.01 per cent of the respondents are Religious Father, 0.02 per cent is Religious Sister and 99.97 per cent are lay people

The respondent were asked about willing for to start new political party for Dalit Christians 83.24 per cent of the respondents are willing, 4.17 per cent are unwillingness and 12.59 per cent are none of the said

 

Findings

  • 83 per cent of the respondents were Higher Secondary studied (+2)
  • 79 per cent are studying Degree and Technical Education
  • 08 per cent were completed Degree and Technical Education
  • 30 per cent were qualified ( 0 – 10th standard)
  • 08 per cent of the respondents are Daily cooly
  • 11 per cent Teacher are working on Christian Institution
  • 39 per cent are working on Government employee
  • 13 per cent  teacher working on Government school
  • 34 per cent working on private institution
  • 48 per cent dependents on family members ( Children, Home Maker, Old age)
  • 01 per cent of the respondents are Religious Father
  • 02 per cent is Religious Sister
  • 97 per cent are lay people
  • 24 per cent of the respondents are willing

Recommendation

  1. The Christian minority educational Institution should to give 50 percentages of seats for Dalit Christians students.
  2. The Government should provide scholarship and other educational support for Dalit Christians as well as Dalit Hindu students.

  1. Dalit and Non – Dalit Christians must understand the meaning of Christianity and should follow their life.
  2. Caste system was prevent humanity among the society, therefore should eradicate caste system.
  3. Caste Christians should join with Dalits Christians for their development
  4. The Indian Churches have been served many schools and Hospitals under their control. Through this institution create an awareness among the people for reduce caste violence.
  5. The Social reforms of the Churches do not bring any successful results in Dalit’s Christians upliftment. Hence, the Churches should more careful in future while announcing social reform measures.
  6. Foreign funds – Churches and Action Groups in India get lots of money from Missions abroad. These are received for Dalit and Dalit Christians cause. But, usually such kinds of funds are not used purposefully. Therefore proper spend funds for Dalit and Dalit Christians development.
  7. The efforts to Indianise the Churches should be stopped with immediate effect as it allows a kind of Indians culture to take roots in the Churches.
  8. Church run institution should provide employment opportunity for their empowerment
  9. Indian Church should ban all forms of divisions and separations or exclusion viz. in the church, in the funeral paths and in the Church festivals, etc.
  10. The Christian minority educational Institution must to give free cost education for economically most backward Dalit Christian students. Because more than student dropout their education due to economic situation.
13.  To encourage higher education, particularly technical and professional education among Dalit Christians, the Diocesan and Religious Congregations should jointly create a scholarship Fund as an encouragement deserving students

14.  The Christian minority educational Institution and social worker should to give more awareness for Dalit Christian for an Importance of the education. Weekly once and summer period will conduct special lecture on English communication skills and Personality development course etc as well as religious education for their development.

15.  Take effective steps to appoint Dalit members in the administration of the Church and related organisations according to the proportion of Dalit population.
16.  Work at having reservation policy for the Dalits/Tribals in the diocesan/religious institutions.
17.  Make efforts to recruit candidates of Dalit origin for priesthood and religious life in keeping with their numerical strength.
  1. Central and state Government should provide employment opportunities and other rights as well as Dalit Hindu.
  2. Diocesan and congregations should encourage Dalit youth for Religious spiritual service and guide become a good clergy.
  3. More than people like to start new political party. It is very useful for convenience your need on central Government and state Government.

 

Conclusion

In Puthukottai district, the Dalit Christians are economically poor, political powerless, socially depressed. A change of religions has not cleaned their scar and not brought big changes. “Baba Sahib Dr. Ambedkar and Mahatma Gandhi made statements that Dalit remains a Dalit which ever religion he embraces. And the Mandal commission report of affirms “there is no doubt that social and educational backwardness among non Hindu communities is more or less of the same order as among Hindu communities. Thus, both from within and without, caste amongst non – Hindu communities receive continuous sustenance and stimulus” Indian government is playing politics with this community. Mr. Masih said, “The denial of reservation status to the Dalit Christians is a discrimination and human rights violation.”  There is a need to educate and create awareness among the Dalit Christians for social justice. The Christian leader should shoulder the responsibility and make sincere efforts to organize Christian community on one platform. They should join with all other Dalit liberation organizations for socio-economic justice.

The church needs to rethink its stand in respect of the poor and marginalised Dalits of the church. This is the foremost and important part of the Church before confronting the enemies of the society. And finally among the missiological discussions, let me present a Lutheran Theologian Richard H. Bliese’s view on Church’s mission today in our Indian Context. His view is based on Paul’s Rev. A. Vincent Thomas 279 Global Religious Vision, Vol. 3/IV famous theological position on freedom, “There is neither Jew nor Greek, there is neither slave nor free person, there is not male or female; for all are one in Christ Jesus” (Galatians 3:28). He observes: “The Indian Churches should consider grounding their mission efforts not on the shallow waters of liberation and renewal but on the ocean depths of Paul’s gospel of freedom”. He explains the Gospel of freedom in three ways. 1. It is not wholistic. He affirms that this approach is primarily with the responsibility of the state to establish a just and orderly society. 2. It is very wholistic. This freedom according to him is that it is a freedom from slavery and from all oppressions. He claims that through faith we are free from all bondages. 3. It recognises the church’s engagement in revolution against the political unjust orders which prohibit freedom when the Gospel of freedom of Paul is under threat and attack. By explaining Paul’s Gospel of freedom, he affirms that this ‘missional orthopraxis’ is well suited to situation such as this today in our own context.

 Reference

  1. Dave PN, CL Anand, RG Wolf (1988). Pupils Achievement of the Primary Stage. In: MB Bouch (Ed.), Volume1. Baroda:  Society for Educational research and Development,    48-52.
  2. Govindra AR, NV Varghese (1992). Quality of Primary Education. An Empirical study.  Journal of Educational Planning and Administration, 9(i):  17-35.
  3. Ramaiah A. 2004 Untouchabililty and inter caste relations in rural India: the case of southern Tamil Village. J. Relig. Cult. 70, 1–13.
  4. Dalit muslims, Christians demand Scheduled Caste Status The Hindu. 14.3.2014.
  5. Prakash Louis., (2007) Dalit Christian: Betrayed by State Church, Economic and Political Weekly, XLII, No.16.pp.1404.1408

  1. Rijo M John and Rohit Muthatkar, (2005), State wise Estimates of Poverty among Religious groups in India, Economic and Political Weekly.13 pp.1337-1344
  2. Rowena Robinson (2014) Minority Rights versus Caste Claims Indian Christians and Predicaments of Law, Economic and Political Weekly, XLIX, No. 14, 5. pp.82-91
  3. , S.M (1996) Dalit Christian in India, Economic and Political Weekly,Vol.XXXI, No.50. pp.3243-3244
  4. Riemer A.S., (2009) Christian Dalits, Sage publication, New Delhi: pp.47-112
  5. Rowen Robinson and Sathianathan Clarke., (2003) Religious Conversion in India, Oxford University Press, New Delhi: pp.323-350
  6. , S.M. (2005) Understanding Indian Society: The Non Brahmanic Perspective, Rawat Publication, New Delhi.
  7. Madan T.N (1991) Religion in India, Oxford University Press, New Delhi: pp.379-389
  8. Fuller, C.J.Indian Christians: Pollution and Origins.Man, New Series, Vol. 12, No. 3/4. (Dec., 1977)
  9. Henderson, Carol. Culture and Customs of India. Greenwood Press, 2002.
  10. Koshy, Ninan. Caste in the Kerala Churches. Bangalore: Christian Institute for the Study of Religion and Society, 1968.
  11. Manickam, Sundararaj. Studies in Missionary History: Reflections on a Culture-contact. Christian Literature Society, 1988.
  12. Azariah M. The Un-Christian Side of the Indian Church. Alit Sahitya Academy, 1985.
  13. Kenneth, Ballhatchet (1998). Caste, Class and Catholicism in India, 1789–1914. Routledge.
  14. http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in
  15. http://www.historyteacher.net
  16. http://humanities.wisc.edu
  17. http://krishna.org
  18. https://philgcg11chd.wordpress.com
  19. https://en.wikipedia.org
  20. http://www.victorianweb.org
  21. https://dalitbangladesh.wordpress.com
  22. vodintl.org.uk
  23. indianchristians.in
  24. dalitchristians.com
  25. christiancouncil.in
  26. cwmission.org

 

The Study on Influence of Psychological and Socio Cultural Factor on the Share Market Operations. Reference to atticaloa District, Eastern Province, Sri Lanka.

A.Andrew

Stock market is an important part of the economy of a country. The stock market plays a pivotal role in the growth of the industry and commerce of the country that eventually affects the economy of the country to a great extent. That is the reason why, the government, industry and even the central banks of the country keep a close watch on the happenings of the stock market. The stock market is important from both the industry’s point of view as well as the investor’s point of view.

This study focuses the influence of psychological and socio cultural factors to implement on stock market in Batticaloa District in the Eastern part of Sri Lanka. This study was conducted with two research objectives: to find out the degree of psychological characteristics of potential investors regarding the stock exchange and to evaluate the level of support of socio culture environment to implement in share market.Self motivation, perception and attitude is the dimension of identifying the psychological characteristics. Social culture factors are including language skill, brokers support and culture support to mature the socio culture supportive.The study was conducted among the potential investors reside in the various part of the Batticaloa District. The data were collected from the 100 sample of people. The proportionate stratified random sampling method was used to select the sampling units and the structured questionnaire was used to collect the data. The data were analyzed using Univariate Analysis and Bivariate analysis techniques. The unit of analysis was individual person.

Finding of the study revealed that respondents (potential investors) were moderate level supportive to implement the stock exchange as indicated by the degree (measured as mean value) of their psychological characteristics (Self motivation 3.5), perception (3.4), and attitude (3.4). Socio cultural environment (3.17) was moderate level influence. In overall this study was find out moderate level supportive to implement the stock exchange in Batticaloa.

Keywords: Investment, Psychology, Stock Exchange, Investor, and Socio Culture Environment

 

 

  1. INTRODUCTION

An island nation situated at the Southern tip of India, Sri Lanka is often referred to as the Pearl of the Indian Ocean. With the end of a bitter three decade long civil conflict, the country is taking advantage of new found peace and stability and growing economic prosperity to make its mark as a global logistics center.

Increased political stability is laying the way for strong growth on investment as the Government formulates long term robust development plans to drive economy wide sustainable growth.

Our nation is developing nation and agricultural one for hundred years due to our capability of resources, gain knowledge and technology requirements even we greater than some nations. If we want to become leading one we should change our habits of investment.

Eastern province is a one of the nine provinces in Sri Lanka. The Batticaloa is a one of the district in Eastern Province. Our society based on knowledge income and saving has an essential role and making the most valuable effects by using financial system at an economic entity level.

The fundamental factors such as economy, industry and company analysis play a key role in investment decision process. In earlier there are few ways to invest their money for more money such as purchasing land and gold, invest in education and business ,life insurance, bank deposit share market etc.. But now there are twenty sectors for investment in stock exchange. Each and every sector is important to develop the nation.

The word Investment refers to the deployment of surplus funds either in the financial assets or in the physical assets with the expectation of getting an optimum return in future. R.Jayaraman, Dr.G.Vasanthi, M.S.Ramaratnam, (JBM&SSR Volume 3 ,2014).

These are under the stock exchange there are twenty sector to invest the money which is functioning under the capital market. First we understand the capital market. The Financial Market, which is the market for credit and capital, can be divided into the Money Market and the Capital Market. The Money Market is the market for short-term interest- bearing assets with maturities of less than one year, such as Treasury bills, commercial paper, and certificates of deposits. The major task of the Money Market is to facilitate the liquidity management in the economy. The main issuers in the Money Market are the Government, banks and private companies, while the main investors are banks, insurance companies and pension and provident funds. The Capital Market is the market for trading in assets for maturities of greater than one year, such as Treasury bonds, private debt securities (bonds and debentures) and equities (shares). The main purpose of the Capital Market is to facilitate the raising of long-term funds. The main issuers in the Capital Market are the Government, banks and private companies, while the main investors are pension and provident funds and insurance companies.

 The Financial Market can be also be classified according to instruments, such as the debt market and the equity market. The debt market is also known as the Fixed Income Securities Market and its segments are the Government Securities Market (Treasury bills and bonds) and the Private Debt Securities Market (commercial paper, private bonds and debentures). Another distinction can also be drawn between primary and secondary markets. The Primary Market is the market for new issues of shares and debt securities, while the Secondary Market is the market in which existing securities are traded. (http://www.cse.lk/static/introduction

Investment, first of all we will learn here that what Investment is? Is Investment just a money or capital? Is Investment just a part of your salary or Income? We will answer all these questions in a single line that Investment is that part of your money whose nominal value increases along with the inflation or time to increase its real value. We will learn some benefits of investing which you must know before investing in stock market.

The part of money which you park in some avenues like Bank Deposits, Real Estate, Jewellery or Stock Market to get some return on that capital in future is also known as Investing or Investment.

There are many Instruments of Stock Market called Securities like Shares, Bonds, Debentures etc. and this stock market have its own benefits in his own way for every person who invest in stock market. We will discuss here the advantages and the benefits of investing in Stock Market which you must know before Investing in stock market.

Easy Liquidity: It is the very first benefits of investing, In stock market shares and securities are traded in very high volume which make it a volatile market so there is very easy liquidity in stock market, like if you want to turn your investment in stock market into cash then you can do that very easily. Flexibility: Investing in stock market is very flexible like the market has ups and downs in prices at every trade session, price of stock market moves with the rapidity and flexibility of this market.

Regulatory Framework: Stock Market works under some regulatory framework to protect and safeguard all its investors. For example: In Sri Lanka the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) works as a Regulatory Framework Body to safeguard all investors. Maximum Returns: According to the long term perspective it is found that Investing in Stock Market gives maximum returns. For example:

Business Taste: Well, According to me it is the best benefits of investing in stock market you can ever have, here from Business Taste I mean that when a person trades or invest in stock market everything is here works like a business a modern style business. Sole Proprietorship: If you invest in stock market then you are starting your own business where your investment is your capital, like the more your trade is in profit the more your business grows and you are the only person to run this business that is why investing in stock market is your sole proprietorship business.

While in the midst of important transformation to an industrialized economy, its traditional stronghold in the service industry is growing with simultaneous speed. The change in the mindset of the investor’s leads to change in the trend of investment ways. The investor’s sentiment may either be optimistic or pessimistic. The people sentiment and socio culture sentiment are complimentary to each other. Any change in social change lead to a substantial change in the investor’s behavior similarly any change in the investors’ sentiment leads to a substantial change for social culture environment.

At presently telecommunication, bank and industry and food & beverage sectors are very popular one in the capital market and several advantages on investing shares even in the Batticaloa district still there is so many traditional ways are following by the people on investment. Here share investment way is infancy investment way. It should be encourage due to globalization and survive in future change.

Therefore, I have intended to study the influence of social and psychological factors on implement in share Market in Batticaloa District.

  1. PROBLEM STATEMENT

The Sri Lankan share market continues to shine as one of the best performing ones. According to Bloomberg news service in 2009.CSE is one of the most modern stock exchange in South Asia a fully automated trading platform and market capitalization of over US$ 23 billion, it has been one of the best performing stock market in the world, with average daily turnover US$ 18 million. http://kenangasl.com/why-sri-lanka/colombo-stock-exchange-cse/

Batticaloa is one of the districts in Sri Lanka, Still now Stock Exchange did not located in Eastern Province. There are huge amount of lands, higher education institutes, big amount of population who are knowledgeable and so many financial institutions.

If the stock exchange will be establish in Batticaloa district, that gives great investment opportunity to public and it will lead to economic development.

Therefore this present study aims to find out the influence of psychological and socio culture environment to establish the stock market in Batticaloa district.

  1. RESEARCH QUESTIONS
  2. What is the degree of psychological characteristic of potential investors in stock exchange?
  3. To what extent the socio culture environment is favorable to implement in the stock exchange?

4.OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

  1. To find out the degree of psychological characteristic to implement in Stock Exchange.
  2. To evaluate the level of favorable of Socio Culture environment to implement in stock exchange.
  3. SCOPE OF THE STUDY

This research is possible to study level influence of psychological and Socio culture factors to implement the share market, based on gender, education, ethnic group, designation, monthly income level, and investors’ behavior of particular people who are living in Batticalo district.

Therefore the researchers have scope of this study to the Batticaloa district and also selected 100 people which use in proportionate stratified random sample size in Divisional Secretariat Divisions in Batticaloa district to carry out this research study.

 

 

  1. LITERATURE REVIEW

Psychological Characteristic

Investors are normally assumed to make their financial decisions rationally according to classical economic theories but some novice investors make unsuitable investment decisions based on irrational exuberance (Ricciardi, 2008).

The investor sentiment is primarily based on investor’s psychology. Individual expectation, Individual optimism, individual ability and individual confidence are the four major psychological components of investor sentiments. On other words the investors sentiments are run by individual expectation, individual optimism, individual ability and individual confidence (R.Jayaraman,Dr.G.Vasanthi.M.S.Ramaratnam, JBM&SSR 2014)

Psychological factors operating within individual partly determine people’s general behavior and thus influence their behavior as consumer. Primary psychological influence their behavior as consumer are perception, motives, learning, attitudes and personality and self concept. Even though these psychological factors operate internally, they are also very much affected by social factors outside the individual. (Pride M Ferrell .O. C, 2006)

Emotional development of children and is part of developmental psychology, the study of changes in behavior that occur through the life span. Cognitive psychology deals with how the human mind receives and interprets impressions and ideas. Social psychological looks at how the actions of others influence the behavior of an individual.

(http:/www.medterms.com/script/main/art.asp/articlekey)

The persons buying choices are also influenced by four major psychological factors motivation, perception, learning, and beliefs and attitudes. (Philip Kottel, 2005)

Consumer attitudes are composite of a consumer’s beliefs about feelings ,about behavioral intentions towards some “object “ – within the context of marketing , usually a brand, product category, or retail store. These components are viewed together since they are highly interdependent and together represent forces that influence how the consumers will react to the object.

 Consumer attitude are considered by many marketers to be accurate predictors of consumer behavior, making the study of attitude formation and change an important topic. Attitudes are learned tendencies to perceive and act in a consistent way toward a given objective or idea, such as a product, services, brand, company, store or spoke person. This definition emphasizes the impact on attitude of several of other concepts.

The attitude is a person’s enduring favorable or unfavorable evaluation, emotional feeling, and action tendencies toward some object or idea. People have attitudes towards almost everything: religion, politics, clothing, music and foods. Attitudes put people into a frame of mind: liking and disliking an objects, moving towards or away from it (Phillip Kottler

Socio Culture Environment

According to Kottler views culture factors exert the broadest and deepest influences on consumer behavior. Culture, subculture and social class, reference group, family and social roles and particularly important in buying behavior.

  1. METHODOLOGIES

Sample of the Study

 

The total population for the study was in Batticaloa district people. There are 100 people were  selected who are resident of Divisional Secretariat division in Batticaloa District (100%) as sample by using stratified random sampling method.

Data Collection Method

In considering objectives it was a cross – sectional one in the time horizon because data were collected in a one single time from the respondents but the unit of analysis was the people of the selected area in the Batticaloa district.

The questionnaire is a structure technique for data collection. The primary data were collected through questionnaires and interviews from the respondents. The questionnaire developed based on three parts, namely research information, personal information and investor’s behavior. In this research questionnaire is closed ended. In general closed questions are considered as more efficient and reliable than open ended questions. In the research one of the ordinal measures called “Likert’s five points rating scale” is used to require respondents to order their answers.

  1. Methods of Data Analysis

Data Presentation and Analysis

The data were analyzed by using univariate analysis and bivariate analysis techniques. In this case, the unit of analysis was individual person of selected area in Batticaloa district.

Method of Data Evaluation

Each variable is given a scale from 1-5 to show the extent of agreement, based on responses, univariate measures were calculated for each of variables. The mean value is lying in the range of 1-5. The range is explore the particular result of this study the range between 1 and 0.25 is express the low level influence for this study. The range between 2.5 and 3.5 is assumed moderate level influence on this study. The range above 3.5 to 5 is considered high level influence on this study. This decision rule is used to measure the level of influence. It shown in the table.

  1. Implication and conclusion

Psychological characteristic of people on Share Market operations in Batticaloa district.

Psychological Characteristic variable with three dimension including self motivation, perception and attitude are evaluated the influence of Psychological Characteristic of people on the share market operations in Batticaloa. We test through univariate analysis and bivariate analysis techniques. This outcome express the mean value is 3.4733 and standard deviation is 0.4524. It is shown in the table 3

If we want to invest in share market we should wish on the activities. That desire depends on our mind likewise involvement on share market operations also leads by our mind. The society should be support to run the business.

The first objective is obtained through the psychological characteristic variable. It is moderate level supportive on this study.

Extent of Social Cultural Environment Supportive to Invest on Share Market Operations.

Socio Culture variable with three dimensions are knowledge on share market, stock brokers support and cultural support. Those dimensions help to identify the influence of socio culture environment. We test through univariate analysis and bivariate analysis techniques. This outcome express the mean value is 3.1733 and standard deviation is 0.23915.

The second objective is obtained through the socio culture factors. It is moderate level supportive on this study.

Overall Result

 

Eventually when we observe the influence factors for an establishment of the stock exchange in Batticaloa district. Table 4   clearly discloses that influence factors are moderate level to establish the stock exchange in Batticaloa district.

  1. CONCLUTION AND RECOMMENTATION

To examine two variable of research we have used six dimensions. All research variables have been measured due to the nature of measurement and research objectives have been investigated with using of mean and standard deviation that summarized in Tables.

It is commonly believed that the investment decision of the investors is driven by the sentiment of investors. Investor’s psychological characteristic and socio culture trends were carefully indentified with the help of existing review of literature. The study has revealed that image factor has appeared as the most influence factor in determining investors decision making. Similarly individual optimism has become the key factor in influencing the sentiment of the investors.

In Batticaloa district there are many educational institutes those are higher education as university, college of education, teacher’s training college, international school and vocational training center even it is distant from share investment, there are low level of awareness and lack of stock brokers firm and information center on this type of investment. In any type of education should change the people and their society. These institutions can be change through subject of finance and investment. We can revolve the people’s investment pattern through provide psychological training as skill, attitude and knowledge development. This step change social culture environment due to most of them are more believe on educated people so if we change the educational society’s investment pattern other type of society also change into share market. Those are possible; the stock exchange will be established in Batticaloa district because visible services are more invited by the people. Based on this type of investment way some are known well some are unknown therefore, we assume this is a childhood investment way  in Batticaoloa, We state without building we cannot run the business perfectly based on our research.

Finally this study convey people are mostly involved all type of investment even experientially traditional investment is well known by the people than share investment because inadequate resources and deepest knowledge on this field. Psychological and socio cultural motivational factors are motivated the people to invest in share market so implementation is necessary one in Batticaloa district.

Reference 

  1. Alexander William, Gordon. J, Sharpe. F, Feffery v,bailey, Fundamental of investment ,3rd ed
  2. Barnewall,M.M(1987) Psychological characteristic of individual investors.
  3. Bhole L.M, (2004) Financial institution and market, 4th ed, publish by Tata Mcgrow –hill, New   Delhi,    5, 17.2-19.12
  4. Central Bank of Sri Lanka, (2008), Recent Economic Development -Highlight of 2008 and Prospect for 2009, Central Bank Publication
  5. Cornett and Saundress, (1998), Fundamentals of Financial Institutions Management, Irwin McGraw-Hill, New Delhi, pp26-29
  6. Daily news , Thursday November 5 2009
  7. Gary .Armstrong, Plip Kotler , Principal of marketing 5th ed
  8. E,(Oct 2000) Sri Lankas Securities market ,1st ed
  9. Kiran D. and Rao U.S. (2004), “Identifying Investor Group Segments Based on Demographic and Psychographic Characteristics”, MBA Project Report, Sri Sathya Sai Institute of Higher Learning
  10. Naresh,k.malhotra,satyabhusan Dash Marketing Research an Applied Orientation, ,5th edition,
  11. M, Ferrell, marketing 10th ed 2000, all Indian publisher & distributors Regd
  12. Peter S.Rose, (1986), Money and Capital Market, Printice Hall, London, pp 330-423
  13. Valarie A,Zeithul mary J Bitner , Ajoy Pandit Dwayne D gremler 2008 Service Jayaraman, Dr.G.Vasanthi, M.S.Ramaratnam, A Study on influence of psychological factors on Investment Behaviour in Equity Investment,Journal of Business Mangement &Social Science Research(JBM&SSR Volume 3 ,2014)
  14. S, saravavel.P, (2005/2006) marketing research and consumer behavior

 

Defensive Walls under Threat: Examining the Status of the Great Medieval Defensive Walls of Dawuro People in Southern Ethiopia

Admasu Abebe*

Zelalem Tesfaye**

Abstract

Historically, in different countries walls are built for different purposes. Among others, defense purpose is the most common one. For instance, to mention a few, we do have the Great Wall of China was built from 3rdcentury B.C to 17thcentury A.D, the Great Zimbabwe Wall was built from 1100–1450 A.D; the Koso Defense mud Wall in Nigeria was built from1000 to 1500 A.D, in Kenya the Gunda-buche Wall and in Ethiopia, the Jegol Wall of Harer city was built in the 16th century for defensive purposes. Likewise, the Dawuro kings who ruled Dawuro between 16th to 18th centuries pursued a common goal of establishing a dependable defense mechanism by building walls and digging ditches. These defensive walls are known as the great walls of Dawuro or locally named as kati halala keela. The average height of a wall is about 2.6m, and its average width is about 3.5m. The sum total of the rows estimated to be about more than 1000 kms. The walls were made of stones without any joining materials like masonry and cement. The walls had seven main gateways called lappunnmitsa. Accordingly, this paper attempts to elucidate whether the construction technology of the Walls evolved from traditional terracing practices. It also presents why the walls were purposefully built and how they used dry stones as building materials. The article discerns that resource mobilization for the construction was based on the owed quota system in family and village levels. Besides, it found that the walls are being destructed by both human activities and natural factors. The indigenous construction technology and spirit of cooperation that manifested through the living wall of Halala Keela is now prone to extinction. Thus, this article is based on fieldwork between 2010-11 and thus it used primary data collected through observation, semi-structured interviews, and focus group discussion. Besides, secondary data were used to supplement the primary data. Finally, it calls for intervention to put in place the proper management of the heritage and to combat the further extinction of the wall.

Key words: Dawuro, Development, Dry stone defensive walls, Halala keela, traditional terracing practice, Omo Valley

  1. Introduction: People, the Land and the Defense Walls

The history of building ‘great’ walls was associated with defensive roles from arch-enemy.  The historical and scientific values of these walls could be compared to different walls across the world.  For example, the Great Wall of China was built from 3rdcentury B.C to 17thcentury A.D to keep themselves safe from semi-nomadic people; the Great Zimbabwe Wall was built from 1100–1450 A.D as enclosure to the commercial and political center (www.dreams-travel.com/);  Koso Defense mud Wall in Nigeria was built from1000 to 1500 A.D to control trade centers (Aremu 2007:7). The intermittent warfare, the raiding of slave from the state, the trans-Atlantic or trans- Saharan trade might have forced the society in West Africa to build Segou Walls in between 18th to 19th centuries (MacDonald 2012, 343). In western Kenya, the defensive earthworks enclosures known as Gunda-buche were built to protect human enemies as well as domestic animals from wild animals (Odede 2009:47). In Ethiopia, the Jegol Wall of Harer city was built in the 16th century for defensive purposes. In the same line, the Dawuro people had constructed defensive walls from 16th to 18th Century.

The term “Dawuro” is used to refer to both the people and their land. Currently, the Dawuro is constituted as one of the fourteen Zones in South Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples’ Regional State (SNNPR) in the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, according to the post-1991 political and administrative reordering. Dawuro zone lies in between the Gojeb and Omo Rivers. Dawuro shares boundaries with Konta Special Wereda in the west, Jimma zone (Oromia Region) in the northwest, Hadiya and Kambata–Tambaro zones in the northeast, Wolayita zone in the east, and Gamo–Gofa zone in the southeast directions. Dawuro has an area of 5,000 km2 (Damene, cited in The Ethiopian Herald, 19/02/2003 E.C). Their language is Dawurotsuwa which belongs to the Omotic language family. Based on the 2007 Ethiopian Population and Housing Census projection, the population of Dawuro nationality is about 846,199. The political centre of Dawuro zone is Tarcha, located at 486 km from Addis Ababa.

Historically, Dawuro had been a highly centralized powerful independent kingdom, until Emperor Menelik II incorporated it into the Ethiopian Empire in 1891. Dawuro’s southern, eastern, and northern strategic border positions were enclosed by vigorous defensive walls. The walls stretched from the borders of Gofa in its southwestern direction and extended to the borders of Wolaitta, Kambata, Hadiya and Jimma zones in its northwestern direction. Conversely, in the western borders from Gofa-Konta to Gojeb River, the kingdom was blocked by a series of defensive ditches with 3 meters depth. These defensive ditches should be equally treated with the Walls, but not dealt well in this paper.

Besides, some sources affirm that in southwestern direction it stretched up to the border of Kaffa as far as south Omo to the areas of the “Ari, Bume and Omo Galab” pastoralist areas (Sied 2007: 27).  The construction of these walls might have begun in the first half of 16th century and completed during the reign of king ;Halala, probably in the second half of 18th century (Elias 1999: 120).  Although the Walls were started by his predecessors, it might have been named after king Halala who finalized the construction. However, for the purpose of this article the authors refer to the walls as “Dawuro Walls” because we believe the walls had not been built by a single king and for consistency purposes.

To commemorate their ancestors’ suffering during the construction process, the Dawuro people consider the walls as sacred places and hence they never walk on them as this might despise their ancestors. In this regard, Blake Janet (cited in Kamenka 2000: 77) stated that the relationship between cultural heritage, cultural identity and human rights as “… the importance to the human beings of the sense of identity given not so much by material improvement, but by customs and tradition, by historical identification, by the religion… the sense of identity for most people is essential to their dignity, self-confidence, value that underlie in the concept of human right itself.” More importantly, Rosabela, (2005:283) stated “without culture there is no future.”

  • Setting the Context of the Problem

Ethiopia is one of the countries, which has long history of civilization and outstanding human achievements. In its jurisdiction, there are copious past attainments that profusely guarantee its civilization (Institute of Archaeology 1966:4). Nonetheless, those achievements are not treated fairly and equally among the diverse cultural materials. For instance, the cultural heritages in southern Ethiopia were not treated as much as those in northern Ethiopia. Kassaye (1998: 12) reported that “the type and number of the heritages that we knew are less than those we didn’t in southern Ethiopia.” He also stressed that “the protection, preservation, documentation and scientific investigation done on the heritages were predisposed to single dimension on those well-known historical heritages” (Kasssaye 1998:13).

The case of Dawuro walls is the untold and unexplored tangible heritage of the medieval period of Dawuro people. This was not without reason. The historical accounts of medieval periods in Ethiopia are distorted, sometimes fabricated and at other times forbid recognition. Hence, little is known about Dawuro walls. For historians, it could seem unread massage in a box of Ethiopian history. According to Oliver (1963: 50) unlike the western history, African history should focus on the living culture and material remains of the past which could serve as primary sources. Moreover, conducting continuous scientific studies on these walls could bring about paradigm shift to the understanding of the history of the so called “uncivilized, barbarian and backward” southern societies. Perhaps, lack of recognition and scientific investigation of the Dawuro walls might have “shadowed” the medieval history of Dawuro and its cultural attributes to the human community.

Leave alone in the 19th and 20th century historical accounts, the case of Dawuro walls is not given any serious attention in 21st century. To the contrary, the massive development projects led by the government of Ethiopia have destroyed some parts of the wall.  Recently, a few archaeological surveys have been undertaken on the kati Halala Defense Walls. First, in February 2007, on the request of the local government for the destruction caused by Gibe III hydroelectric project, Rapid Archaeological Impact Assessment was made by Authority for Research and Conservation of Cultural Heritages (ARCCH) (Hailu 2007: 1). Second, in November 2008, the ARCCH made an archaeological survey and investigated the stone walls of Ijajo keela in Wollaita (67 kilometers long, 1.5 to 2.5m height, 1 to 2.5m width) and Kati Halala Walls in Dawuro (Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation 2009: 147).

  • The Objectives of the Study

The main objective of this article is to discuss the genesis of the construction process of the walls and the defensive strategies of the medieval Dawuro people. In particular, it aims to explain the pouring forces for the construction of the walls, to elucidate the physical structure and the purposes of the walls, and to identify the causes of endangerments of the walls.

1.3. Methodology

This article employed qualitative research methodology in order to dig out qualitative information (Johnson and Christensen 2004: 180). Nominal data were collected during fieldwork in selected sites. During the fieldwork, notes, pictures and video images of the walls were taken. In the meantime, selected key informants were interviewed. Besides, 47 interviewees who had good knowledge of the oral tradition were purposefully selected. Interviewees were selected from five districts but the majorities were chosen from the nearby settlements surrounding the Dawuro walls. Two focus group discussions were carried out. With regard to document analysis, the researcher used reports, letters, magazines, diaries, electronically accessed materials, theses, dissertations and books.

The kati Halala walls and ditches lie in more than 45 kebeles (villages) of the border areas of the zone. From these, nine kebeles were selected as specific study area for fieldwork (see fig. 1 below).

Fig.1. Map of Dawuro Zone and the Study sites

In order to estimate the average height and width of the walls, through non-random sampling technique, 20 sites were selected and measured. Accordingly, the subjects of the study were selected based on “who knows what”. Elders, traditional religious fathers, concerned local politicians and professionals (teachers, lawyers and heritage management experts) were included in the study. Lastly, the data from both primary and secondary sources were transcribed after repeated listening, watching and reading of the records. Finally, it was analyzed and interpreted.

  1. The Genesis of Dawuro Walls: From Terracing to Defense Walls

The long and tall Dawuro walls might have evolved from the people’s indigenous practice of terracing. In southern Ethiopia, some ethnic groups are well known for their knowledge of building dry stone walls as mechanism of soil conservation. For example, the Konso people are known for having dry stone walls terraces to get cultivable surfaces on steep slopes, counteract erosion, assist drainage and encourage the formation of cultivable deep soil (Demeulenaere 2002: 81; Amborn 1989:73). Likewise, the Dawuro people, who live near the Omo River valley, had been practicing construction of terraces[1] from stone and dug trenches to keep the soil fertility since long ago. Besides, according to my informants, terraces helped to protect crops from wild animals like pigs, maintaining soil fertility and protecting it from erosion. In Dawuro tradition, there is also an experience of re-terracing farm plots. A terraced plot may be cultivated for about 4-5 years until it loses its fertility. Then, it will be removed and shifted to immediate spot. The mark where the terrace lay for years will become very fertile, and the shift produces fertile soils for the farmers. Elders in the localities asserted that such a terracing system is a long established knowledge of the society. The elders of Dawuro confirm that these terraces have existed on their farms and grazing lands since time immemorial.

Consequently, one may conclude that the long-standing tradition of terracing and re-terracing of farm plots has laid the foundation and skill for building strong and defensive great Dawuro walls. The designing and planning strategy of the walls also shows us how well-skilled and traditionally trained man power took part in the whole construction process (Hailu 2007:409 and ARCCH 2008:13). As a result, they might have learned the dry stone wall building technology from agricultural practices of terracing. Accordingly, all the engineering skills and architectural know-how employed to the construction were the products of the local skill. However, nowadays, the degree of terracing in Dawuro has significantly declined because of labor intensiveness of terrace construction (Watson 2009: 1) and time consumption. Therefore, these indigenous practices are overlooked by contemporary farmers and state development agencies.

  • The Unsettling Reasons of Dawuro Walls Construction

The construction of Dawuro walls had several presumptions. The first one reveals that it might have begun during the reigns of Kati Mao, from Susungiya clan, Kawo Ubana from Zutuma, Kawo Dina Moha from Zalinisya clan and Kawo Nao Beyedu from Kawuka clan in the first half of the 16th century (Minister of Tourism and Culture 2010:1 and Wogaa 2000:44-45). The second presumption focused on the assumption that the whole process of construction that took more than 20 years was begun and completed during the reign of Kati Halala in the second half of the 18th century.  Most of the sources indicate that the construction of the walls might have begun in the first half of the 16th century, during the turbulent period in Ethiopian history – the periods of Ahmed Gragn`s war[2] and the Oromo expansion. Haberland (1977:3) mentioned that three factors: political, cultural, and ethnic movements that had played a prominent role in the history of the loss of the people of south western Ethiopia. They were the influence of Islam and Arab culture, the spread of Christian Empire, and the Oromo population movements.

Second, pastoralists from around Lake Turkana and lower Omo valley might have put pressure on Dawuro peasants during resource scarce seasons. Hence, these pastoralist groups had been pushing towards the Upper Omo basin up to Gojeb River searching for free grazing land and water, which again forced them to cross the Dawuro territory. Their mobility, accompanied by raids, might have instigated conflict with the highland settlers. Thus, such pastoralist movements might have been causes for everlasting conflicts between the herders and/or with cultivators (Informant J, K & L). For example, according to local Dawuro elders consider the Golda (but Fujimoto (2009: 313 defined golda as Surmic-speaking, chiefly the Bod’i) pastoral groups as entirely merciless, brutal murderers, and greedy ran sackers and raid their cattle during dry season. Furthermore, the current contentions between pastoralists and cultivators around Gojeb River in Wara, Goriqa, Aba and Baza Shota are the signs of the continuity of the conflicts. Therefore, the construction of the defensive ditches and walls along Dawuro territory on a right side immediate to Omo and Gojeb Rivers might be intended to block the routes of these pastoralists along these rivers.

Third, the informants declared that the construction of the Walls were associated with the society’s unity and loyalty. The people “always considered themselves as independent, (Abbo daadada gumiya Dawuro! meaning, “a hero people like a thunder, free, loving their state, jealous of their identity, and having strong unity and solidarity.” Weil Simone (2002:79) theorized: “true liberty is not defined by a relationship between desire and satisfaction but by the relationship between thought and action.” Likewise, the oral traditions of the Dawuro stated that the society had thought and planted vanguard wall to maintain their identity and ultimately their freedom. The strong sense of defensive identity could also be referred from some of the Dawuro proverbs, “qommu bayanappe qodhiy qanxeto” (which means it is better to be slaughtered than lose one’s identity). Accordingly, their intrinsic spirit of patriotism had perhaps helped them to construct such huge walls using their indigenous knowledge.

Finally, the oral traditions collected from the informants confirmed that after the detection of the main security problems of the kingdom, the Dawuro kings usually held public discussions. Afterwards, the congregation promised to build walls and dig ditches on the whole borders to shield from the alien threat. This public promise (oath) is known as “nuu awaa lafunuwa mayizaa” (the oath of our seven forefathers). Accordingly, it had become the hallmark decision for generations to accomplish the construction.

 

 

  • Role of Social Structure in Dawuro Wall Construction

The well‑structured social structure of the Dawuro people has played pivotal role in the construction of the walls. Acording to key informants confirmed that the well-organized political administrative structure of the kingdom empowered regional states and they played key roles in the whole construction phases. In such a social and political structure, even their leaders knew the names of each individual (Seid 2007: 41; Wandimu, 2009:17). Tha Dawuro had the following social structure:

King® Woraba® Erasha® Guuda® Daana ® Huuduga® D’uga.

The king rules and oversees all the functions of the subordinate social structures. Worabas (‘regional’ leader) were authorized in each administrative region under the king. It seems that each region under woraba was ordered to fortify its own territory. Then, the construction sites of the regions were also sub-divided for different Erashas (village leader) under the supervision of Woraba. Thus, the quota was given to each woraba to mobilize the people in his/her territory. Labor mobilization takes place through conscription of labor force based on quota system. An individual who could engage in the construction was recruited from each family based on a quota scheme. The quota system was given for each of the seven administrative regions.[3] For instance, if there were four youngsters in a family, two of them would be sent to build the walls and the remaining two would serve the family. If there were no youngsters in the family, the male parent would either go to build the walls or pay additional tribute (in kind: such as offering fatten goat, ox, and/or sheep). Sometimes apart from the quota, some individuals would voluntarily participate in the building process to be regarded as gadaawo means a hero. Thus, we have three approaches of conscription: youngsters are mandatorily required to construct (quota system), a male parent can either take part in construction or pay in kind in lieu of his absence, and finally, in addition to these categories any volunteer can take part in. Later on, the independently built fortifications were interconnected with one another thereby forming complete and unified Defense Walls.

 It is important to note that the building of the walls took place on difficult landscapes of hills, plateau, mountains, plains, and steep cliffs, searching for appropriate sites that could pledge the military defensive strategies. Three to seven parallel rows of walls would be built in the directions where an intensive attack was assumed to arise. The inaccessible steep cliffs, hills, mountains in the border would reinforce the defense system. In these areas, the walls were not constructed instead those natural fences were believed to serve as defensive grounds.

  • Description of the Physical Structure of the Dawuro Walls

The Dawuro walls were constructed on strategic defense positions, skirted by the Omo and Gojeb Rivers. The length of a single row of the wall, estimated to be more than 200km and the sum total of each wall was about more than 1000 kilometers (Ministry of Culture and Tourism 2010: 1). In addition to my field observation, some of the informants stated that the heights, upper width, and thickness of the walls varied according to the landscape as well as the direction from which a threat was expected. The upper width and the heights of the walls, being proportional, give regular thickness of the walls. When the height increased in the plains, the upper width also increased vis-à-vis to the steep hill area. During the fieldwork, 20 selected sites of the walls were measured to estimate their height, width, and thickness. Accordingly, the height of the walls ranged from 1.8 meters in steep hills and ill-constructed areas to 3.8 meters in the plains and well-constructed areas. The average height was about 2.6 meters. The length of the upper width of the walls extended from 1.6 meters in the steep hills and poorly constructed parts to 5.70 meters in the plain and well-constructed areas. The average length of the upper width was about 3.5 meters.

Fig. 2. Partial view of Dawuro walls (photo by the authors).

The dry stone walls were two separate but interlocking walls, tied at irregular intervals. Neither mortar or nor cement was used for bonding. Carefully dressed, sharp and flat stones were placed towards the front sides on the upper part of the walls facing the enemy position. Indeed, it was designed so as to easily crash the enemy who happened to break/cross the wall. Hence, to make the walls strong enough, the proportion of thickness, height and width of the walls were well calculated on the basis of how much a cavalry horse able to jump the wall.

Constructing dry stone walls was very expensive and time consuming. Scholars suggest that building dry stone wall currently may not be cheap even if supported by modern technology. A 1.5m high dry stone wall might cost £270. Walling needs hard work: a good craftsman can build probably three meters of wall a day.

  • Dawuro Walls: Main Gateways and Its Function

As a defensive wall, the Dawuro walls had the ‘killing fields’ in between the Walls, ranging from 300 to 1000 meters, which help the soldiers attack an enemy by surprise. A killing field referred to an area between the first wall and second or third wall. When the first wall was breached, the guards ran to the second wall and ambushed the enemy. Soldiers usually waited on top of the second wall armed with spear, shield, knife and sharp stones. When the enemy came to the killing field; soldiers could step ahead and easily attack them. If the enemy forces breaking the walls were enormous, they would retreat back and hide themselves on the other walls (third to the seventh walls). At the bottom of the walls, very sharp wooden weapons were erected to crash the enemy when they tried to cross the walls.

Moreover, the Dawuro walls had main gateways appropriated to control the import and export trade activities. The movements of people to and from the neighboring kingdoms were highly controlled. These gates did not have doors to be opened and closed rather watched by soldiers day and night. The king directly assigned gatekeepers (Wogaa 1992: 42; Seid 2007: 27; Womdimu 2009:18). The Dawuro Walls had seven main gateways. They were: Gate of Dara, Gate of Aba-Garga, Kaffa Gate, Gate of Qala, Gate of Yelu or Doylu, Gate of Zima Waruma and Gate of Zaba Garada. Here below each of the main gateways are discussed.

  1. Daara Mitsa (Gate at Dara): It is located in Gena Bosa district in Baza-shota around Gibe and Gojeb Rivers confluence. It is found on the top of the first row of the defense walls. Above the gate, there were two rows of Defense Walls and two watching towers on the top of the mountain and there are ten fortresses built on the two sides of the gate.

As illustrated in the figure below, in between the exit and entrance door there were three steps of seats carved from rocks. The gate keepers seat on them to check the incoming and outgoing of the people both for security and to collect tributes. Besides, on the two sides of the gate there were ten forts: five on the right hand and five on the left hand side.

  1. Aba Garga Mista (Gate of Aba-Garga): It is located in the western part and used to control the attacks from Jimma and Konta; yet it was used as trade route to Jimma. As to informants, the forces of Menelik II controlled the territory through this gate in 1891.
  • Ella or Kaffa Mista (Ella/Kaffa Gate): It is located in the Manta-Tulama to protect the territory from aggressors and cattle burglars especially from Kaffa.
  1. Qala Mitsa (Gate of Qala): It is located in the southwestern part on the border of Konta and Gofa. Yet, the cattle raiders from Menit, Bume, and Goldia continuously attacked the Dawuro society during dry season in this direction. Currently, the gate is found in the dense forest of Chabera–Churchura national Park.
  2. Yelu or Doylo mitsa (Gate at yelu or Doylu): It is located in the southern part on the borders of Gamo-Gofa, and Malo.
  3. Zima-waruma or Dangarsa mista (Gate of Zima Waruma): It is located in the eastern part on the way to Wolaitta. In this direction, seven parallel rows of Walls were built to block the attacks from that side.
  • Zaba-garada or Barakenna mitsa (Gate of zaba Garada): It is found in the northeastern part of the region on the borders of Kambata, Tanbaro and

  1. Evaluating the Current Condition of Dawuro Walls

Based on the data gathered from fieldwork, the factors that exposed the heritage to endangerment can be broadly classified into three actors: natural hazards, local communities’ activities and state development projects. First and foremost, the Dawuro Walls remained for half a millennium without any maintenance and protection. Hence, the dynamic changes of climate exerted its own impacts on the heritage. As a result, this heritage is highly damaged by the continuous variation of temperature. Some of those natural factors affecting the heritage are weather, land slide, wind and bank erosion, trees growing on the walls, and wild animals. Second, local people’s undertakings such as settlements, land grazing, use as construction material and others had affected negatively the maintenance of the walls. Third, state led development project had also demolished some parts of the walls. For example, for the purpose of construction of main road part of the Dawuro wall was demolished. Here below, these three actors are noted and analyzed.

Natural Hazards: The walls are located in the hot gorges of Omo and Gojeb Rivers. The temporary variation of temperature and rainfall throughout its age caused the disturbance of structure, joints, curving position and its architecture. As a result, the Walls are cracked and dismantled in various areas. Besides most of the walls were constructed on the topography of steep hills, plateaus and mountains of high potential areas where land sliding occurs. During the rainy seasons, the land highly slides from the top of hills and mountains, causing the Walls crack and break down. Besides, the high erosion rate and some of the small water drainage (during summer season) dismantle it. When strong winds cause trees to tip over, the roots of the trees often displace the structure of dry stone. Furthermore, there are numerous natural growing big trees on the walls and their surroundings. Similarly, the structure of the walls is disturbed when wild fire burns down both the branches and roots of old trees.  These trees dismantle the Walls twice, first in their growing stage and second when they get burned. Finally, the damages also exerted from various wild animals such as monkeys, apes, lions, leopards, buffalo, hyena, antelope, etc often cross the walls while searching food from the other side of the walls.

Activities of Local Community: Here, according to the data obtained from field observation and focused group discussion with local community members, the damages on the heritage caused by settlement and resettlements. As discussed earlier, the high density of population and shortage of farming land might have forced the people to search for free land around the walls and to settle there. Such human settlements damage the structure of the walls and this has been clearly observed during the fieldwork. Second, the inhabitants near the walls graze their cattle in the Omo gorge by crossing the walls. The local people cross these parallel rows of the walls in various directions so that they could access free grazing lands, and mineral waters in Sogida as well as Omo Rivers. The inhabitants around the walls get wood for construction, fuel and agricultural implements from Omo and Gojeb gorges by crossing several rows of the walls.

State-led Development Induced Endangerments: Today, Ethiopia is achieving its economic prosperity through constructing infrastructures such as roads, hydroelectric dams, and others. While the rate of the introduction of development projects and investments increased, the destructions on the heritages are also increasing from time to time. Specifically, when roads and dam construction activities were launched in the area, the heritage was easily removed just like any kind of “garbage” and was disfigured without any due attention for its historical significance.

In this regard, it is very important to elucidate the controversies between development projects and heritage conservation specifically on the Dawuro walls.

 

Case I: The Construction of Sodo-Chida Road (1996)

In 1996 the Ethiopian Road Authority constructed a road that crossed the walls in seven different parts. To minimize the labor and financial costs of the construction, the contractor simply removed the well-dressed basalt stones from the nearby walls and used it for the construction of road as raw materials without any consulting the Dawuro people or compensating the people. This issue was clearly reflected during the discussion with local community members in the fieldwork. Currently, the road that connects Dawuro, Wolayitta and Oromiya Region (e.g.Jimma and Illu Abba Bora zones) is found in area to be submerged by the Gibe III Dam reservoir. Therefore, the road is realigned in the downstream direction to the Gibe III dam.

 

Fig.3.  Sodo-Tercha- Chida road construction which cut the walls  (photo by authors)

  Case II: Gibe III Hydroelectric Dam Project2 

Gibe III dam project is being constructed on the Omo River between Dawuro and Wolaitta zones in SNNPR. The reservoir of the dam extends for about 150 kilometers over the narrow Omo River gorge from elevation 670 to 896 meters above sea level. It has the capacity to produce 1870 MW and an annual energy production of 6,500 GWh, which provides great input for the development of the country (EEPCO 2009: 1). On the other hand, such a big project has its own side effects on the environment and historical heritages. For instance, The Great defensive stone Walls of Dawuro are one of the historical resources located in the west bank of Omo River (from 1 to 2.5 kilometers away) and exposed to a serious destruction due to this project. The impacts of Gibe III dam project on the heritage is examined at three levels: during initial stage (the building of road routes, camps, clearing of trees and geological excavation), construction stage (digging foots of dam, bulldozing trees and stones to remove waste materials from one site to the other) and operating stage (its partial occupation by the reservoir).

At the end of 2006 mid-day international consulting engineers of Gibe III hydroelectric project reported to ARCCH that they had encountered the elongated stone of kati Halala walls in Dawuro and Ijajo wall along the Omo River (Haile 2007:399). Besides, in November 2007 they also sent a letter to Dawuro zone administration stating that:

According to our research findings, we found that the historical wall, built by King Halala of Dawuro, has total length of 175km, highest 2-2.30 in the project area. During the operation stage of the Dam, about 5km of the wall was partially submerged by the reservoir. Therefore discussion with concerned body is needed about the aim of the project, and the expected impacts and rescue mechanisms.

Based on this request, from January 28 to February 4, 2007 preliminary archaeological survey and rapid impact assessment was conducted by team of 3 ARCCH experts and 1 from the mid-day international engineers consultancy particularly in the accessible area of Zima-waruma Kebele in Dawuro zone (Hailu 2007: 400). Later, on November 20, 2008, ARCCH conducted fieldwork survey in 2 phases: first from October 3-14, 2008 and second from October 15- November 2, 2008 in five zones (Wolayita, Dawuro, Jimma, Hadiya and Kambata-Tambaro) of reservoir outpouring areas and adjacent buffer zones. Its principal aim was to evaluate and locate archaeological resources in the proposed area (ARCCH 2008: 2-3). This interim study stated that a total of 45 sites of Archaeological importance were located in the course of the survey; most of these sites are located above 893masl (below 893masl expected to be submerged by the reservoir). Out of this, 4 sites were identified in Wolaitta side of the Omo River whereas 41 sites were found to be in Dawuro zone (Loma and Gena-Bossa woredas) on the western side of the same river. Eight sites were found in Subo-Tulam kebele (found in Dawuro) where the construction of the dam and its related activities are taking place and located between 700 to 920 masl and found between 2 to 2.5kms away from the Omo River (ibid: 8-9). This report also concluded that most of the discovered sites contain defensive walls which might be affected by the dam reservoir. The report also added that two sites from manara locality in kindo-koysha district of Wolyita zone and six sites from Dawuro zone will be affected by the water of the reservoir.  Besides, the walls that descend from shirgimi mountain of Dawuro to the same valley can be flooded by the reservoir through shirgimi Valley that joins the Omo Valley. Moreover, three sites that preserve the Halala defensive walls could be affected by the construction activities and may be covered by water if the reservoir is over flooded. Sied (2007: 27) also anticipated that “the newly constructed Gibe III hydro-electric power station may affect its (Halala walls) historic significance in the future.” Even though the interim archaeological survey partially identified the impact of Gibe III dam on the Halala walls, it was reserved from describing the magnitude and scale of the impact in measurable units (like kilometers, meters and so on).

Fig. 4. kati Halala wall located immediate to Omo River in flooding zone (photo by the authors)

At the beginning of January 2009, a discussion was held between the Mid-Day International Consultancy Engineers and Dawuro zone administrative bodies (with five members) on the importance of the project, impacts of the project and compensation issues. Among the other issues, it seems that the zone administrative officials stressed in their discussion about the historical significance of the walls for Dawuro society and attention should be paid to preservation activities.

On the contrary, some of the government owned magazines (zemen metset October 2006: 48), by referring to environmental and social impact assessment, stated that about 2% of the Halala walls (5kms) would be flooded by the reservoir. Disputes, surprisingly Abraham Dereje reported in the Ethiopian Herald (October 13 and 23/ 2013) that:

The construction of Gilgle Gibe III Hydroelectric Dam, which is expected to go fully operational in April 2016, will not have any effect on King Halala wall. A research undertaken on the dam`s environmental effect revealed…. that the artificial lake which will cover about 150 km of land will have no effect on King Halala wall, which was constructed by king of Dawuro in the 16th c to protect the people from external attack. The 175 kms long wall is completely free from any possibility of being under the water of artificial lake unless unexpected flooding happens in the area, Yacob noted. … However, the water of the artificial lake is expected to cover 2% (1.34 km of the 67km long wall) of King Ijajo wall, the other wall is located in Wolayta zone…  the dam`s reservoir will not totally have any effect on King Halala wall while only 2% of King Ijajo wall may be covered by it.

This quote may indicate the controversies of the interim archaeological survey findings and the government reports regarding the impacts of Gibe III on the kati Halala walls. Moreover, the existence of favoritism of studies towards the development projects could seems lead to wrong conclusions. Specifically, even though the interim archaeological survey suggested that six sites of Halala walls of Dawuro and two sites of Ijajo wall in Wolayita will be flooded by the reservoir, it has showed favoritism towards Ijajo wall. Likewise Tsadiqu (2014: 47) stated that even though the designed rescue mechanisms for Ijajo wall, which was built by the provincial ruler of Walyita seems fair, but it couldn’t put a clear rescue mechanism for kati Halala walls. Thus, the exact part of the heritage that would be submerged by the reservoir is unknown because of the absence of appropriate documentation and continuous in-phase archaeological and historical assessments.

On the other hand, it could be argued that, the commencement of Gibe III project in 2016 will have the following merits, if properly handled: promotion and conservation of the Walls; archaeological importance of the walls, the registration of the walls as national and international heritage, access to additional infrastructures (like boat and road transportations), and attract tourism and recreation development. These are the hopes aired despite the damages it causes to the heritage the Dawuro people cherished for centuries.

In nutshell, any reasonable person can see that the natural, local communities and the state led development projects are causing serious damages to the Dawuro wall. Leaving beside the controversy over the impact of the dam would have on the Dawuro Walls, serious attention to its conservation shall be given. According to UNESCO (2013: 25) there are two main approaches of conservation and management of heritage. The ‘conventional’ approach refers to the methodology adopted by the conservation professionals on the conservation of the materials of the past to be preserved for the sake of future generations. The other is ‘value-led’ conservation approach based on the values attached by all stakeholders (not only by the experts). In the latter case, conservation and management plans should be based on local values and, more importantly, on the cultural significance of heritages to the society. For instance, the Dawuro people regard the Wall as the symbolic and feels about their destruction stating that “walls are built up on our forefather’s bones and bloods and even walking on them is taboo” (EEPCO 2009). This has to be positively viewed and valued so that its protection shall be built on this value.

  1. Concluding Remarks

The great Dawuro walls are complex, unique and famous medieval dry stonewalls in the Omo Valley. The walls have been considered as signals for the existence of high degree of political and social cohesion of the society. The walls are sources of self-inspiration, pride and identity for the society that witnesses the patriotic deeds of the people by building strong unity. Historically, it is the living testimony for the Medieval Civilization in the Omo Valley during the 16th to 18th centuries. Scientifically, it can help to investigate the indigenous architectural technology in dry stone building and a potential area for research in archaeological, historical, and engineering fields of studies.

However, this article found that, first, state-led development projects are jeopardizing this historical heritage and worries of the Dawuro people are sidelined. Lack of emphasis from ARCCH for conservation of the walls at national level undermined its necessary cares and protections. This indicates that it needs cooperative conservation campaign to protect, safeguard, and preserve the heritage. Second, there should be an attempt to: first, launch awareness creation training for the local people and design a participatory and integrated conservation projects. Third, authors suggest that, it is quintessential empowering local experts and researchers on sustainable preservation. Third, do deep inventory assessment and research on the side of the effects of development projects on the heritage and clear naturally growing trees from the walls. Fourth, involve public universities and other research institutes in the conservation process, create open-air museums, build recreation centers and organize tour exhibitions.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

References

Abraham Dereje. 2013. Gibe III Dam Poses no Effect on the king Halala Wall. The Herald of Ethiopia, October 13.

_______2013.KawoHalala. The Herald of Ethiopia, October 23

______. “Yegibe 3 Tirufatoch.” (in Amharic). Zemen Metset, (October 2006 E.c ) 53: 48-49.

Amborn, H. 1989. “Agricultural Intensification in the Burji-Konso Cluster of Southwestern Ethiopia.”Azania: Journal of the British Institute in Eastern Africa, 24 (1):71-83.

Authority for Research and Conservation of Cultural Heritage. 2008. “Interim Report of Gibe III Archaeological project.”  Addis Ababa.

Aremu, D. 2007. “The Historical and Archeological Significance of Koso wall, Old Oyo National Park, Nigeria.” Africa update Letter 14:51-70.

Blake Janet. 2000. “On Defining the Cultural Heritage.” International and Comparative Law  quarterly ,  49: 61-85.

Demeulenaere, E. 2002.“Woods (Mora) and Social Organization in Konso (Southwestern Ethiopia).”Journal of Ethiopian Studies 35 (2): 81-111.

David, L. E.  `et al. `  2008. Tourism Policy and Planning: Yesterday, Today and Tomorrow.

   London: Elsevier Inc.

Elias Awato, Shiferaw Banjawand Abebech Ansebo.1999. Yesemen Omo Hiziboch Poletik Tarik, Part1 (inAmharic). AddisAbaba: Negade Matemiya Bet.

Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation. 2009. “Gibe III- Environmental and Social Impact Assessment.” CESI SpA-Mid Day International consulting Engineers. Addis Ababa.

Fujimoto Takeshi (2009). Armed Herders, Unarmed Farmers, and the State: An Analysis of Violent Conflicts in the Middle Omo Valley with Reference to the Cases in Malo, Southwest Ethiopia.  Nilo-Ethiopian Studies 13:63-77

Habreland, E.1977. “Ethiogenesis and Expansion in South west Ethiopia with special reference to Omotic Speaking People.” unpublished: Conference at the School of Oriental and African studies. London.

Hailuzeleke. 2007. “A Rapid Archaeological Impact Assessment in Wolayta and Dawuro Zones, Along Omo River:” A report .Addis Ababa.

_______ (2008) “Some Notes on the Great walls of Wolayta and Dawuro.” In annals D Ethiopia, 2007-2008, vol. 23: 399_412.

________ (2009)  “Dawuro During the Construction of the Wall of Halala.”  In Kirs Annually Bilingual Magazine of ARCCH. Wolde Derso (Ed.).45- 47.

Institute of Archaeology.1966.Ytintaw Tarik Kirsi Atebabk Megilecha. Addis Ababa

Johnson, B. and Christensen, L. 2004. Educational Research: Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed Approach. New York: Pearson.

Kassaye Begashaw.1998. “yekirs tibeqana enikibkabe.”hig wot yekirisoch enkiskasen lemegitat mini medergi alebet bemil res letezegajew ager akefaw simipozem wusit yekerebe. Bekirs tinatna tibeka dirigit.Unpublished. Addis Ababa

MacDonald, K. C. 2012. “The Least of their inhabited Villages are fortified”: the Walled Settlements of Segou.” Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa 47(3): 343-364.

Ministry of Culture and Tourism. September 2010.The Halala Walls. In Kirs, Annual Bilingual Magazine of ARCCH 4 (1), 1-2.

Odede, F. 2008. “Gunda-buche: The Bank-and-ditch fortified settlement enclosures of Western Kenya, Lake Victoria Basin.”  Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa 43(1): 36-49.

Oliver Roland. 1968. The Dawn of African History. (ed). 2nd edition. London: Oxford University press.

Pillia, G, D. (September 2009). The Fish Eagle`s Comment:Travels in Southwest Ethiopia.Retrieved in 2013 from www.amazon.com.

Rosabelle Baswell (2005) “Heritage Tourism and Identity in Mauritain Village of Channarel and Le Morne.”Journal of South Africa Studies. Vol.31,  no.2. 283-295.

Samual Alemu. 2014. A Great Walls of Dawuro_ Kawo Halala. The Ethiopian Herald, February 2.

Seid Ahmad Mohhammed.2006.“A Historical Survey of Dawuro, Southern Ethiopia (up to 1974).”Unpublished M.A. thesis.Addis Ababa University.

Tsadiku.2014. Ye Dawuro Biher Tarikna Bahil (in Amharic). Addis Ababa: Alpha Printing Press.

Watson, E. E. 2009. Living Terraces in Ethiopia: Konso Landscape, Culture & Development. Oxford: James  Currey.

Wondimu Lema.2009. “Conservation and Preservation of Cultural Heritages. A case study on Halala Kela Dawuro Zone, SNNPR.”Unpublished B.A. thesis. Arba Minch University. Arbaminch

Wiels Simone. 2002. Oppression and Liberty. Translated by Arthur Willes and John Petrie. London. New York: Routledg.

Yesemen Omo zone Bahil Mastawokiyana Turism Memirya (1992, June) “Halala Kabe/Halala kela.” Wogaa.Vol. 3.pp. 44-45.

UNESCO.2013. Managing Cultural World Heritage.Paris. France

* Lecturer in History and Heritage Management at Mada Walabu University. He holds MA in Ethiopian Studie from Addis Ababa University. He can be reached at: admabe2007@yahoo.com.

**Researcher at the Institute of Indigenous Studies and Lecturer in Law at School of Law, Dilla University. He holds MPhil. in Indigenous Studies from University of Tromso, Norway. He can be reached at: zelalem.tesfaye430@gmail.com

[1] Even today, the low land area of Hala, Qayi, Sayki, and Zima Waruma Farmers Associations (FAs) in Loma Woreda and Dachiya Deneba, Zaba Garada, Dasha Aja, Garada Bachira, Garada Intela FAs in Gena-Bossa district had numerous early terraced plots. Those terraces found in the farm plots and in the forest were about 1 meter high and 0.5 meter wide. The distance between the corresponding terraces was about 5 meters. In those localities, small basalt stones could be found on most of the farming lands.

[2] In addition, there was a myth about “Gragn’s war” and his personality among the Dawuro oral traditions. There were a number of stone stelae called “Gragnsucha” (Gragn`s stone). According to the tradition, these stones were erected by the left- handed “Ahmed Gragn” as an anchor for his horses. Others maintain the view that it was the place where his soldiers were buried and these stelae were grave markers. Hence, these stones and the myths related to them strengthened the suspicion that the walls might have been constructed during the “Gragn’s war”.

[3] These seven administrative regions include: Gena, Bosa, Loma, Koyisha, Mareqa, Tocha and Isera.

2 This is not intended to publicize against the development project unlike to some of western media. But it is for the big deal to define the challenges for conservation of “undefined Ethiopian Heritage”

Business of Indian Railway: Strengthening the Economy

Naib Singh

Abstract

All the transport system as roadways, airways and railways exist in India. But Indian rail system has flourished itself in the major way. Indian Railways has large position in the economic development of the nation. Railway is very appropriate for the long journey. The origin of Indian Railway goes back in 1853. First train of India journeyed the distance of 22 miles between the Bombay and Thana. This transport system is providing employment second only to defense. Indian trains transport 90% of the total coal all over India. This sector is supplying the 50% of the power in the country. In 2007, this sector generated the revenue of USD 18.8 billion which has increased in the year 2015 up to USD 26.4 billion. Indian railway is assisting the economic and social development of the country by providing a sound business along with the employment to the large chunk of the population.

Key Words: Indian Railways, Foreign Direct Investment (FDI), Yatri Ticket Sewa Kendras, Suburban Mobile Ticketing System.

 Indian Railway

Indian railway is the third largest network among the various rail networks in the world. It has big role in the economic development of the country. Railway is very suitable for the long journey. The origin of Indian Railway goes back in 1853. First train of India journeyed the distance of 22 miles between the Bombay and Thana. At the time of beginning Railway transport system was operated by the private British companies for the business purpose. Government of India took over the first railway company in 1925. Thereafter in 1950, the Government took over other companies also. Now days Indian Railway has become the biggest nationalized enterprise of the country. For transporting the heavy and bulk commodities any other transport system cannot take place the railway transport. Indian railway network covers 66000 kilometer distance in the country. 21000 passenger and freight trains run daily on these lines. These railway lines are having 7146 stations all over the India.

 

Objective of the Study

This paper highlights the contribution of Indian Railway in the economic development. An analysis of the performance of the Indian Railways has been made in the study for the purpose. In the ending part containing the conclusion, the findings of the study have been pointed out after considering the various literature and data collected by the researcher.

 

Research Methodology

The present paper is based on the performance of the Indian Railways.  For studying and analyzing the present problem, the existing information has been considered from the various published and online sources.  Data for the analysis have been collected from the secondary sources. Main limitation of this study is that it is based on the material and information collected from the secondary sources.

Business of Indian Railway

Indian trains carry 23 million people everyday which is equal to the population of Australia. It transports the freight in the very big size i.e.1097 millions tones in a year. 13 lakh people are employed in the Indian railway. This sector is providing employment second only to defense. Indian trains transport 90% of the total coal all over India. This sector is supplying the 50% of the power in the country.

During the period of ten months i.e. from April 1, 2014 to January 31, 2015, the approximate earnings of the Indian Railways were reported at Rs. 128928.28 crore which were Rs. 114428.52 crore during the same period in the previous year. This sector has attained the increment of 12.67 % in the period of one year. This sector has gained significant growth in the various areas like line doubling, gauge conversion, electrification and lines commissioned.

Indian Railway has achieved big achievement in the area of electrification of routes. In the year 2014-15, 1375 kilometer railway line was electrified which was more than the previous year. The Government has set the target of electrification of 1600 kilometer lines in the coming year.

Expenditure on capacity augmentation of the Indian railway like new lines, doubling, gauge conversion etc., has been increased by 138 % in the year 2015-16. . The outlay for the passenger amenities works have been increased by 67% in the year 2015-16. Government has proposed an investment plan of Rs. 856020 crore in the upcoming five years -2015-2019. For making the railway transport system more competent a big amount has been approved by the Government worth Rs. 96000 crore.

Amenities Provided by the Rail Sector

Indian Railway has launched helpline no. 138 for the passengers for obtaining the various information. Various facilities have been started for the facilities of the passengers like Yatri Ticket Sewa Kendras, Operation Five Minutes, Suburban Mobile Ticketing System, Cashless Transactions through RuPay and Go-India Smart cards. Online facilities are also provided foe the passenger through they can avail the various information and facilities at home. More ticket are made available per minute on the internet for the passengers to avoid last minute rush. SMS alerts for the status of tickets, for destinations and as wake up calls are the mind blowing facilities. Safe drinking water units have been established for making available the hygienic drinking water. More than 9000 Bio-Toilet have been fitted on trains for maintaining the cleanliness in the coaches. Revenue geared by this sector is increasing over the years.

 

In 2007, this sector generated the revenue of USD 18.8 billion which has increased in the year 2015 up to USD 26.4 billion. This transport system is strengthening the Indian business in the significant manner. And it is expected that by the year 2020, Indian railway will touch the revenue of USD 44.5 billion. Government of India has allowed 100 % Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) in this sector for opening the doors for investors in the more advanced projects like high-speed railways, high-powered electrification of lines and high-speed tracks and suburban corridors.

 

Conclusion

Indian Railways is the flourishing transport system of the country. It has become the third largest rail network of the world by occupying the big revenue generator. Revenue generation by this sector is increasing year by year and strengthening the economy in the significant way.  This transport system cannot be ignored when the talk prevails regarding the efficiency of various transport means.  Indian railway is assisting the economic and social development of the country by providing a sound business along with the employment to the large chunk of the population.

References

Daft Ruddar Sundharam K.P.M. (2007): Indian Economy, S. Chand and Company Ltd., New Delhi.

Rail Badhe-Desh Badhe, Report of, Ministry of Railways, Govt. of India

http://indiainbusiness.nic.in/newdesign/index.php?param=industryservices_landing/405/2

http://www.ibef.org/industry/indian-railways.aspx

http://makeinindia.com/sector/railways/

Cultural Impact of Mobile Phone Packages Advertisement On Native  Youth Of District Layyah

 

Ch. Tanveer Ahmad

 

   Abstract

This study explores the effects of mobile package advertisements on the cultural transformation among youth (BZU-Bahadur Campus).  It was explore that all the respondents one way or the other use mass media (Television, Radio, Newspaper, Magazine, Internet and Outdoor) Sources for gaining information about mobile package advertisements. The comparative analysis of the selected type of media, however, showed that overall respondents preferred television relatively more for acquiring information about mobile package advertisements followed by other mass media channels. The respondents had for less dependency on the internet for this purpose. It was evident from the empirical findings that overwhelming majority of the respondents did not listen to radio for acquiring information about mobile package advertisements. The critical analysis of empirical evidence in terms of youth’ exposure to mobile package advertisements and attention paid to the mobile package advertisements showed a positive correlation. The analysis explored that the respondents who spent more time on media for mobile package advertisements got more information from these sources accordingly. The study’s findings in this regard extended full support to the research hypotheses: ‘The more the exposure to mobile package advertisement then the more their knowledge about mobile packages”. And ‘The more they pay attention on the mobile package advertisement then the more effects on their cultural patterns. The study’s findings in this regard extended full support to the research hypotheses: ‘The more they watch the mobile package advertisement then the more the effects on their social interaction patterns”. Results furthers indicate that males somewhat of the view that package advertisements effects in term of relative interaction as compared to female  who presents their views. The study’s findings in this regard extended full support to the research hypotheses: ‘The more they use and watch; mobile and mobile package advertisements then the more effects on their social activities”. The comparative review of the respondents’ further indicates that females are little affected from the slogans used in advertisements as compared to male, and there is no significant difference among all the categories includes music, model, beauty, dressing, hair style and brand respectively. The critical analyses of empirical evidence in terms of reason behind using the connection they are subscribing reveled that, overall majority of the both male and female respondents using their connection because of good signal service as well as sms packages.. Finding regarding peers both male and female showed same situation while female respondents like to use the connections only for the purpose of sending messages.

1.0 Introduction:

Youth’s role is structuring of a nation and progression of a country is worth noting. Transformation of a culture is subject to ambitions, adoptions and goals of the youth. In this modern era, the major target of cellular companies is youth. Through mobile package advertisements youth is attracted to increase sales and income of cellular companies, but it is up to the youth that how much acceptance and receptiveness is shown by them. Development of technology is hallmark of modern world and youth is pivotal point if this advancement. Well established and flourishing cultures are dominating the frail ones. The question to be noted is whey these companies are offering new packages without exploring the outlook of youth the purpose behind these packages should be explored whether they are to facilitate the layman or youth only. Actually students are severely affected by these packages and they are losing their interest in their studies. They are diverting from their goals. Their creative and innovative tendencies are getting faded due to prolonged telephonic contacts (cited at: zeewaqar77.hubpages.com).

Almost everybody is growing in an atmosphere saturated with mass media, consisting of television, newspapers, radio, magazines, internet, advertising, films, billboards and music. Advertising is a subset of promotion mix which is one of the 4P’s in the marketing mix i.e. product, price, place and promotion (Latif & Abideen, 2011). In the early 1950s, Du Mont television network started the new cult of specifying some time for commercial advertising on the screen in 1960s new trends introduced in advertising phenomenon that had glamorous attractions for the audience. The youth and children are favorite target of advertising companies (cited at: http://www.articlesbase.com).

The history of advertisements can be traced back into primitive eras. Different models and symbols were used by the producers to divert the attention of the customers. In the old ages, products were handmade and a limited quantity was produced but the situation changed later and the products were made at large scale. In this modern age, advertisements have achieved a position of effective communicator between the manufacturer and the customer. A company cannot achieve the status of an acknowledged brand until it specifies a lion’s share for it advertisements activities (Hussainy et al, 2008). Advertising activates in Pakistan comprise the standards and trends which are followed universally. Advertising have shown a flexible attitude to the changing business standards, scientific, cultural and social transformation. In 1947, after partition a few number of advertisement models were followed which covered the local population of the age. Now a day’s not even a single aspect of our life is unaffected by advertising. Criteria of judging the popularity of a TV programs is a subject to the length of commercial breaks. Usually a popular program has one-fourth time specified for advertisements. Just a decade back this ratio was one-tenth. According to an estimate, at the end of 2010, advertising expenditures were 30 billion rupees. TV advertising claims 58% of the total advertising budget in the country which is an indicator to the popularity of TV channels. Other media include 24%, radio 4%, outdoor 9% and other media 5%. An important point to be noted is that the Telecommunication sector became the largest ad spend in Pakistan (cited at: http://www.gallup.com.pk). Television commercials are more effective source of promoting products than print ads. Manufacturer packs their products in frames that have ideological and cultural symbols and TV is the most powerful source of advertisements (Jhally, 1997).
Statement of the Problem:

What are the Effects of Mobile Package Advertisements on the Cultural Transformation   among Youth?

 Objectives of the Study

There is an apprehension among the public that the Mass Media may adversely affect the Youth’s cultural activities and minds. Therefore, it is important to conduct a study on Mobile Package Advertising effects. So, this study will be conducted to find out the effects of Mobile Package Advertisements on the Youth in Sargodha, Pakistan.

·         To explore the consumption patterns of Mobile Packages Advertisements by the Youth.

·         To determine the extent of interest tacking in the Mobile Packages Advertisements by the Youth.

·         To determine whether they like the situations shown in the Mobile Packages Advertisements.

·         To what extent do they like to adopt different situations shown in the Mobile Packages Advertisements?

·         To find out the effects by the use of the Mobile and package advertisements on the educational activities on the youth.

·         To explore the extent of transformation of cultural trends, rituals, norms, values of native youth due to the exposure to the Mobile Packages Advertisements.

·          To find out relationship between viewing Mobile Advertisements and its effects on personal appearance and lifestyle of Youth.

2.0 Literature Review:

Worldwide increasing use of mobile phones especially among the young people has become one of the favorite topics of academic researchers. Usually, researcher has major focus upon effects of mobile package advertisements, upon the youth and cultural and social changes due to these package advertisements.

The central point of this study is the evaluation of cultural changes among the youth due to mobile package advertisements. The literature review will reveal that one of the major concerns of the researchers, throughout the world, is to not the amount of exposure to mobile package advertisements and its effects upon the youth and society. The advertisements roles the culture, where they are presented may cause cultural conflicts (Zia, 2007).  Because of rapid communicating sources world has adopted the form of a global village. Telecom sector has changed communication set up everywhere and this is one of the most discussed topics in Pakistan, now a days. Since last few years, telecom sector is one of the emerging sectors in Pakistan and is attracting many new investors (Butt, 2006).

The literature of Clark & Salomon (1986) study revealed that mass media itself has not strong effects on audience but the quality of the message which is being delivered by the mass media has its effects (Clark, 1983, 1994). “What people see is what they believe” is a renowned proverb. It is evident by different research studies that people try to compare themselves with what they consider better. Westbrook (1998) has suggested that people may apply a variety of different types of evaluative standards in reaching a particular satisfaction appraisal, depending on situation and personal factor. In Pakistan, mobile phones are in easy access to everyone because of competitive atmosphere among companies of both services providers and phone set providers. Due to this increasing demand for cell phones, companies are investing abundantly in this sector. Now a days, mobilink, telenor, ufone, zong, and warid are five major functioning companies in Pakistan (Sargana, 2005). Usually children and young people are target of advertising and they are consequently converted into customers. Advertising is pervasively targeting public places like schools and by some critics considered type child exploitation. Sometimes by advertisements psychological aspects of target viewers are focused which may prove harmful in the long run. Some people think that advertisements are making new additions to cultural values (cited at: www.articlesbase.com). It is the responsibility of Pakistan Telecommunication Authority to regulate and establish new telecommunication services and to monitor the functioning and maintenance of telecommunications services in Pakistan (PTA History 2005).  In Pakistan, people have religious bent of mind and usually try to regard Islamic laws. In our culture, people are very sensitive about their life partner’s especially female family members and children. So while drawing advertising images these facts should be kept in mind. Situations where girls are talking to their boyfriends, students using their cell phones in educational complexes, girls getting mingled with boys, should not be reflected in advertisements. It is one of the significant elements to explore dimensions of the local culture of a country where a company is going to launch its business operations. So, adequate understanding of the local culture may result in a successful business on the other hand misunderstanding of the local culture may lead to improper decisions resulting into blocking of business (Hofstede, 2005). Differentiating cultural contrasts is a key factor to successful worldwide advertisements (Keegan, 1989). The point is to be discussed is that customers grow in a specific culture and adopt diverse features of the culture. So consumer responds to the advertisements that are in harmony with his cultural values and traditions (Boddewyn et al, 1986).

Hofstede (1980) defines culture as, the interactive active aggregate of common characteristics that influences a group’s response to its environment” and suggests culture as the collective programming of the mind which separates the member of one group from the other. In view of hofstede, structure of Pakistani culture is collectivistic whereas American culture is individualistic. Likewise Swedish, Norwegian and Danish are feminine cultures whereas Pakistani is masculine one (ITIM [no dated]). Now a day’s majority of sociologists believe that basically culture consists of symbols, ideals, and abstracts perspectives of human societies. The essence of culture is not its handicrafts, tools or other tangible objects but how the numbers of the group associate meanings to these objects. Norms, symbols, associations and perspectives are indicators to differentiate one group from the other in the modern communities. People of a cultural group attribute associations, to symbols and ideals in the similar way (Banks, 1989). Sindhi, Muhajirs, Punjabi, Baloch and Pashtun are five major ethnic groups in Pakistan. Language is major indication for identification of ethnicity in Pakistan. Almost more than twenty languages are spoken in Pakistan but Punjabi, Sindhi, Pashto, Balochi and Urdu are abundantly spoken. Urdu is the official language and is spoken and understood throughout the country. In most of schools and universities, academic activities are conducted in English, so it is a de facto national language of Pakistan (Library of Congress, 2007).   No aspect of life either it is cultural, economic, political, recreational or religious is beyond the shackles of transition. The old fabrication and classification of social structure is facing a threat of change which is slow but steady. Initially we may accept little change in our dressing style, room arrangements and eatables change is one of the pleasant features of life but it should be positive always. If we adopt negative changes consequently they will have negative effects upon our living styles (cited at:www.hamariweb.com/articles). In cultures of large power distance, it is an important point that people pass most of their time in their family circles but on the other hand peoples in cultures of low power distance spend most of their own managed   leisure activities. As Pakistani culture has bent to large power distance culture, so this perspective should be regarded well when marketing policies are formulated (Mooij, 2002). In Pakistan, joint family system is strong enough in which not only immediate relations but distant relations like cousins, uncles, nephews and grandparents are regarded well. So, Pakistan culture has features of collectivism. In Pakistan people give enough regards to their traditions, norms and emotions which are reflected through their behaviors. People have deep association with their cultural values. So Pakistani culture can be considered short term oriented culture (ITIM, [no dated]). In Pakistani society, male dominates female. Sometimes even female are not allowed to do job and get involved in fruitful life activities. People do not like possession of mobile phone by their females and try to impose their own decisions upon dependant females (MQM, 2007).

3.0 Hypotheses

The Hypotheses design for the study as follows:

3.1 (A) Major Hypotheses

Greater the exposure to mobile package advertisements greater the effects on culture on the native youth (Students of BZU-Bahadur Campus).

    The core purpose of this study to dig out effects of mobile package advertisements especially (Television Advertisements) and other mass media channels which are Radio, Newspapers, Magazines, Internet and Outdoor ads on the culture, social life, values and behavior patterns of native youth. The researcher was interested to examine if the mobile package advertisements has any effects on native youth and if ‘Yes’, to what extent has it effected the youth culture at it basic level in terms of the following factors:

  • Family and social interaction patterns;
  • Appearances and life style;
  • Cultural Practices i.e. values, rituals, food, language, dress and traditions;
  • Domestic and other activities.

Research had selected above mentioned factors based on the conclusion, after reviewing the relevant literature i.e. most of the researchers were of the view that viewing mobile package advertisements generates socio-economic and cultural changes. The following sub-hypothesis was formed on the basis in the above-mentioned factors.

3.2 (B) Sub-hypothesis:

  • The more the exposure to mobile package advertisement then the more their knowledge about mobile packages.
  • The more they pay attention on the mobile package advertisement then the more effects on their cultural patterns.
  • It is more likely that the youth get information about mobile package advertisements more from television as compared to the other sources.
  • The more they watch the mobile package advertisement then the more the effects on their social interaction patterns.
  • The more they watch the mobile package advertisements then the more they like to adopt different situations shown in the mobile package advertisements.
  • The more they use and watch; mobile and mobile package advertisements then the more effects on their social activities.

4.0 Methodology:

Methodology means coherent arrangement by which research plan is executed, on the other hand research design refers to the relation between research method and the nature of study. Regarding present study’s demand, survey research has been planned to draw information from the target audience in usage.

4.1 Survey Research

In Neuman (2007) view, survey is a qualitative social research in which one systematically asks many people the same questions, then records and analyzes their answers

This study was launched to explore the effects of mobile package advertisements on the cultural transformation among youth. It is also the purpose of the study to explore to what extent the cell phone usage has impacts on students’ studies. Cultural norms and values of the native youth as well as society. Keeping in view the nature of the study, survey methodology was considered to be a suitable procedure for analyzing effects and cultural change introduced by the mobile package advertisements.

4.2 Unit of Analysis

Specification of group of persons or unit of analysis for study purposes is one of the major steps of research process. In Babbie, (1992) view, unit of analysis are the people or things whose parameters are observed, described and explained by social researchers. The units of analysis in the present study are the students of the BZU-Bahudar Campus Layyah, and the purpose was to explore perception about mobile package advertisements.

4.3 Population

Reinard (1994) defines population as extensive universe of incidents from which the sample is taken. In Neuman (2007) view, population is the name of variety of cases from which a sample is selected by a researcher and is described in theoretical terms.

In this study, the universe is the male and female students of BZU-Bahadur Campus. The first step in the research study is to specify the group of persons or unit of analysis for study. The universe in this research consists of the students of BZU-Bahadur Campus, who use different mass media channels (Television, Radio, Internet, Newspaper and Outdoor) for watching and listing mobile package advertisements.

4.4 Sample

Every researcher wants to conduct an extensive survey of the whole population to draw reliable findings for the study. But the ground realities do not support this desire and it is very difficult to study the whole population. So for making the study convenient, researchers use procedure of sampling.

4.5 Sampling Methods

Convenience sampling procedure was used for classification. Convenience sample also known as available sample is an accumulation of promptly approachable subjects for study. Exponents of using convenience samples assert that if a phenomenon, feature or trait does in fact exist, then it should exist in any sample. This sampling process is usually supportive in pretesting questionnaires or other preliminary work (Wimmer & Dominick, 1983). For data collection purpose, three hundred respondents selected. The sample was further divided on the basis of gender 50 males and 50 females.

4.6 Sample Size

 Keeping in view the resource constraints, convenience and purposive methods for selection of the respondents was used for collection of data from the target population. Due to time limitation and financial constraints, it was not possible for the researcher to collect data from the large population in University of Sargodha. Therefore, one hundred respondents of equally consisting males and females students from BZU-Bahadur Campus Layyah was selected.

5.0 Findings

In the contemporary life, media is playing incredible role in providing information about every sphere of life round the clock. In the field of advertisements, media has become the basic need of individuals everywhere. This study’s results explore the effects of mobile package advertisements and cultural transformation among youth.

                        Table 1.1 Exposures to Mobile Package Advertisements

  Over All Male Female
Very Often 21 19 22
Often 36 35 37
Somewhat 13 13 13
Little 23 22 25
Never 7 11 3

In survey research male and female respondents have been given the equal representation. The analysis of given data reveals little difference between male and female respondents. Overall (36%) often and (23%) little expose to mobile package advertisements. While female (37%) very often expose to the package advertisements than males. Respondent’s responses about exposure to mobile package advertisements further revel that male (11%) who significantly never prefers to expose mobile package advertisements as compared to the females, respectively ( see table 1.1).

6.0 Statistical Tools 

 6.1 Regression Analysis

A statistical measure that attempts to determine the strength of the relationship between one dependent variable (usually denoted by Y) and a series of other changing variables (known as independent variable. The two basic types of regression are linear regression and multiple regression. Linear regression uses one independent variable to explain and/or predict the outcome of Y, while multiple regressions use two or more independent variables to predict the outcome.

  • To what extent would you like to adopt the following in your life?
 

 

Coefficientsa,b
Model Unstandardized Coefficients Standardized Coefficients  
B Std. Error Beta T Sig.
1 Exposed from the Mobile package .334 .075 .315 4.440 .000
Attention on the Mobile package .559 .070 .564 7.938 .000
a. Dependent Variable: adopt the mix-gathering
 
Coefficientsa,b
Model Unstandardized Coefficients Standardized Coefficients  
B Std. Error Beta T Sig.
1 Exposed from the Mobile package .386 .085 .274 4.521 .000
Attention on the Mobile package .847 .080 .644 10.608 .000
a. Dependent Variable: adopt the dancing
 

 

6.2 Analysis of Variance

A statistical analysis tool that separates the total variability found within a data set into two components: random and systematic factors. The random factors do not have any statistical influence on the given data set, while the systematic factors do. The ANOVA test is used to determine the impact independent variables have on the dependent variable in a regression analysis.

Ø  To what extent would you like to adopt the following in your life?
    Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
adopt the mix-gathering Between Groups 2.253 1 2.253 1.092 .297
Within Groups 614.747 298 2.063    
Total 617.000 299      
adopt the dancing Between Groups 15.413 1 15.413 8.795 .003
Within Groups 522.253 298 1.753    
Total 537.667 299      
adopt the kissing Between Groups 63.480 1 63.480 39.092 .000
Within Groups 483.907 298 1.624    
Total 547.387 299      
adopt the slang words Between Groups 20.280 1 20.280 12.758 .000
Within Groups 473.707 298 1.590    
Total 493.987 299      
adopt the hand shacking Between Groups 48.803 1 48.803 23.478 .000
Within Groups 619.447 298 2.079    
Total 668.250 299      

 

 

 

  7.0 Results & Discussion

The discussion of this study reaffirms the study statement, discusses the issues, and reaches a final judgment. It is a belief based on your reasoning and on the evidence you have accumulated. This is the place to share with readers the conclusions you have reached because of your research.

Through this study, sustained efforts have been made to explore the effects of mobile package advertisements on the cultural transformation among youth (students of BZU-Bahadur Campus).  It was explore that all the respondents one way or the other use mass media (Television, Radio, Newspaper, Magazine, Internet and Outdoor) Sources for gaining information about mobile package advertisements. The comparative analysis of the selected type of media, however, showed that overall respondents preferred television relatively more for acquiring information about mobile package advertisements followed by other mass media channels. The respondents had for less dependency on the internet for this purpose. It was evident from the empirical findings that overwhelming majority of the respondents did not listen to radio for acquiring information about mobile package advertisements.

The review of the respondents regarding using internet shows that male somewhat preferred to use internet than the female respondents. It was further explored that most of the female did not use outdoor sources as compared to male respondents for gating information about mobile package advertisements. An analysis of the present study shows respondents’ preference to different sources to get the information about their mobile packages according to their interests. It is observed from the empirical findings of the study that overall majority of the respondents are those who significantly preferred television to getting information about mobile package advertisements (ref of tables).

The critical analysis of empirical evidence in terms of youth’ exposure to mobile package advertisements and attention paid to the mobile package advertisements showed a positive correlation. The analysis explored that the respondents who spent more time on media for mobile package advertisements got more information from these sources accordingly (table 1). The study’s findings in this regard extended full support to the research hypotheses: ‘The more the exposure to mobile package advertisement then the more their knowledge about mobile packages”. And ‘The more they pay attention on the mobile package advertisement then the more effects on their cultural patterns

. The study’s findings in this regard extended full support to the research hypotheses: ‘The more they watch the mobile package advertisement then the more the effects on their social interaction patterns”. The finding of table 1.3 observed that overall friends who are significantly very much effected from the mobile package advertisements as compared to all other categories. The comparative analysis of the study further indicate that male respondents who somewhat effected from package advertisements on parents interaction as compared to females. It is further observed from the empirical findings that female respondents are of the view that mobile package advertisements very much effected the friends interactions while males presented their somewhat perception about the effects. In case of effects with coworkers, teachers and peers interaction patterns respondents of both male and female respondents show no significant difference among their responses. Results furthers indicate that males somewhat of the view that package advertisements effects in term of relative interaction as compared to female  who presents their views (table 1.2).   After the review of the empirical evidence it was observed that mobile package advertisements played major role in effecting the social activities of the youth, including sleeping time, study time, sports, eating habits and meeting with friends (table 1.5). The study’s findings in this regard extended full support to the research hypotheses: ‘The more they use and watch; mobile and mobile package advertisements then the more effects on their social activities”. The finding of table 1.5 observed that overall sleeping time, study time and meeting with friends are more affected by watching mobile package advertisements than sports and eating habits. Critical review of the respondents’ responses regarding the factors effecting the youth in mobile package advertisements in term of slogans, environment, music, model, beauty, dressing, hair style and brand raveled that, overall environment very much effect the respondents in mobile package advertisements. The comparative review of the respondents’ further indicates that females are little affected from the slogans used in advertisements as compared to male, and there is no significant difference among all the categories includes music, model, beauty, dressing, hair style and brand respectively. While only very little difference is observed in case of slogans and environment effects in term of mobile package advertisements (table 1.3). The critically analysis of empirical evidence in terms of the likeness of different components in mobile package advertisements indicate that, overall male and female respondent significantly preferred to like actors in mobile package advertisements. Study results further indicate that sports persons are very much liked by the male respondents as compared to female in mobile package advertisements (table.1.4).

The critical analysis of empirical evidence in terms of purposes behind using the mobile phone by youth explored that, overall female preferred to use mobile phone for different purposes including getting information; keep in touch with family, because of their peers, for entertainment and for browsing internet. In this regard male respondents showed no significant interest for purpose behind using mobile phone as compared to female (table 1.6).

The critical analyses of empirical evidence in terms of reason behind using the connection they are subscribing reveled that, overall majority of the both male and female respondents using their connection because of good signal service as well as sms packages. Comparative analysis of the study further indicate that male respondents preferred to used connections due to good signal services; while  female are used cellular connections due to the cheep call rates as compared to the male respondents. Finding regarding peers both male and female showed same situation while female respondents like to use the connections only for the purpose of sending messages (table 1.7).

References

  • Arnett, J. J. (2003). Conceptions of the transition to adulthood among emerging adults in American ethnic groups. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development,100

.

  • Aoki, K. & Downes, E. (2003). An analysis of young people’s use of and attitudes toward cell phones. Telematics & Informatics.

 

  • Arens, Williams F. 1996. Contemporary Advertising. USA: Richard D. Irwin, A. Times Mirror Higher Education Group Inc. Company.

 

  • Andersson, S., Hedelin, A., Nilsson, A. and Welander, C. (2004), “Violent advertising in fashion marketing”, Journal of Fashion.

 

  • Alexander M.W. and Judd, B. Jr. (1978), “Do nudes in ads enhance brand recall?”, Journal of Advertising Research.

 

  • Ambron, S., & Hooper, K. (Eds.) (1988). Interactive Multimedia: Visions of Multimedia f or Developers, Educators, & Information Providers. Redmond, Washington.

 

  • Abideen, Zain Ul., Farooq, Waqas and Latif, Abdul. How urban children process advertising message: Special reference to television advertising in Pakistan. African Journal of Business Management, Vol.5 (10), pp. 3962-3974. 18 May 2011.

 

  • Baker, Michael J. and Gilbert A. Churchill, Jr. (1977), “The Impact of Physically Attractive Models on Advertising Evaluations”, Journal of Marketing Research, Vol. 14.

 

  • Beasley, Ron and Marcel Danesi. 2002. Persuasive signs: the semiotics of advertising New York: Mouton de Gruyter.

 

  • Berscheid, Michael J. and Elaine, W. (1974). “Physical Attractiveness”, Advances in

            Experimental Social Psychology, 7th ed., New York: Academic Press.

 

 

  • Bianchi, A., and Phillips, J. (2005). Psychological predictors of problem mobile phone use. Cyber Psychology &Behaviour.

 

  • Butt, S.A, 2006. Pakistan telecom authority, Available from:

http://www.pta.gov.pk/index2.php?option=com_content&do_pdf=1&id=831 [Accessed    s10 April 2007]

 

  • Dunn, S.W. and A., Barban. 1987. Advertising, It’s Role in Modern Marketing Advertising, Its Role in Modern Marketing. Hindsdale, Illinois, U.S.A.: Dryden Press.

 

 

  • Dutton, W. 2003. “The social dynamics of wireless on September 11: Reconfiguring access.” In Crisis Communication, edited by Noll, A.M. Lanham, MD.: Rowman and Littlefield.
  • De Pelsmacker, P. and Van Den Bergh, J. (1996), “The communication effects of provocation in print advertising”, International Journal of Advertising.

 

  • S.,Gawande,R., &Nawathe,A.(2007).Impact of Advertising on Children’s Health.International Marketing Conference on Marketing &Societ.IIMKDepartment of Management Sciences.University of Pune.Pune.

 

  • Dyer,G. (1996) Advertising As Communication, London:Routledge Publications.

 

  • Dr Kamran Siddiqui, History of Advertising in Pakistan.

 

  • Edell, J.A., Burke, M.C. (1987), “The power of feelings in understanding advertising effects”, Journal of Consumer Research.
  • Etzel Michael, Walker Bruce J., Stanton William and Pandit Ajay (2008),

Marketing- Concepts and Cases, 13th Edition, Tata Macgraw, New Delhi.

 

 

  • Fraunholz, B., and Unnithan, C. (2006). Evolution of telecommunications and mobile communications in India: A synthesis in the transition from electronic to mobile business. In Kamel, S. (Ed.), Electronic business in developing countries.

 

  • Festinger, L. (1954), “A Theory of Social Comparison Processes”, Human Relations.

 

  • Fischer, C. 1992. America Calling: A Social History of the Telephone to 1940. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
  • Fine, G.A. 1987. With the Boys: Little League Baseball and Preadolescent Culture. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

 

  • For more information, See “Social and Human considerations for a more mobile world” (February 2004), Lara Srivastava, ITU (Geneva, Switzerland), available at http://www.itu.int/osg/spu /ni/futuremobile/SocialconsiderationsBP.pdf, p. 17.

 

  • Fields, Monique. .Today.s well-connected kid.. St Petersburg Times (Florida), January.

 

  • Grant, I. & O’Donohoe, S., 2007. Brand in the hand or sand in the hand? A contextualized account of adolescents’ mobile phone consumption. Proceeding of

Advances in Consumer Research, North America.

 

  • Gupta, R. (2005, April 25). Mobile gaming in India: A new form of entertainment in a timeless culture. Retrieved from

http://www.gamespot.com/news/6122713.html.

 

  • Grant, I., 2007. Why young consumers are not open to mobile marketing communication.

International Journal of Advertising.

 

  • Gürhan-Ganli, Z., and Maheswaran, D. (2000). Cultural variations in country of origin effects. Journal of Marketing Research.

 

  • Hofstede, Geert. 1991. Culture and Organizations: Software of the mind: Intercultural cooperation and its importance for survival, Mc Graw-Hill.

 

 

  • Kavitha G. (2006) “A Study On The Effectiveness Of The Advertising

Techniques Used In The Personal Care Segment Of Women Consumers”,

Indian Journal of Marketing, Vol. 36, No. 8, pp. 12-16.

 

  • Kerckhove, A.D., 2002. Building brand dialogue with mobile marketing. Young Consumers.

 

  • Kahle, L.R. and Homer, P.M. (1985), “Physical attractiveness of the celebrity endorser: a social adaptation perspective”, Journal of Consumer Research.

 

  • Kamins, Michael, A. (1990), “An Investigation into the ‘Match-Up’ Hypothesis in Celebrity Advertising: When Beauty May be Only Skin Deep”, Journal of Advertising.
  • Katke, K. (2007). The Impact of Television Advertising on Child Health & Family Spending. International Marketing Conference on Marketing & Society. Retrieved on Dated: 10-04-2009 from http://www.itu.int/ITUD/ict/newslog/content/binary/20-2008jpg.
  • Kaur, H. and Kaur, R. (2002) “Fashion Awareness Among Rural and Urban

Adolescents”, Journal of Social Research, Vol. 43, No. 1, pp. 37-40.

 

  • Kotler, P., 1999. Principles of Management. 2nd ed. Prentice Hall Europe.

 

  • Kotler, P., 2002. Marketing Management. 10th ed. Prentice Hall Europe.

 

  • Luna, L. (2002). The latest in fast fashion. Wireless Review.

 

  • Rust, R.T. and Zahorik, A.J. (1993), Customer satisfaction,customer retention, and market share , Journal of Retailing.

 

  • Romano, A.C. Jr (2000), “Customer relations management in information systems research”, Proceedings of the Americas Conference in Information Systems (AMCIS).

 

  • Rose,G.M., Bush,V.D. & Kahle, L. (1998) The influence of family communication patterns on parental reactions toward advertising: a cross-national examination. Journal of Advertising.

 

  • Spurgeon, Christina (2003), “Classified Advertising on the Move: Implications for Newspapers,” Australian Journalism Review.

 

 

  • Sohail Kamran  (2010), Mobile Phone: Calling and Texting Patterns of College Students

in Pakistan, in  international Journal of Business and Management.

 

 

http://pta.ires.com/index.php?cur_t=vnormal&option=com_content&task=view&id=3

58&Itemid=320&bold=p [Accessed 12 April 2007]