Challenges and Delivery in the Higher Institution: A Survey of University Autonomy in Nigeria.

Olakunle Folami

Abstract

Public universities are owned either by the federal or state governments. Corruption, strike, funds and economic doldrums limit the research and teaching capacity of universities in Nigeria. These affect the contribution of university system to the development of the nation. McClelland’s Learned Needs Theory was employed in this paper to explain the desire of the universities to accomplish successfully research and teaching delivery in a competitive environment. Quantitative method of data collection was used in this paper to collect data from the respondents. Questionnaires were administered among one hundred and thirty six respondents from six states and federal universities across the nation. The paper found that both state and federal universities could not meet their financial obligations. Paucity of funds has led to incessant strike, student unrest and brain drain. It was also found that scarcity of funds has affected research and development in the universities. The paper therefore, recommended autonomy and external source of funding for the universities. Internationalisation of the universities research, and public/private partnership were also recommended.

Keywords: Autonomy, Funding, University, Research.

Introduction

Education, most especially the university education is central to the national development and its importance to individual growth and wellbeing cannot be overemphasised. There is a link reaction between individual development and education. According to Aluko (1996) university is a place where human potentials are developed and refined for the utilisation of national development. Universities provide manpower needed by the nation. The quality of manpower available to a country is largely determined by the standard of its education (Jega, 1994). Funding is a major instrument which determines how well a university achieve its objectives. No matter how lofty the objectives of a university are, inadequate funding is capable of hampering its realisation. Adequate funding promotes research and development, qualitative teaching, good learning environment, and ability of the university to contribute to national development adequately. Education generally in Nigeria receives low attention from government. Olorode (2005) claims that unstable university calendar, strikes, brain-drain, lack of autonomy and low morale among the lecturers contribute to the quality of universities outputs in terms students and research.

In recent times, university system has been overwhelmed with strike, brain-drain, student unrest and closure due to lack of adequate funding. The ability to generate fund privately is hampered by the status that created the university system in Nigeria. Section 106 of the nation’s education policy recognizes that the financing of education is a joint responsibility of the Federal, State and Local government (Onyekwu, 2011). But in practice the funding is left solely to the owners. It has become difficult for university to secure funds from private organization to support research. Scholarships, grants and bursaries for students and researchers are difficult to come by. Olorode (2005) says that the culture is not simply there among the business organisations to support research and scholarship in Nigeria. The Tertiary Education Fund and Petroleum Technology Development Fund are created by Acts of Government as compulsory contributions from the business organisations to finance education in Nigeria through a fixed percentage tax deduction from the source (cdnetng.org. n.d).

The proposition the paper seeks to explain is that; first, inadequate funding could result to brain-drain in the universities; and second, there is a relationship between university funding, research and teaching in the universities. The study therefore, sets to examine the extent of funding available to the public universities in Nigeria. It seeks to know the sources of funding available to Nigerian universities. It also examines alternative means available to universities in Nigeria to generate more fund. The study like others in the field of sociology of education and management attempts to link paucity of funds to challenges such as brain-drain, strike, ineffective research and absent of season lecturers in the Nigerian universities. This article is divided into the following sections; one, needs theory and challenges facing universities; two, strike, brain-drain and university system; three, private sector and funding of university; four, method; and five, results and conclusions.

Needs Theory and Challenges

McClelland’s Learned Needs Theory is used in this study to explain the desire of universities in Nigeria to accomplish moderately performance goals, be successful in competitive situation, assume personal responsibility for fund sourcing and internationalisation of programmes. Three motivational needs were identified by McClelland (1969) including achievement motivation (n-ach); authority/power motivation (n-pow); and affiliation motivation (n-affil). First, the n-ach person is ‘achievement motivated’ and therefore seeks achievement, attainment of realistic but challenging goals, and advancement in the job. There is a strong need for feedback as to achievement and progress, and a need for a sense of accomplishment. Second, the n-pow person is ‘authority motivated’. This driver produces a need to be influential, effective and to make an impact. There is a strong need to lead and for their ideas to prevail. There is also motivation and need towards increasing personal status and prestige. Third, the n-affil person is ‘affiliation motivated’, and has a need for friendly relationships and is motivated towards interaction with other people. The affiliation driver produces motivation and need to be liked and held in popular regard. These people are team players (Businessballs, 2015).

The need for autonomy by the universities to meet the current challenges explains why power with limited moderation over activities by external agencies like state or federal government is desirable. The desire by the universities to conduct their businesses with interferences requires a high ‘socialized power’ in which they seek power for autonomous purpose (Rue and Holland 1986). According to Smelser (1962) universities with a strong affiliation need to form positive relationships with outside world. Donnel and Gibson (1987) says that universities with a high need for achievement make better entrepreneurs because they are able to work autonomously towards the challenging goal of establishing a new source of funding (Sergiovamni and Carver, 2003).

In the modern era, university should encourage partnership with private sector of the economy through research and development. This will provide a strong economic base and a better source of finance for the university (ICAN study kit, 1998). The research output of a university could be sold to a private sector or government agencies (Croft 2004). University must be ready to seek grants and endowed research chair for professors who can attract funds (Olorode, 2005). These could go a long way to finance its budget if not for lack of autonomy that hampered such ingenuity in Nigeria (Olorode, 2005).

In Nigeria, the annual budgetary allocation to education has dropped from 19.6% in 1993 to 12.4% in 2010. In 1996, OECO countries accounted for 85% of the total R&D investment; China, India, Brazil and East Asia represented 11% and the rest of the world (inclusive of Nigeria that is) only 4% … Nigeria has only 15 scientists and engineers per million persons. This compares with 158 in India and 4,103 in the United States (World Bank, 2002). Nigeria’s number of scientific publication for 2005 was 711 significantly less than its 1991 output which was 1,062 (Task Force 2010). The country’s low research output probably reflects the low priority accorded to research and development by government. Nigeria’s federal university system spends only 1.3% of its budget on Research (Harnett, 2000).

The introduction of a special agency “Education Trust Fund” to generate funds to finance education in Nigeria has not recorded desired results. Obikwe (2006) said that the funding of Nigeria universities is at all time low, despite the purported efforts of successive government, no much can be shown for the efforts. Onweh (1997) states that there is an urgent need for stakeholders in the country’s education sector to align their different objectives to rescue university system from total collapse. On education, Nigeria spends an estimated 2.4% of its GNP while sub-Saharan Africa as a whole spends 5.1%…. school drop out have continually risen and also, the education standards have reportedly declined. Between 2000 and 2007, for example, the Government Allocation for higher education declined by 27%… even as enrollment grew by 79%. The result is a dramatic fall in the quality of University education and research as implied by the 62% drop in the real value of recurrent expenditure per student during this period (Saint, 2010).

Strike, Brain-drain and University System

University system continues to experience problems such as strike, closure, irregular academic calendar, brain-drain, low level of research and other problems as a result of small budgetary allocation to education by government in Nigeria. Research into the financial ability of universities has not been taken the central stage until it becomes clear that Federal and State government could not cope with the financing of the nation’s Universities as a result of global economic meltdown and a need to develop decades of infrastructures neglected by successive military governments in Nigeria. According to Aluko (1996), low academic salaries coupled with more frequently university closure which linked to students’ unrest and government interferences on a number of campuses have prompted numerous university staff to forsake the academic calling. The World Bank notes that some 23,000 qualified academic staffers are emigrating from Africa each year in search of better working conditions. It is estimated that 10,000 Nigerians are now employed in the United States alone. More often, however, it is a neighboring country which beckons, South Africa attracts staff from Malawi, Zambia, and Nigeria, and the universities in Botswana and Swaziland attract Zimbabweans (Aluko, 1996).

The economic doldrums which the country currently witnessed have had serious effects on the university system in Nigeria. The budgetary allocation declines led to the rationalization or cancellation of a number of services rendered by the universities (Olorode, 2005). The services that were affected included support and sponsor of staff to conferences, both local or overseas; inadequate and epileptic supplies of stationary items and other academic materials such as books for the library, chemical for laboratories, drugs for health centers and clinics (Adelemo, 2001). Chalk, in some instances, could not be provided. Information and communication technologies (ICTs) are obviously more expensive and would seldom be among the priority items to preoccupy the attention of the various managements of the universities (Okebukola, 2002). The culmination of the shortage of fund and simultaneous expansion in students’ enrolment, universities had to contend with shortage of accommodation, classrooms, inadequately library books (Olajuwon, 2004). According Salmi (2004) lack of facilities led to lower morale among the staff and those who felt that they could not cope either left Nigeria universities for overseas universities or found a well-paid job in the other sector of the economy. Jega (1994) emphasizes at this juncture that the struggle embarked by the Academic Staff Union of Universities (ASSU) to save the universities in the eighties and the nineties were preceded by those of the students in the sixties and the seventies.

Academic standards have no double measure. Its measurement is international, Olorode (2005) says there is no hide out for Nigerian society than to improve its education standard if it will remain among fast growing economy and fulfill its 2015 Millennium Development Goals. It has become a duty for Academic Staff Union of Universities to fight for better pay and better conditions of service for academic in order to direct government attention to education and to retain the academic staff that are still remain within the system and attract new ones. It is worrisome to note that the perennial strikes embarked by the Academic Staff Union of University (ASUU) in Nigeria were as a result of inadequate funding for the universities from the government. Research and teaching become almost non-existing in the universities as a result of paucity of funds. Truscott (1946) described a university as a society of scholars, all of whom are learning, but the more senior scholars spend part of their time teaching the junior scholars, and they also increase their own knowledge by adding to the store of human knowledge. This they do through research.

Private Sector and Funding of University

Funding of education in Nigeria, most especially the university education should not be a sole responsibility of government. Challenges before government to provide social facilities make it problematic to fund education as expected. The contribution of private sector to the education sector is very important. However, private organisations have not seen education as their primary responsibility. Private organisations in Nigeria do not patronise home grown knowledge. Research out-puts remain in archive of knowledge begging for adoption by the government and private organizations. According to Flexner (2000) the conservation of knowledge and ideas is and has always been recognised as the business of universities, sometimes, perhaps, as almost their only business. Thus, a university must seek to increase the bounds of knowledge through research, must act as a repository or store of such knowledge through research, and must also disseminate it.

Scarcity of fund in the nation’s education sector calls for public/private partnership which is aimed at injecting private sector know-how into failing public schools. University can choose to contract out specific educational services to private companies in order to access more fund. Paucity of fund can be resolved by a strong based private-sector ideology, competition, experimentation, and incentive. For- profit companies to run school systems more efficiently and produce better outcomes by applying private sector logic. Good teachers would be attracted to teaching and retained-by performance based pay schemes, while under performing teachers could be removed more easily. Composition within and between schools would lead to higher levels of innovation, privatized schools would have more liberty to institutionalize the result of successful research (see Giddens, Duneier and Appelbam, 2005).

Method

This study was carried out in Nigeria. Nigeria is the largest black nation in the world. It has the population of about one hundred and forty million (140million) (see 2006 national population report). Nigeria is divided into six geo-political zones such as Northeast, Northwest, Northcentral, Southeast, Southwest and Southsouth.

Sampling method

Two universities each were selected from the three out of the six geographical zones of the country; Northwest, Southwest and Southeast. Each of these zones has at least a Federal and a State university. The total number of Universities in the country is one hundred and seventeen (2011 UMT Brochure University): Federal Universities twenty-five (36); State Universities twenty (36); and Private Universities twenty-five (45). The following universities were randomly selected: Northwest (University of Sokoto also known as Uthman Dan Fodiyo University and Nasarawa State University); Southwest (University of Ibadan and University of Ado Ekiti); and Southeast (University of Nigeria and Imo State University).

Selection of Participants

Participants in this study were drawn from Bursary Department, Registry Department and Academic Planning of the selected Universities. Letter of information was sent to each university administrative council to intimate the university administration about the purpose and objectives of the study. The approved letter with the consent form was given to head of each unit which was signed and passed on to the selected participants. Each participant was also allowed to fill the consent form before filling the questionnaire. The following participants were selected based on informed consent form early signed:

Bursary Department

Deputy Registrar, Chief Accountant, Accountant 1& 11, and Account Technicians.

Registry Department

Principal Assistant Registrar, Assistant Registrars and Administration

Officers.

Academic Planning Unit

Chief academic Planning Officer and Administration Officers.

No name was written on the questionnaires but serial numbers were provided for easy coding and analysis. The participants were given the opportunity to withdraw from filling out the questionnaires. Their responses were immediately destroyed upon withdrawal of intention halfway. The well filled out questionnaires were packed in a sealed envelope and transported to the researcher office for analysis. The Quantitative method of data collection was employed to gather data from one hundred and thirty six respondents out of the two hundred questionnaires that were administered. One hundred and thirty-six returned questionnaires which represented 68% of the total administered questionnaires is adequate for data analysis.

Structured questionnaires that consist of open-ended and close-ended questions were distributed. The followings distributions were obtained: University of Sokoto 27 (55.77%); Nasarawa University 21 (44.23%); University of Ibadan 28 (63.46%); University of Ado Ekiti 20 (36.54%); (University of Nigeria 26 (57.69%) and Imo State University 14 (42.31%). Pilot survey had earlier been carried out in three Universities in the three selected regions to test the reliability and validity of the research instruments. Permission of National University Commission was taken before embarking on the field work. It took the researcher one year and nine months to complete the study. Data collected were analyzed with the aid of simple percentage, cross-tabulation and chi-square. The summary and finding of the survey was sent to the selected university administration and library for documentation.

Results

The results obtained from the analysis of data were presented here. Tables of percentages and chi-square were presented as well. Interpretation and conclusion on each table and chi-square were also presented. The paper presents results on the following: years of experience; number of students; amount of subvention in naira; grant received from government and others agencies; grant received from local and international agencies; effects of paucity of fund on the public universities; sources of fund; funding and brain – drain; and funding and teaching.

None of the Universities selected was established less than 10 years ago. The oldest University in Nigeria, University of Ibadan was established sixty-three years ago, University of Nigeria was established fifty-six years ago and also, Uthman Dan Fodiyo University was created thirty-six years ago. These Universities are owned by the Federal Government of Nigeria. They have no autonomy in terms of administration and funding. The other selected three universities such as Nassarawa State University, Ekiti State University and Imo State were established ten, twenty-nine and thirty years ago respectively by the State Government. They also lack autonomy, in spite they were created by concurrent status.

Number of students in each of the universities in the three regions is as follow: Southeast has the highest figure 57,000, University of Nigeria 36,000 and Imo State University 21,000; follow by southwest 24,654, University of Ibadan 12,000 and Ekiti State University 12,654 and, Northwest 21,123, Uthman Dan Fodiyo University 12,007 and Nassarawa State University 10,116.

The above table provides the number of both academic and non-academic staff working in the selected universities. The University of Ibadan has the highest number of staff with 4,197, follow by The University of Nigeria with 3,271 staff and the Uthman Dan Fodiyo University 2,512. The State owned universities have the lowest number of staff: Imo State University 2,752; Ekiti State University 2,223; and, Nassarawa State University 2,512.

Legends:

UDU- Uthman Dan Fodiyo University

NSU- Nasarawa State University

UI-University of Ibadan

ESKU-Ekiti State University

UNN- University of Nigeria, Nnsuka

IMSU-Imo State University

The amounts of subventions such as grants, donations and others accrued to the selected universities are stated below. State owned universities are poorly funded. Their subscription is less than one billion naira ($7million) while the federal Government owned Universities collect a little above one billion naira ($7million for) for both capital and recurrent expenditures in a year.

It is clearly indicated from table one that funds available for Universities are not sufficient 75(55.15). Funds from the Federal and State government, internally generated revenue and funds from other donors are not adequate to run the universities. Also, both the Federal and State Universities demonstrate that funds are lowly sufficient 53 (38.97), sufficient 06 (4.41) and, averagely sufficient 02 (1.47).

Universities are poorly financed in Nigeria. From the above table 04 (2.9%) of the respondents said they received little grant from local and international agencies such as Education Trust Fund, National University Commission, UNESCO and other international donors while 18 (13.3%) of the respondents said that these grants were not sufficient. However, the largest percentages of the respondents 114 (83.8) said that grants are not available at all.

The effects of scarcity of funds on the public Universities are extremely enormous. Table II shows that the effects as follows: Research and Development 33 (24.27), strike 28 (20.59), Brain-drain 25 (18.38), Student Unrest 08 (5.88), teaching capacity 13 (9.56), Sponsorship 09 (6.62), external links 13 (9.56), and community development 07 (5.15).

The possible means by which Universities in Nigeria source for funds were examined in table III. Apart from running grants from governments, 43 (31.62%) of the respondents agreed that funds could be sourced by buying and selling of security, bonds and shares. Also, 29 (21.32%) of the respondents believe that funds could be sourced internally by selling of admission forms, increase in the number of in-takes, increase in school fees, deregulation of accommodation fees and commercialization of universities’ halls of residence. Public/private partnership is another way by which funds could be generated, 28 (20.59%) of the respondents supported this idea. About 19 (13.97%) and 17 (12.50%) of the respondents said that funds could be made available to the universities by the internationalization of university programmes and commercialization of research output respectively.

Funding and Brain – drain

Federal State Total

Yes 68 (82.93) 38 (70.37) 106 (77.94)

No 14 (17.07) 16 (29.63) 30 (22.06)

82(100) 54 (100) 136 (100)

x² = 2.36

d.f = 1

a = .05

Critical value = 3.84

The acceptance region for this test using a = .05 and d.f = 1. The critical value is 3.84. Since the critical chi-square value exceeds the observed value of x², I accept the null hypothesis of independence of the classification and conclude that inadequate funding could lead to brain-drain in the Universities.

Funding and Teaching

Federal State Total

Yes 66 (80.49) 40(74.07) 106 (77.94)

No 10(12.20) 08(14.82) 18 (13.24)

I don’t know 06 (07.31) 06(11.11) 12 (8.82)

Total 82 (100) 54(100) 136 (100)

x² = 1.86

d.f = 2

a = .05

Critical value = 5.99

In this text, the chi-square is accepted using a = .05 and d.f = 2. The critical value is 5.99. Since the critical value exceeds the observed value x²₌1.86, I accept the null hypothesis of dependence of the classification and conclude that there is a relationship between University funding and teaching capacity of academic staff.

Conclusion and Recommendation

This study was set to examine the funding of universities in Nigeria and other problems confronting the system. It was found in this paper that grants from the government to the universities either from the federal government or state government was crossly insufficient. The insufficiency of fund for universities has actually led to the inability of the universities to meet with the challenges of education in this globalization era. However, for a university to compete favourably with its counterparts all over the world it must be adequately funded. Education generally in Nigeria is not adequately founded. It was reported that budgetary allocation to education in Nigeria continuously dwindling in the last two decades (Duyilemi, 2007).

The effects of paucity of fund on the universities administration were also examined in this paper. Inadequate funding has bandwagon effects. Regrettably, research and development is grossly affected in the Nigerian universities. Universities lack fund to sponsor research. Private organizations have also failed to help in this direction. Lack of research fund has push some lecturers out of the Universities this actually led to brain-drain experienced in the nation’s ivory towers. Incessant strikes by the university staff – both the academic and non-academic, many of the strikes boiled down on the inability of the university management to meet the demands of its workers as a result of paucity of fund.

It was also concluded in this paper that inadequate funding has led to students’ unrest and the inability to secure capable teaching hands. This is supported by the chi-square test that stated that there is a strong correlation between funding and teaching capacity (see hypothesis 2). Sponsorship for teachers and students to attend conferences, workshops, seminars and training both locally and internationally were also hampering by insufficient funds. However, new development could only be leant by the university professors without attending conference, workshops, seminars and training. More so, external linkage/exchange programme would be difficult to establish because university needs enough fund to accomplish this task. Inadequate fund has affected the ability of universities to contribute meaningfully to the community development because funds available could not go round.

This paper examines way out of perennial shortage of fund in the universities. It is important for a university to source for fund; this could be done both locally and internationally. It was concluded that, practically, universities could raise fund internally from establishment of enterprises, increase in school fees payment, accommodation payment. Also, commercialization of research outputs could be used as a viable source of funding. Research outputs could be sold to private organizations, government and interested international buyers.Buying and selling of government security, shares and bonds could generate funds for universities. Though, this recommendation is not popular with public universities. The autonomy of universities could make this possible. Public/private partnership is a new global initiative that could brings development to moribund institutions in the country. Universities could enter into partnership with private individuals, business organizations and international consortium. Finally, this paper recommended internationalization of university’s degree. The more foreigners patronize a university, the more increases her income. Globalization of the world has made internationalization of education possible and practicable.

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STRATEGY ON HOW TO REDUCE INDISCIPLINE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN KENYA

Nickson Moseti Ongaki, Dr. Okibo Walter Bichanga & Dr. Willy Muturi

Introduction

This Innovative Programme is based on proper formation and efficient management of school based peer counseling clubs as the best way of reducing indiscipline and also restoring peace among pupils in secondary schools. In most schools the controversial issue of discipline and conflict management to enhance peace among the pupils has been left in the hands of teachers with pupils having no say on most of the issues affecting them at school. However, due to the soaring population and understaffing in most public secondary schools country wide, teachers have either inadequate or no time to deal with growing indiscipline among pupils. Moreover, very few teachers are trained in peer counseling and therefore posses limited skills to cope up with programmes that can restore discipline in secondary schools. More often than not, prefects are used to identify defiant pupils who are later handed to the teachers for appropriate punishment. Most teachers often take the prefects’ word when solving indiscipline cases among pupils and may subsequently ignore other testimonies from non prefects. This stereo type belief that prefects always tell the truth may increase conflicts among pupils rather than solve them. Other pupils may be depressed when they believe that it’s only the prefects who are trusted and believed by the teachers. Prefects are also sometimes given powers to even administer punishment to other smaller children thus increasing acrimony among the learners.

This innovative programme therefore identified a more participatory and efficient ay of discipline management in schools by piloting a way which would involve the children themselves in reducing the growing indiscipline in the school. Through the formation of peer counseling clubs many children would be involved in informing others on the best way to behave while in schools. Members of the school peer counseling clubs would be used as peace ambassadors who would not only enlighten others on the benefit of a peaceful co-existence but also be moulded into responsible models for others to admire.

Problem Statement

Growing indiscipline among secondary school pupils has continued to have a negative impact on efficient education management and administration in Kenya. In Mugai secondary school, the school had the problem of growing indiscipline among the pupils which compromised peace among the learners. I observed frequent fighting and noisy quarrels among the pupils, rampant destruction of school property and poor relationships among the pupils despite punitive intervention measures from the teachers to check the vice. Furthermore, the school prefects were the most hated in the school because they were seen as either spies of the school administration or as representatives of the unjust and corrupt society.

The school administration on its part used non corporal punishment as the best way of restoring discipline among the pupils. The culprits were made to weed the school sugarcane farm the whole afternoon or uproot tree stumps in the school compound or slash tall grass in the playground. Weeding the school Napier grass was also another alternative to punish wrong doers. However, despite all those aforementioned interventions, indiscipline in the school continued to soar. There were more fighting among the pupils and the big pupils did not respect the teachers and the school subordinate staff. The drop out rate in standard six, seven and eight was very high. Some girls got pregnant and stopped coming to school while some boys opted for casual jobs this was may be due to lack of peace in the school.

The school administration involved both parents and guardians of the affected pupils but the results were negative. In most cases most parents and guardians sided with their children, accusing the administration of segregating the children on the basis of social class, gender or ethnic background. This led to a very poor relationship between the school administration and the community. During parents’ meetings, parents would turn such meetings into a finger pointing and shouting match. At times prefects could be waylaid on their way home by bullies and beaten; such issues would be left in the hands of the Provincial administration.

They were two teachers trained in peer counseling in our school but they were almost giving up on their effort to guide and council the growing number of deviant pupils. The purpose of this programme was therefore to use peer counseling club as the best way of restoring discipline among the pupils.

Addressing the problem

In January 2009 I sought the permission from the school administration to start a peer counseling club which I was granted. With the help of two teachers trained in peer counseling, we held a two day school based inset in which we sensitized teachers on how the club was to function and the support we needed from them. Some teachers were very co-operative although some argued that the club could not work in such a harsh environment. Yet others waited to see how we could start so that they could join us.

The second step I took was to seek advice from other non- teachers who had a vast experience in working with the youth. I got invaluable advice from workers of non governmental organizations like Amkeni, APHIA II Western and members of Straight talk of which I was a coordinator. They gave me a lot of information and resource materials on how to educate the youths on emerging issues. I also held a one week awareness programme among the pupils from standard four to eight. The main objective of this programme was to inform the pupils on the role of peer counseling clubs in helping them cope with the every day’s challenges. The programme also gave them the opportunity to know their role in helping the fellow pupils and members of the peer counseling club in trying to reduce indiscipline. The forum also gave us an opportunity to find the root causes of indiscipline, depression and frustration among the pupils.

Later I formed the peer counseling clubs involving pupils from standard four to standard eight. The steering committee of the club consisted of elected class representatives of the four classes who were a boy and a girl representing each class. Other members were on voluntary basis but had to be disciplined to be maintained in the club. All club members were to be of very high integrity and to be role models to others. Any club member found breaching the club’s code of conduct was to be suspended from the club until he/she reformed.

The club’s meetings took place every Friday after classes. During such meetings, the club’s weekly activities would be evaluated. The meetings also enabled the peer counselors and other available resource people to educate the club members on how to carry out their roles effectively. The club members would also update us on more challenging and emerging issues which required attention from the teachers or peer counselors.

The club members on their part organized to interact with their fellow pupils every Wednesday after classes. With the assistance of teachers, peer counselors and other volunteers, the club members would use this opportunity to create awareness among the fellow pupils on the need to behave well while in school. Situations which were beyond the scope of the club members were referred to the teachers. The teachers also helped in grouping the pupils into manageable groups according to either gender or age; depending on the topic of discussion. Sometimes resource people were also invited to help the peer club members in clarifying the most challenging issues.

The club would also be involved in spreading peace messages in the school through music, drama, poetry, writing articles and drawing cartoons on the school notice board. During various school functions like Education Days, Parents’ Days and School Assembly, club members would get an opportunity to pass the message to the peers. The club members also made a suggestion box where responses from other pupils on their opinions concerning the school were dropped. Such suggestions were thoroughly discussed during club meetings and the necessary actions taken. The council of prefects also met club members once every month where they were advised on how to make fair and just decisions.

The major obstacle at the initial stages of the programime was lack of support from the parents. Most of them objected the idea of their children being tutored by others. They termed this as an attempt by the lazy teachers to delegate their work to minors who were not mature enough to lead. The school management on its part, managed to call a parents’ meeting where we enlightened them on the club’s call. Some parents were satisfied and started supporting the programme while others were still suspicious on the aims of the club. Another big obstacle was instilling confidence in club members. Most pupils were shy and had no exposure of standing and speaking before others; furthermore, some naughty pupils were always ready to humiliate their fellow peer tutors. However, we gave a lot of motivation and confidence to peer counseling club members and prepared them on how to endure the challenges from their friends. Furthermore, the teachers and other counselors were always ready to stand in for issues that would not be handled by the young ones. There also pessimism from some teachers who forecasted doom for the project. They argued that the peer counseling clubs could not have the necessary machinery to cure indiscipline. However, those determined always moved forward with program implementation. Lack of funds to purchase the necessary materials and stationery was also a big obstacle. The club had to rely on the school administration and volunteers for such materials. Moreover the club’s trips were limited to a few neighboring schools which were a walking distance away. With the availability of funds, the club intends to widen its scope to cover as many schools as possible in their campaign.

Outcomes

Six months after initiating this programme, I have realized a lot of changes in the school. The club membership has risen from sixteen to over sixty members. The discipline of the school pupils has started to improve. This can be inferred from the few cases of indiscipline being handled by the teachers of late. The administration has also reported very few cases of culprits being send home on indiscipline grounds and very few pupils are punished for disobeying school rules.

Most parents and guardians have also started changing their attitudes towards the school after realizing what the club has achieved. Most of them report to the teachers that their children have improved their behaviour even at home. During parents’ meetings, many stakeholders still encourage the teachers to maintain the club for the benefit of the whole community.

The school notice board has become active with pupils’ letters, cartoons and articles on the benefit of the responsible youths. This is unlike before where the notice board only had announcements from the school administration. School functions are always lively with pupils’ performances in drama, poetry and music. This has increased the confidence and creativity among the learners. In fact, the school performed well I Choir up to the provincial level in the year 2009.

The attitude of pupils towards prefects has improved tremendously. Most prefects make just and fair decisions, they do not victimize their enemies on mistakes they did not do. Most teachers have now agreed to treat all children fairly, irregardless of the social background, gender or ethnic background. This has restored the confidence of pupils in prefects and teachers.

Teachers have also a very easy time controlling the pupils. They have also reported an improvement in the academic performance among the pupils this has boosted their morale and their perceptions on the behavior and ability of the children.

Findings

The best way of initiating positive changes in the behaviour and perceptions of children is to actively involve them in youths’ awareness campaigns through clubs. The peers spend most of their time together during various activities and it is easier and cheaper to involve them in self-corrections and correcting others than involving the adults. Playmates, for instance, can get corrections from friends and change for the better than when the corrections come from others. When peers correct others, they gain a lot of responsibility and acceptance in the society. They also practice leadership roles when they are still young. This can go along way in reducing indiscipline and strikes witnessed in most public secondary and private secondary schools country wide.

The teachers can use peer counseling clubs as the most efficient way of reducing indiscipline in schools. Use of drama, music and sports in helping children correct their behaviour has a lot of success.

I also encouraged the peer counseling campaign to go beyond the school boundaries and capture the neighbouring schools and the community at large. This was by arranging visits for club members to visit other schools for the awareness campaign. During days such as National AIDS Day and Public Holidays the club members would perform music or plays which stressed on peaceful co-existence among members of the community. This was well received in the community and encouraged. With the availability of funds, the club plans to extend its visits to cover a larger population.

Sustainability

The future plans for the club are to widen the scope of the content of the club’s campaign to include HIV awareness and gender equality campaign among the learners. This will enable the club address the most challenging and contemporary issues facing the youths.

In trying to intensify community participation in the programme, we have scheduled visits in the neighbouring school community. The visits will serve to sensitize parents and guardians on how to help the club achieve its goals. They will be advised on how to support disciplining their children and ensure that they are in good company. Parents will also be updated on their children’s behaviour and how they can help their children to change in the positive. The club is also planning to hold a fundraising targeting parents and other well-wishers. The funds will cover advertising costs for the club’s programmes and visits to other schools to exchange views on emerging challenges.

The formation of peer counseling clubs can be used by schools, colleges or other institutions of higher learning to reduce riots and strikes witnessed in many institutions countrywide. Other stakeholders can also replicate this programme by expanding it to campaign on issues like gender mainstreaming, HIV AIDS awareness and reduction in levels of corruption. This is because peer counseling clubs is the best platform for creating responsible and peace-loving citizens and hence foster the achievement of Vision 2030

CHANGING strategic TRENDS IN STUDENT LEADERSHIP IN public School system IN KENYA

Nickson Moseti Ongaki, Dr. Okibo Walter Bichanga & Dr. Willy Muturi

ABSTRACT

Against the wider background of increasing interest in the improvement of management and leadership practices in public schools, this paper focuses on the involvement of students in leadership beyond the traditional structure of school prefects. It also seeks to show how the school administrators can be retrained in fresher insights into leadership and management in order to make their institutions responsive to changing trends in administration. Furthermore, the paper seeks to interrogate the prefect system of student representation in secondary schools, its process and outcomes. New ways of conceptualizing leadership are discussed in relation to students’ roles as active agents in improving learning especially in light of the April 2001 educational legislation that prohibited school corporal punishment. The abolition of corporal punishment in schools as (Ng’ang’a 2002:4) has argued, has left a gap which cannot be filled and this has led to the prevalence of diverse disciplinary problems in schools. Schools are compelled to operate within the regulatory framework of the Ministry of Education which may at times conflict with their peculiar needs, situations and circumstances. To this end, schools are somewhat constrained in combating the rapidly escalating problems with discipline. Furthermore, parental attitude toward educators and school authorities exacerbate the disciplinary control in schools due to parents’ skepticism towards disciplinary measures. This paper proposes the idea of ‘democratic governance” as one of the novel ideas that can make school system relevant to changing realities. It further introduces the concept of “Leadership by Students” (LbS) to underscore the fundamental need by education authorities to conceptualize a school system where each student is given a leadership role in the school as an important way of ending the prefecture system which is responsible for the school strikes and a skewed view of leadership where a few dominate the majority. This paper argues that a perception of leadership as a relational process of influence rather than a hierarchical power structure gives credence to the view that students’ leadership is developed more within a climate of democratic governance than dictatorship. Schools and networks of schools are suggested as important sites for the enactment of leadership as influence through the lateral modalities of power such as negotiation and persuasion which may contest and change existing structures of student leadership. In recent years the term “student voice” increasingly has been discussed in the school reform literature as a potential avenue for improving both student outcomes and school restructuring (Harber & Meighan, 1989; Harber, 1995; Ruddock & Chaplain, 1996). The concept addresses a core voice that has been missing in the discussion of school reforms – the dilemma of ownership. Student voice initiates public schools to reevaluate who gets to define the problems of a school and who gets to try to improve them (Trafford, 2006; Flutter & Ruddock, 2004; Apple & Beane, 1995; Chapman, 1995). A key challenge for policy workers is to understand how different school governance structures and educational reforms impact on the role of student leaders and most importantly on the ability of school leadership to provide effective teaching and learning, (Hargreaves, 2003). Since 2001, Zawadi Leadership Project in Secondary Schools under the auspices of Zawadi Counselling and Research Centre has been conducting research and seminars on LbS in 20 selected schools from Nairobi and its environs. These studies have found out that the school prefecture system in public schools is an important cause responsible for the rising cases of school strikes. These studies have adopted a multi-method approach including both quantitative and qualitative data analysis. This paper looks outward, focusing on the imperatives of student leadership rather than inward, on school heads and governing boards. (604 words)

Key Words: leadership by students, democratic governance, educational governance, management and leadership practices, negotiation, persuasion, school prefects, school restructuring, student voice.

A. INNOVATIVE STATEMENT

In this paper, WE argue that a lack of democracy in schools coupled by an authoritarian education system which creates a sort of police system of student governance is the main cause of these school strikes and unless this fact is assimilated by education policy makers, there will be no end in school strikes in Kenya. Consequently, this presentation is a condensation of research and training findings spanning a period of 8-years (2001-2009) that interviewed members of school communities who include: headmasters-also referred to as principals, teachers, students, parents, members of board of governors (bogs), prefects and parents. Furthermore, this presentation probes the prevailing school culture defined as “historically transmitted patterns of meaning that include the norms, values, beliefs and myths understood by members of the school community” especially as it pertains the role and place of student leadership in the overall school leadership and management structure. The research question pervading the entire spectrum of this discussion is: How best can the students’ voice be heard in the public school system? And the title for this innovative project is: “Changing Trends in Student Leadership in Public School System: Introducing the Concept of Leadership by Students (LbS)”

INTRODUCTION

“Democratic Management” is the new concept that ought to be incorporated by schools’ in order for them to fit in the “new school order realities” and in order for the students’ voice to be heard. The word “democratic” is used to stress the openness of schools and educational systems; the term “management” is used to underline the technical and instrumental dimensions of governing. We govern those things or beings, the behaviour of which cannot be predicted totally. We manage things or beings, the behaviour of which is easier to predict. When we govern, we negotiate, persuade, bargain or apply pressure, because we do not have full control of those we govern. When we manage, we tend to instruct and order because we think we have strong and legitimate power to do so. Thus, as schools are becoming more and more open institutions, rooted in specific local social and economic settings, and characterized by a complex array of different needs and interests, then governance rather than management is what should characterize relations with students. And since so many factors cannot be controlled by executive powers alone, an open and democratic approach is the only way to a successful and sustainable leadership in a modern school.

From 2001, Zawadi Counselling Centre has been conducting a series of researches and training seminars on the minority Prefectorial System of governance and management in 20 secondary schools in Nairobi and its environs and how best to improve governance and management in schools. One of the ways in which Zawadi Counselling Centre has helped initiate this concept of democratic management in schools is through the LbS concept which involves all students in leadership and management of their respective schools. Furthermore, such an involvement lends credence to the concept of “the naked public square” where leaders are publicly elected by the majority students to represent the student body under an agreeable formulae as opposed to the culture of secret selection by the few (headmaster and teachers) using an unknown formulae where the select few student leaders make major decisions affecting every student becomes the norm. The LbS concept will make school strikes a thing of the past since dialogue born of democratic governance will be the in-thing in human relations. The LbS idea is an important aspect of the concept of “transformational leadership” which focuses on the importance of teamwork and comprehensive school improvement as an alternative to other modes of leadership. Transformational leadership is contrasted with instructional leadership which encompasses hierarchies and leadership structures and usually excludes teacher development, and, transactional leadership which is based on an exchange of services for various kinds of rewards that the leader controls, at least in part. Advocates of school reforms also usually advocate altering power relations. The problem, explain (Mitchell & Tucker, 1992) is that we have tended to think of leadership as the capacity to take charge and get things done. This view keeps us from focusing on the importance of teamwork and comprehensive school improvements. Thus, “instructional leadership” is “out” and “transformational leadership” is “in”.

The research literature identifies productive high schools as those that educate all of their students well, have a clear vision of their teaching and learning goals, and take action on those goals (Silins et.al., 2000). They also have high expectations for all students. Productive high schools are built on humanized, intellectual relationships for learning. Students are viewed as individuals and they know that the adults in the school care about them both personally and academically. This way of viewing students is reflected by a number of local private secondary schools most of which do not have this Prefectorial System. These private schools are used as control group in Zawadi. Research has shown that school strikes are more pronounced in “prefects run schools” than in “non-prefects run institutions”, where student voice is respected, acknowledged and encouraged (Mangi, Otieno & Ng’ang’a, 2003:30). The concept of democratic governance can benefit schools in primarily preparing young people to become participating, democratic adult citizens. The LbS is in my view, one of the best ways to introduce the culture of democratic governance in our schools.

B. PROBLEM STATEMENT

Research by Zawadi has revealed that many school principals may be ill-prepared to cede ground for a new paradigm shift in student understanding of their role in running of schools. An aspect of this paradigm shift is the flexibility in the learning environment brought about by among other factors the rise and rise of Information and Communication Technology (ICT), which unfortunately seems escape the perceptions of minders of the traditional school system best represented by the public school system in Kenya. The developments in the growing ICT culture among especially secondary school and college going youth is significantly affecting the education culture defined in this context as “shared interpretations about beliefs, values and norms of a learning environment which affect the behaviors of members of a school community”. One area which is being affected by this ICT changes is the move from traditional learning environment focused on the teacher as deliverer of knowledge to new open learning environments focused on the learner as information seeker. The role of the teacher and learner change in the new learning environment; the teacher becomes: a facilitator, coach, guide and co-learner. The learner becomes; an information server, explorer, problem solver, co-teacher. (Grabinge & Dunlop, 2000:8-38).

In other words, the image of the teacher as the sole purveyor of knowledge is fast becoming obsolete and with it, the belief that a few select student administrators famously called “prefects” personify student leadership and can effectively instill student discipline and order. What is generally missing in majority public schools and some private schools is the culture of a data driven school improvement which seeks to answer the ageless question: is it good because we have been doing it for a long time, or is it good because we have tangible evidence of its worth? In other words, can data use improve education? Studies by Zawadi have shown that generally speaking unpopular “good and bright” students are often favored for the positions of school prefects by the school administration (headmaster and teaching staff). But the truth of the matter is that the popular “bad and less bright” students often have the sympathies of the students in general. And because of these sympathies, this category of un-selected student leaders, have the ability to unbalance the school order. Unfortunately, the school system as currently constituted has failed to recognize and utilize their hidden potential for leadership, and where administrators are concerned that their continued stay in school may disturb the status-quo, they have expelled them. The chasm between the traditional model of education and the emerging ICT based model of shared learning was clearly brought to the fore by the infamous school strikes of June 2008 where a reported 300 schools were rocked by violent strikes (Daily Nation, 2008).

What was striking in this national shame was that the mobile phone, a modern product of ICT, was a major culprit in the sense it was used to communicate the strike, student to student and school to school. But what is perplexing was the response by top education officials in explaining the reasons behind the strikes and the panacea for the same.

But even more worrying was the findings by David Koech, the chairman of Parliamentary Committee on Education. According to Koech, “drug use, insecurity schools and parents’ neglect of their children were some of the major reasons behind the strikes in schools”. Furthermore, the House Committee recommended radical changes in the education system which includes among other things, “pocket to be banked with the school to avert cases of drug abuse” (East African Standard, 2008). Earlier on Education Minister Sam Ongeri had introduced tough measures in schools which “banned the use of mobile phones in schools by students and ordered the removal of music systems and DVDs from school buses among other measures” (East African Standard, 2008). These measures are based on partial conclusion of the problem. Conclusions by top education officials failed to recognize the crucial role that can Subordinate Staff play to fuel skirmishes in schools. In fact, little attention has been devoted to the recognition of the office of Subordinate Staff in schools. The traditional triangle concept of describing key actors in a school as consisting of, Teachers, Students and Parents is misleading. Studies by Zawadi have noted the huge influence the Subordinate Staff (Supporting Staff) bear on the school system, given that they tend to stay longer as employees of schools as compared to the triumvirate of Teachers, Students and Parents. This aspect of ‘permanency’ by Subordinate Staff means that they understand better the school culture. And if this cooperation between the Subordinate Staff and students becomes a conspiracy to commit evil, the results can be catastrophic. That is why there is need to reconfigure the triangle of relationships and include the Subordinate Staff as the fourth independent and critical element in the school architecture. To include this segment as a core member of the school community will affect education policies and could eventually become an important step in the democratization of schools. The success of the Zawadi Counselling Centre Leadership initiative was demonstrated during the infamous school strikes of 2008. All the 20 schools which have undergone this leadership and management for change programme did not indulge in this strike.

C. ADDRESSING THE PROBLEM

But how can schools contribute to the (LbS) initiative? From 2001, the Zawadi program conducted a series of researches and trainings in leadership and management in 20 selected schools within Nairobi and its environs. The total cost involvement from 2001-2009 was $200,000 and involved 18-25 specialized personnel. Prior to the involvement with this secondary school project, we considered expanding the project to include primary schools, colleges and universities. But a lack of enough specialized personnel for such a mammoth project coupled by inadequate finances meant that we could only limit ourselves to secondary schools in Nairobi. The selected schools were grouped in four groupings: schools from rich neighborhoods; schools from Eastlands neighborhoods; schools from slums; private schools. Another criterion was based on gender considerations. Thus, girls’ schools were balanced proportionately with boys’ schools. Three mixed schools were selected. Two major approaches were used: training seminars and research. In the initial pilot study in 2001, a focus group session was conducted in one selected school where the research was carried out. Ten principals participated in the exercise of which the main purpose was to highlight the essence of student leadership seen collectively as the entire student population and not selectively as in few student representatives chosen only by the principal and the teaching staff. In order to conduct the nomothetic research a questionnaire was designed and applied. The nomothetic deductive method is the one that is used by researchers who want to learn something about social regulations – things that apply to people in general (Hardin,1985).

For the purpose of empirical investigation (2001-2009), a total of 1000 students, 300 teachers, 150 members of BOGs of 15 schools, 85 subordinate staff and 200 prefects were included. To obtain information regarding the interviewees’ perceptions and experiences of what ails the school system, a questionnaire was administered using the medium of the English language. The questionnaire was scored quantitatively by means of appropriate statistical techniques such as frequencies, percentages, analysis of variance (ANOVA) and chi square analysis, and included an open question that was evaluated qualitatively. The scoring of the questionnaire was done electronically. The reliability of the questionnaire was between 0.93 and 0.97 which may be considered as very good. The ideographical research was carried out by means of focus group interviews, semi-structured interviews with principals, teachers, students, subordinate staff, members of boards of governors and prefects of schools that were involved in the 8-year study. to find more about the participants’ experiences, thoughts, and general feelings regarding what they thought about the concept of LbS. In order to lend ethical consideration to the empirical study, certain measures have been considered. This was done by obtaining permission from all relevant stakeholders.

Our study conceptualized four levels of a successful implementation of the LbS initiative within a democratic governance model. At the first level, appropriately called the “Entry Point”, there was need by school management to recognize and accept that a new paradigm of LbS is gradually and perceptibly replacing the old model of authoritarian and militarian leadership where age and seniority are taken for granted as acceptable substitutes for wisdom and know-how. In the second level of implementation, we recognized the growing importance of leadership and management practices in schools. Thus, we sought to reeducate the school administrators on the three salient principles of leadership and management, namely, cooperation, competition and conflict. At the third level is the development of human values and behaviors of mutual respect, rights and responsibilities and, above all, trust. At this third level, the school is seen as an important bearer of democratic values. It is an open school, with regular communication with higher authorities to give them good grounds for future decisions. Student members in school councils or school boards are given special training in meeting procedures. In fact, by the end of the 4-year school cycle, each student must have served as a school leader at the various levels of leadership available in the school. The student leaders also get a budget of their own to run their offices. Both formal and informal consultations produces systemic and structured information flow and sharing of responsibilities even in difficult areas of budgeting, curriculum development, strategic planning, school-based teacher training, student self-improvement trainings, evaluation, and teaching. At the fourth level we propose that there be a deliberate reconstitution of the school prefect structure by setting up a LbS-student council where all students are represented, with a number of representatives for the student body meeting regularly, perhaps with a chairman and a secretary as the only leading positions. But the council can also be organized much more elaborately by having a Senate with two representatives from each class and chaired by the Vice-president and The Cabinet, led by the President, who has the executive power. President and Vice-president are elected by the student council without undue interference by the school principal or teachers. Their mandate comes from the Senate which is itself elected after every school term to give chance for as many students to participate in its deliberations. Then there is the Court which has one member from each class. The Court acts as mediator in conflicts between students and between students and teachers. The objective of the Court is to reach consensus between conflicting parties. Members of the student council are given special training and support in their work by the school head. One of the outcomes of this system of student leadership is greater mutual respect and trust between teachers and students. Also, the teachers tend to see students more as equal partners in the learning process.

This research experienced four major drawbacks in the form of: limited financial resources; non-cooperation from some school heads, teachers, and BOGs; inability to meet the Parliamentary Committee on Education and top education officials; limitation in the generalization of the research findings given that this investigation was conducted in a certain geographical zone. How these bottlenecks were overcome is as follows: we were able to work on a shoe-string budget For the obstinate principals, teachers and BOGs, sustained training seminars which were professionally conducted gradually thawed their resistance. We are currently making good progress in meeting the House Committee on Education and top education officials. In recent times we have been having a series of discussions with two potential donors signaling that there is hope that we might conduct country-wide research.

D. OUTCOMES

Before the program came into life, the situation in the schools involved in this study was one where there was a preponderance of the traditional learning model where the headmaster is king and the rest, including teachers’ are his/her acolytes, existing only to do his biddings. Some of the factors that have led to the success of the program include:

the “easy to identify with” questionnaires and focus groups interviews;
the spirit of confidentiality which even under duress we have chosen to upheld;
the program’s longevity and consistency which has created confidence among participants’ and served to market the group to other schools;
the practicality of the LbS proposal and its widespread acceptability among the student population;
the high professional standards exhibited during the seminar trainings and by the research environment;
the moral and ethical dispositions by members of our team;
being known and recognized by the relevant educational officials.

E. LESSONS LEARNT

This program has taught us valuable lessons. Initially we made the mistake of thinking that because we understood the problem clearly, the schools will follow suit and immediately there will be a revolution. We now know better. The process of influencing a change of policy which must deliberately involve all the stakeholders in the education sector is as convoluted as it is necessary. Again, we made the mistake of believing that training seminars are enough in changing thinking and relating patterns among people. Now we know better. Humans are a complicated lot and in our African-Kenyan experience of ethnicity and politicization of all sectors of work, every initiative, every person, every word and gesture is judged on the basis of the ethnic backgrounds and/or political affiliations of the initiators of a program and not on the merit or lack of it of a particular initiative. And no institution is so riddled with this cancer as the school system. We have also on the need to include and cooperate with like-minded organizations for peer review reason. Initially when we begun, there was virtually no organization, at least in Nairobi and its environs, that was directly involved in conducting research and training. In terms of recruiting personnel for research and training undertaking we have learnt not to recruit based on what appears on the CVs, but to subject candidates to both written and field work experience in order to gauge their suitability for the task. The program was publicized by word of mouth. The overall aim of the program is to have the community own the ideas and then take charge of their own destiny.

F. SUSTAINABILITY

The development of LbS within democratic governance will ensure that our program nourishes learning and creates conducive learning environment. In determining the sustainability of this our program we note the following significant weaknesses regarding the education sector vis-à-vis the development of student leadership: lack of clear definition of good student leadership program in secondary schools in particular and schools in general; inadequate preparation programs for students in leadership and management; absence of collaboration between schools and higher education institutions, public and private sectors; absence of a national sense of cooperation in preparing student leaders. The Zawadi consultative team has just finished drawing the Action Plan for our program for the next 5-years phase (2011-2016) where we have comprehensively discussed how to tackle the preceding “significant weaknesses”. Broadly, the Zawadi Leadership Project 2011-2016 Action Plan (Ng’ang’a & Otieno: 2010) proposes a five-pronged approach in addressing the LbS concerns: Active, sustained, and constructive engagement with Parliament; Ministry of Education and other stakeholders in the education sector; media, church and international NGOs involved with education. The focus is to agitate for the change of policy to allow the wind of democratic governance to sweep through the school system and obtain for students a more active role in leadership and management of their schools. I will argue how the LbS could be replicated or adapted in other organizations or settings in line with the seven principles of sustainable leadership by Hargreaves and Fink (2006), which borrow from the environmental and corporate sustainability literature to frame sustainable leadership in terms of energy restraint, renewal, and release. The seven principles by are as follows: Sustainable leadership creates and preserves learning that lasts and engages students intellectually, socially and emotionally; Sustainable leadership secures success over time. The challenge is to let go, move on and plan for ones own obsolescence; Sustainable leadership sustains the leadership of others; Sustainable leadership addresses issues of social justice and is an interconnected process; Sustainable leadership develops rather than depletes human and material resources It develops all its students rather than lavishing rewards on selecting or rotating a few already proven stars; Sustainable leadership develops environmental diversity and capacity; Sustainable leadership undertakes activist engagement with the environment. It develops sustainability by how the school leadership sustains itself and other around it to promote and support learning.

The practical part to these principles which guides the successful implementation of the LbS idea is this: first and foremost create a platform/an assembly where all the students can without inhibitions voice their concerns guided by the democratic ideals of Listening, learning and transforming. Again as in my preceding conclusion, the concept of LbS will ensure that schools become centers of creativity and innovation guided by the undying principles of freedom, democracy and individuality. By using the LbS idea, schools will become centers of participative decision making where power is consensual and facilitative manifested through others instead of over them. (Leithwood 1992 & Sigor 1992).

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The human person is multi-dimensional and cannot be defined unilaterally without risking to devalue him and to consider him inconsequential to the structures and systems he is supposed to annihilate, create and re-create in his search for what is meaningful within his historical and cultural contexts. The public school system as currently formulated and practiced in Kenya does not respect the collective student voice which is swamped under a traditional, daddy-is-always-right system of doing things with a small class of student leaders famously called prefects expected to represent student leadership abilities as a collectivity. The LbS initiative is an attempt to change this way of conducting student and school affairs. Furthermore, the promotion of holistic education and learning has in recent times become the buzz-word among educationists keen on changing the current state of affairs where student voice is muzzled prompting the venting of student anger through devastating strikes. Bronfenbrenner & Evans (2000:115-125), have introduced the five-system bio-ecological model to explain this multifaceted nature of human interactions. These five systems include: Microsystem (refers to family, peers, school, roles and relationships in the immediate environment); Mesosystem (relationship between home, schools, neighborhood, child care centres); Exosystem (community health services, parks, recreation centres, informal groups); Macrosystem (ideology, values, laws, regulations, customs and culture); and, Chronosystem (includes all aspects of time and how they impact on development).

Analysis of the questionnaire responses from the interviewees in relation to student participation in leadership and management conducted by Zawadi Leadership Project from 2001 to 2009 reveal the following dimensions which indicate well functioning schools. These are: Trusting and Collaborative Climate -The extent to which the school’s climate and culture is one that supports collaborative work, sharing of information and open communication; Taking initiatives and risks-The extent to which the school leaders and school structures support experimentation and teachers, student and supporting staff feel valued and rewarded for taking the initiative; Shared and Monitored Mission-The extent to which teachers and students especially participate in all aspects of the school’s functioning, including decision making and review, sharing a coherent sense of direction and acknowledging the wider school community; Professional Development-The extent to which staff draw on available knowledge and skills to continuously improve their performance; Vision and Goals-The extent to which the principal works toward whole staff consensus in establishing school priorities and communicates these priorities and goals to students, staff and supporting staff giving a sense of overall purpose; Culture-The extent to which the principal promotes an atmosphere of caring and trust among staff, sets a respectful tone for interaction with students and demonstrates a willingness to change his or her practices in the light of new understandings; Structure-The extent to which the principal establishes a school structure that promotes participative decision making, supports delegation and distributive leadership and encourages teacher and student council autonomy for making decisions; Intellectual Stimulation-The extent to which the principal encourages staff to reflect on what they are trying to achieve with students and how they are doing it; facilitates opportunities for staff to learn from each other and models continual learning in his or her own practice; Individual Support– The extent to which the principal provides moral support, shows appreciation for the work of individual staff and takes their opinion into account when making decisions; Performance Expectation-The extent to which the principal has high expectations for teachers and for students and expects staff to be effective and efficient.

The foregoing is the essence of the public school restructuring process which ultimately does the following:

{1} Develops a vision that unites projects;

[2] Identifies outcomes that will be assessed;

[3] Obtains the active support of the community;

[4] Redefines the role of principals from power wielders to facilitators;

[5} Changes the basic organizational practices to better meet the needs of at-risk students. (4, 409 words)

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SIGNIFICANCE OF SOME INDICATORS OF UNDER-FIVE YEARS MORTALITY IN NIGERIA

¹Ogunsanya B.G. ²Adewunmi Olusola A. ³Olagbegi Moses

ABSTRACT

This study examines the level and determinant of under-five mortality in remote Area of Ikorodu Local Government, Lagos state, Nigeria. The survey was carried out through self-administered questionnaires on selected 200 respondents. A multiple stage sampling was used to select the eligible respondent. 4 wards were selected at random from the 7 wards at Ikorodu Local Government Area. Thereafter four streets were randomly picked at random from each of these houses were selected on each street using systematic random sampling method with the interval once a house is chosen. A house hold was selected randomly from a house that has more than one household. In any polygamous household the respondent were chosen among the wives by lettering method. Data collected was analysed electronically, using SPSS 21.0. The analysis revealed that eighteen (18) of the twenty four (24) indicators paired under study were significantly correlated while twenty three (23) of the twenty six (26) indicators paired were found to be significant indicators of under five years mortality in Nigeria.

Keywords: Indicators, Mortality, Nigeria, Significance, Under Five, Years.

INTRODUCTION

Mortality rate is a measure of the number of deaths (in general, or due to a specific cause) in some population, scaled to the size of that population per unit time. Mortality rate is typically expressed in units of deaths per 1000 individuals per year, in that entire population, or 0.95% out of the total. It is distinct from morbidity rate, which refers to the number of individuals in poor health during a given time period (the prevalence rate) or the number who currently have that diseases (the incidence rate), scaled to size of the population.

A condition such as tuberculosis can cause morbidity and mortality (disease and death). A mortality rate is a death rate. There are a number of different types of mortality rates such as:

The foetal mortality rate: The ratio of foetal deaths to the sum infant mortality rate.
The maternal mortality rate: The number of maternal deaths related to child bearing divided by the number of live births or by the number of live births.

There has been increasing interest in measuring under-five mortality as a health indicator and as a critical measure of human development. In countries with complete vital registration system that capture all birth and deaths under-five, mortality can be directly calculated. In the absence of a complete vital registration system however, child mortality must be estimated using surveys that ask women to report the births and death of their children. Two survey methods exist for capturing these information: Summary Birth History and Complete Birth History. A summary birth history requires a minimum of only two questions: how many live births has each mother had and how many of them have survived. Indirect methods are then applied using the information from these two questions and the age of the mothers to estimate under-five mortality going back in time prior to the survey. Estimates generated from complete birth histories are review as the most accurate when survey are required to estimate under-Five mortality especially for most recent time period. However, it is much more costly and labour intensive to collect these detailed data especially for the purpose of generating small area estimates.

The main tenets of the fourth and fifth Millennium Development Goal (MDG 4 and 5) are to reduce under-five mortality rate and improvement in maternal health which by implication increases the chance of child survival. Child mortality is a fundamental measurement of a country’s level of socio-economic development as well as the quality of life especially of the mothers. Under-five mortality rate (5q₀) represents the probability of a child who survives to age one, dying between age one and age five (Adlakha & Suchindra, 1984; National Population Commission and ICF Macro, 2009; World Health Organisation (WHO), 2011). Almost half of the child mortality (42%) in the world occurs in Africa and about 25,000 under-five children that die each day are concentrated in sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia (WHO, 2011). Under-five mortality rate (U5MR) is generally 29 times higher in developing nations compared to developed countries (Black & Liu, 2012; Gambrah & Adzadu, 2013; Marx, Coles, Prysones-Jones, Johnson, Augustin, Mackay, Bery, Hammond, Nigmann, Sommerfelt et al, 2005). Globally, under-five mortality has dropped significantly by almost 45 percent between 2009 and 2011 but this progress is not the reality for all countries. Despite much progress in advanced countries, Nigeria has failed to make significant progress in checking the rising mortality rate among the under-five. Currently, about half of the world’s under-five deaths occur in Nigeria, India, Congo, Pakistan and China (National Bureau of Statistics (NBS), 2011; World Bank, 2013).

Statistics revealed that up to 20 per cent of child deaths in sub-Saharan Africa still occur in

Nigeria. Also, the Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey (MICS4) report indicated that under-five

mortality in Nigeria increased from 138 per 1,000 live births in 2007 to 158 per 1,000 live births in 2011 (National Bureau of Statistics (NBS), 2011; World Bank, 2013).

Under-five mortality rates within Africa also vary. In some countries, one-quarter to one-third of children die before reaching the age of five. Also, within the under-five age group, there are specific periods of increased vulnerability. For instance, 60 percent of under-five mortality can be attributed to deaths that occur during the first year of life, of which the first 24 hours of life is the most vulnerable period, followed by the first week and then the first month (Marx et al, 2005). Among the suspected factors that have contributed to drastic reduction of under-5 mortality in advanced economies include but not limited to improvement in socio-economic and environmental conditions and strategic implementation of child survival interventions (Finlay, Özaltin & Canning, 2011; Kyei, 2011; United Nations Children’s Fund, 2010, 2011, 2012).

Child mortality can be associated with two categories of acquired ailments: one is a heavy load of infectious diseases and the other, those diseases that are caused by inadequate nutrition (Cooper, Hickson, Mitchel, Edwards, Thapa & Ray, 1999; Katona & Katona-Apte, 2008). Socio-economic factors including immunizations, exclusive breastfeeding and the adoption and usage of insecticide-treated nets have been revealed by several studies have strong predictors of child mortality especially in the developing countries. Included among these proximate determinants are the risk of morbidity and mortality, education of mother, sanitation facilities, access to safe drinking water and maternal and child health care services (Uddin, Hossain & Ullah, 2008). However, despite these known factors, under-5 mortality rate in sub-Saharan Africa is abysmally far above the prevalent rate in other countries of the world.

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY

The purpose of this study is to examine the level and determinant of under five mortality in remote Area of Ikorodu Local Government, Lagos state, Nigeria.

The specific objectives are:

Identification of socio-economic health and behavioral factors affecting under-five mortality in remote area of Ikorodu local government.
Determining the significance of selected mortality indicators.
Determining the correlation significance of the selected mortality indicators.

SCOPE OF THE STUDY

This study covers some selected indicators of under-five years mortality in Nigeria. The indicators were correlated and put to paired test to achieve the set purpose.

The study survey was carried out through self administered questionnaires on selected respondent. A multiple stage sampling was used to select the eligible 200 respondents. Four (4) wards were selected at random from the 7 wards at Ikorodu Local Government (case study) Area. Thereafter four streets were randomly picked at random from each of these houses were selected on each street using systematic random sampling method with the interval once a house is chosen. A house hold was selected randomly from a house that has more than one household. In any polygamous household the respondent were chosen among the wives by lettering method.

LITERATURE REVIEW

According to UNICEF (http://www.unicef.org/nigeria/children_1926.html), every single day, Nigeria loses about 2,300 under-five year olds and 145 women of childbearing age. This makes the country the second largest contributor to the under–five and maternal mortality rate in the world.

Underneath the statistics lies the pain of human tragedy, for thousands of families who have lost their children. Even more devastating is the knowledge that, according to recent research, essential interventions reaching women and babies on time would have averted most of these deaths.

Although analyses of recent trends show that the country is making progress in cutting down infant and under-five mortality rates, the pace still remains too slow to achieve the Millennium Development Goals of reducing child mortality by a third by 2015.

Preventable or treatable infectious diseases such as malaria, pneumonia, diarrhoea, measles and HIV/AIDS account for more than 70 per cent of the estimated one million under-five deaths in Nigeria.

Malnutrition is the underlying cause of morbidity and mortality of a large proportion of children under-5 in Nigeria. It accounts for more than 50 per cent of deaths of children in this age bracket.

The deaths of newborn babies in Nigeria represent a quarter of the total number of deaths of children under-five. The majority of these occur within the first week of life, mainly due to complications during pregnancy and delivery reflecting the intimate link between newborn survival and the quality of maternal care. Main causes of neonatal deaths are birth asphyxia, severe infection including tetanus and premature birth.

Similarly, a woman’s chance of dying from pregnancy and childbirth in Nigeria is 1 in 13. Although many of these deaths are preventable, the coverage and quality of health care services in Nigeria continue to fail women and children. Presently, less than 20 per cent of health facilities offer emergency obstetric care and only 35 per cent of deliveries are attended by skilled birth attendants.

This shows the close relationship between the well being of the mother and the child, and justifies the need to integrate maternal, newborn and child health interventions.

It is important to note that wide regional disparities exist in child health indicators with the North-East and North-West geopolitical zones of the country having the worst child survival figures.

Under-five mortality rate (U5MR) is the probability of a child born in a specified year dying before reaching the age of five if subject to current age-specific mortality rates and expressed as a rate per 1,000 live births (United Nations Children’s Fund, 2012; United Nations Inter-agency Group for Child Mortality Estimation, 2013). It also refers to as the death of infants and children under the age of five. Child mortality has remained a national and global concern and its import in socioeconomic rating of country’s development cannot be overemphasised. Sub-Saharan Africa and Southern Asia face the greatest challenges in child survival, and currently accounted for more than 80 per cent of global under-five deaths (United Nations Children’s Fund, 2012). Several factors had been identified as contributors to the increasing levels of child mortality in most developing countries. Studies have shown that there is a close relationship between educational attainment and lower mortality rates (Antai, 2011; Fayehun & Omolulu, 2009; National Population Commission and ICF Macro, 2009). This was further established through the results in the Nigeria Demographic and Health Survey (NDHS) Report (2009), that children born to mothers with no education have the highest under-five mortality rates (209 deaths per 1,000 live births), while mothers with secondary education have 68 per 1,000 live births.

Although, there are vagaries of statistics and estimations for child mortality for different countries and the world by different sources, the patterns and trends are specifically similar. Among the general patterns is that the global under-five mortality rate has declined by almost 47 percent between 1990 and 2012 (measuring 90 deaths per 1,000 live births in 1990 and 48 in 2012) while the trend in sub-Saharan Africa is apt to increase (United Nations Inter-agency Group for Child Mortality Estimation (2013). Globally, several causes of under-five mortality were noted among which are: pneumonia which contribute up to 17 percent of the entire death, preterm birth complications that cause about 15 percent of child death, intrapartum-related complications (10 percent), diarrhoea (9 percent) and up to seven percent due to malaria (United Nations Inter-agency Group for Child Mortality Estimation, 2013). Also, a survey carried out in Bangladesh shows that child mortality rate was highest (1.64%) for the children of illiterate mothers and lowest (0.54%) for the children whose mother’s educational level is secondary and above (Uddin, Hossain & Ullah, 2009). Educated mothers are more likely than non-literate mothers to ensure a healthy environment, nutritious food, and have better knowledge about reproductive health at conception and health care facilities for their children. Literate mothers will give birth to healthier babies because they themselves tend to be healthier and are likely to experience lower mortality among their children at all ages (Pandey, 2009).

Several of diseases causing child mortality have connections with hygiene condition and unclean environment these are not limited to dirty feeding bottles, utensils, inadequate disposal of household refuse, poor storage water, to mention but few (Jinadu, Olusi, Agun & Fabiyi, 1991; NBS, 2011). Other reports have shown that maternal education is a significant factor influencing child survival (Caldwell, 2009; Osonwa, Iyam, & Osonwa, 2012). Children from poorer or rural households are reported to be more vulnerable than their counterparts from other regions (United Nations Children’s Fund, 2010). A child born to a financially deprived and less educated family is at risk of perinatal death or within the first month of life. The reasons for these are obvious since the mother may be poorly nourished during pregnancy, had little or no antenatal care and likely to deliver in ill-equipped health facility. Besides, the level of competition over resources when the family is large could enhance poor care among the family members including the very young ones. All these factors are further aggravated by limited access to health services due to poor income and low levels of maternal education, often leading to the non-immunization of the child (Policy Project/Nigeria, 2002).

METHODOLOGY

The most widely available type of data on child mortality is report by mothers on the number of children still surviving. Frequency distribution, bivariate correlation analysis and paired t-test were employed as analysis techniques for the study.

RESULTS

From the analysis, 59(29.5%) of the respondents were currently in the age bracket of 30-34 years while only 1(0.5%) of the respondents was in the age bracket of 15-19 years. 81(40.5%) had their first marriage in the age bracket of 20-24 years while 7(2.5%) had their first marriage in the age bracket of 30-34 years. 72(36.0%) of the respondents were civil servants while 7(3.5%) were into Nursing. 73(36.5%) delivered their children at private hospital while 15(7.5%) deliver at home. 53(26.5%) have 4 children while only 1(0.5) has more than 10 children. 107(53.5%) have pregnancy interval of two years between children. 101(50.5%) of the respondents have only primary education while 4(2.0%) have post secondary education.

Table 13 revealed that there is a negative but imperfect correlation between indicators Paired 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 16, 17, 20 and 23, while there is a positive but imperfect correlation between Paired 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 18, 19, 21, 22 and 24. However, of these correlations, only correlations for Paired 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, 12, 15, 16, 17, 18, 20, 21, 23 and 24 were significant at 0.05 level of significance.

Table 14 revealed that twenty three (23) of the twenty six (26) indicators paired were found to be significant indicators at 0.05 level of significance.

CONCLUSION

From the analysis of the research study, it can be concluded that eighteen (18) of the twenty four (24) indicators paired under study were significantly correlated while twenty three (23) of the twenty six (26) indicators paired were found to be significant indicators of under-five years mortality in Nigeria.

RECOMMENDATIONS

Care during labour and child birth should be provided by a skilled attendance. Early recognition of slow progress in labour and timely interventions to prevent prolonged labour and intra partum foetal distress which can reduce mortality.
Poor sanitation, lack of accessible clean water and inadequate personal and domestic hygiene are responsible for an estimated 88 percent of diarrhea cases everywhere. Proven prevention measures that can significantly reduce the burden of diarrhea include early and exclusive breast feeding (a non-breastfeed child is 10 times more likely to die diarrhea in the first 6 months of life than an exclusively breastfeed child).
To accelerate progress and achieve improved health outcomes for all children ensuring universal-access to high quality care safe water and sanitation, safe and nutritious food and safe housing is crucial as is access to education, social security and other social services.

In addition, investment in women’s health and education and in the empowerment of women and the poorest and most disadvantage population groups is vital to ensure an effective response to under-five mortality rate.

REFERENCES

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Fighting Cynicism in Organizations: The Role of Job Autonomy

Sarah Shaharruddina, Dr Fais Ahmadb,

Abstract

This research examined the role of job autonomy in influencing the level of organizational cynicism. By using a survey method through the questionnaires distribution, 504 data set was utilised for the analysis. Several statistical techniques such as factor analysis, reliability test, correlation analysis, and regression analysis were conducted in this research. Through the data analysis, this research indicates a negative relationship between and organizational cynicism. With based on the analysis result, this research suggests that job autonomy could be favourable towards decreasing the level of organizational cynicism.

Introduction

Some of the research on positive workplace attitudes such as job satisfaction and organizational commitment have gained numerous attention by scholars for decades. Recently it is shown that researchers have increased interest towards paying attention on a negative workplace attitude such as organizational cynicism (Bashir et.al,2011). The issue relating to organizational cynicism has become the topic of interest for researchers more the past several years ago.

Organizational cynicism is believed as one of a big problem that organizations have to deal with, which should be taken into account and serious consideration by the organizations. However, despite the existence of this problem, it is important for the researchers to investigate what factors that lead towards the development of organizational cynicism This issue is something that cannot be ignored, as it could bring a continuous negative effect on employees and organizational efficiency. (Tekin, & Bedük, 2015). With this regards, it is important for every organizations to find better solutions in reducing this phenomenon which may hinder organizational and employees success.

The lack of job autonomy given is believed to be one of the major factors that influencing organizational cynicism among the employees. It is suggested that more studies on organizational practices need to be further investigated whether it can reduce organizational cynicism among employees (Chiaburu et.al, 2013). In viewing the level of job autonomy and its influence on organizational cynicism, it is believed that low autonomy could influence the level of organizational cynicism. For example, as cited in Bashir (2011), a lack of autonomy creates melancholy (Stets, 1995) and frustration which results towards misbehaviour and felony (Agnew, 1984) creating serious problems for the organization. Although employees are hardworking and take seriously on their work, but still they seems to less satisfied and lack of passion which cause them to be less committed to the organization. These problems happened as employees feel restricted from working freely and be a part in decision making regarding their own work by themselves. (Naqvi, Ishtiaq, Kanwal & Mohsin Ali, 2013). In handling with the issue of organizational cynicism, job autonomy is believed to be one of the necessary weapons to reduce negative attitude, as employees will not be strictly controlled in their job (Meyer,1987). Furthermore, autonomy also will enable employees to have more freedom in terms of controlling their work and to form procedures on work assessment (Dee,Henkin & Chen,2000).

Although job autonomy has been found to negatively related with organizational cynicism (Avey, Hughes, Norman and Luthans ,2008), there are some inconsistencies found in the past research which seems difficult to confirm the association of these two variables. This can be due to the understanding that job autonomy sometimes is considered as a risky option and this is why not every employees are willing to be empowered with autonomy (Bashir; 2011). For example, job autonomy is somehow becoming quite difficult to handle as it requires a high level of trust and accountability on the individuals. It was found that if a high level of trust is required, autonomy turns out to be risky especially when there is least supervision takes place (Langfred,2004). On the other hand, job autonomy may cause employees to be more vulnerable to emotional exhaustion. This is happened if the workload exceed employees’ capacities, where employees will feel trapped and emotionally distressed (Fernet, Austin, Trépanier, & Dussault, 2013). Based on the inconsistencies found, it is relevant for the present study to continuously investigate and discover the influence of job autonomy on organizational cynicism.

Literature Review and Hypothesis Development

Organizational cynicism is viewed a as general or specific attitude characterized with anger, disappointment, and also a tendency to distrust individuals, groups, ideologies, social abilities or institutions (Andersson ,1996). This kind of attitude mostly experienced among employees who believe that their organization is lack of honesty.

Wanous, Reichers and Austin (1994) have specifically described organizational cynicism as “encompassing pessimism about the success of future organizational changes based on the belief that change agents are incompetent, lazy or both” (p.269). In the context of organizational change management perspective, Ince & Turan (2011) viewed organizational cynicism as an attitude that arise in the workplaces due to the mis-managed of change efforts and it is believed that organizational change is considered as one the major factors of organizational cynicism (Nafei,2013).

Dean et.al (1998) define organizational as “ a negative attitude toward one’s employing organization, which involves a ‘belief’ that organization lacks of integrity and negative affect toward the organization which has tendencies to disparaging critical behaviors toward the organization that are consistent with these beliefs and affect” (p.345). The term of organizational cynicism which defined by Dean et.al (1998) is known as the most commonly cited in the literature and it is conceived as representing an attitude rather than an enduring trait. It is because, organizational cynicism is known as a state variable which may change depends on the experience faced by employees.

Job autonomy is the extent of power that employees have to delegate their own task and other job activities, which specifically concerns on the voluntary power and freedom towards the work goals, task elements arrangement and determining the process and the pace of task that are conducted (e.g. Kwakman, 2003; Xanthopoulou, Demerouti, Bakker, & Schaufeli, 2007). It has been generally defined it as “the degree to which the job provides substantial freedom, independence, and discretion to the individual in scheduling the work and to determine the procedures to be used and carried out (Hackman & Oldham 1975; Marchese & Ryan, 2001; Morgeson, Delaney-Klinger &Hemingway, 2005; Parker, Axtell & Turner,2001; Dysvik and Kuvaas 2011; Humphrey, Nahrgang, & Morgeson, 2007). On the other hand, it is also specifically refers to employee’s self rule and independence in terms of decision making (Hackman &Oldham, 1976)

2.1 Job Autonomy and Organizational Cynicism

It is found that the high level of job autonomy brings employees to feel well adapted with the situational factors compared with other employees who experience less autonomy (Gellatly & Irving, 2001). In comparison with those who have little job autonomy, those who with more job autonomy will show more satisfaction with variation aspects of the work context (Oldham & Hackman, 1981), positive affect, self confidence and internal motivation (Hackman & Oldham,1976).

Besides, it enables employee to expand their creativity (Oldman & Cummings,1996) and less emotional dissonance (Abraham 2000). Having jobs with adequate autonomy in the organization could equip employees to experience more engagement as autonomy helps to decrease emotional dissonance (Karatape, 2011). On the other hand, as job autonomy is important towards employee wellbeing, it gives employees more opportunities to adapt themselves with stressful situation and assist them to make decisions on how and when to respond to job demands. With such benefits, employee will face less burnout (Bakker and Demerouti ,2007).

Research has also indicated that job autonomy has a huge impact in influencing employees work attitude (Naus et.al,2007). This is because employee who are empowered to control over their work will be able to meet the job demand and adapt with ambiguity that placed on them which also may reduce the role ambiguity that they have faced (Çekmecelioğlu et.al, 2011). On the other hand, Çekmecelioğlu et al, (2011) also found that job autonomy helps to build the level of employee self confidence, creativity and performance. This may encourage employees becoming more independent to carry out their task. As other benefits, autonomy may give employees more opportunity to show their extra role behaviour such as OCB (Runhaar , Konermann & Sanders,2013)

H1: There is negative relationship between job autonomy and organizational cynicism.

METHODOLOGY

This section discussed the sample of the study, scales of variables and process of analysing the obtained data. Finally, discussion of the findings, conclusions and suggestions of the future research are made in the light of the findings.

3.1 The sample population

The survey based on a disproportionate stratified random sampling technique was carried out, as it could reduce the sampling error due to the imbalance of population in certain groups (Babbie,1995;& Butcher,1973). The samples for this study were chosen based on the selection of the immigration officers (uniform based employees) of the Immigration Department of Malaysia (IDM), who work under the security and defence group, ranging from the upper position of employees scheme grade, KP 48 to the lowest KP17 (as shown in Table 1). About 800 questionnaires have been distributed to four selected Immigration states offices and 504 usable data (63% of response rate) were chosen in this study for the analysis.

3.2 Measures

The data was collected using a questionnaire survey. The first section contains demographical information such as age, gender, qualification, experience and more. The second section is about organizational cynicism which consist of 14 items adopted from Dean et.al,(1998). The alpha reliability for this variable was 0.868, and sample items included such as “I believe my organization says one thing and does another”, “My organization’s policies, goals, and practices seem to have little in common”, “When my organization says it’s going to do something, I wonder if it will really happen”, “My organization expects one thing of its employees, but rewards another”. “I see little similarity between what my organization says it will do and what it actually does”. “When I think about my organization, I experience aggravation.”, “When I think about my organization I get angry.”, “When I think about my organization, I get tension.”, “When I think about my organization, I feel a sense of anxiety”, “I complain about what is happening in the work to my friends beyond my institution.”, “We look at each other in a meaningful way with my colleagues when my organization and its employees are mentioned”, “I often talk to others about the ways things are run in my organization”, “I criticize my organization practices and policies with others”, “I find myself mocking my organization’s slogans and initiatives”. How ever, after the Factor Analysis has been conducted, the item number 11 was removed due to high crossloading. Therefore, only 13 items were proceed for the next stage of analysis.

The third section relates to job autonomy, adopted from Karasek, (1979), and the alpha reliability was found to be at 0.735. The job autonomy items included “My job requires high level of skills”, “My job requires me to learn new things”, “My job requires non repetitive jobs” and “My job requires creativity”, “My job allows me freedom to decide how to organize my work”, “My job allow me to make decisions on my own”, “My colleagues are helpful in assisting in one’s own decisions”, and “I am allowed to say over what had happened”.

FINDINGS

Based on the correlation analysis depicted in Table 3, job autonomy was shown to be negatively correlated with organizational cynicism ( r = -0.106 , p < 0.01). Based on the results, the negative relationship indicates that high job autonomy is more likely to reduce organizational cynicism than with lower job autonomy.

Meanwhile, the regression results shown in Table 4 indicates that job autonomy has a significant influence upon organizational cynicism (b=0.101, p =0.001; Sig = 0.022 p<0.05). Therefore, this finding confirms that organizational cynicism could be overcome when job autonomy is given focus attention.

Discussion

The hypothesis result of this research is accepted, where job autonomy is negatively significant in influencing organisational cynicism. As expected, Job autonomy is functioning as an important role to hinder organizational cynicism. This is consistent with the previous research finding that job autonomy are likely to result in positive outcomes such as increase in job satisfaction and commitment (Naus et.al,2007). Relevant and as demonstrated by the present study, job autonomy would help to prevent the possibility of employees from easily developing a cynical attitude, where employees feel more trusted by the organization to carry out tasks. Hence, the presence of job autonomy could result in a higher level of employees’ intrinsic motivation and more committed employees will be. This finding supported the previous study which showed increase in job autonomy was significantly allied with an upsurges in job commitment (Khamisabadi,2013).

The finding of the present research that depicted a significantly negative influence of job autonomy and organizational cynicism was also evidenced in previous research where it supported that employees who have more autonomy in their job shows more positive feelings, and self confidence (Hackman & Oldham, 1976), less mental stress (Karasek, 1979), and less emotional dissonance (Abraham,2000). Additionally, as been captured by Naus et.al, (2007), the restriction in terms of autonomy could hinder employees self expressive behaviours, which it will potentially evoke opposition and resistance that could lead to negative attitudes and behaviours such as cynicism towards the organization. This problem occurs when there is a very strict structural controls in terms of rules and procedures and tight organizational control that impede employees capabilities, work competency and ideas to perform the job. This might cause negative feelings among the employees where they feeling forced to follow all those overly strict procedures which limit their freedom in contributing their ideas and decisions.

Based on the findings that have been obtained, this study therefore confirms that, job autonomy is negatively significant in influencing organizational cynicism, where employees who perceive lack of job autonomy will feel more frustrated with their role and career, which it will ultimately affect their level of commitment and satisfaction level. In the mean time, the absence of job autonomy cause employees to develop a negative belief about their organization that they are not valued and appreciated, this in turn may also result towards negative emotions and behaviour among the employees.

5.1 Limitations and Direction For The Future Research

There are few limitations of the research that should be acknowledged. First, since all the measurement scale used in this study was adopted from the past studies, factor analysis showed that one item from the dependent variable was not permanent due high crossloading. How ever, the scale showed satisfactory reliability in this study.

Second, this research is mainly quantitative in nature, where quantitative research is generally little is known about “why” and “how” regarding the antecedents and consequences of the relationship among the variables. Nevertheless, this approach still does not jeopardize the whole findings of the present research as quantitative research could help in generalizing the result by using a large sample size.

Since this study has significant implications for both theoretical and practical contributions, future researchers also should consider to expand the organizational cynicism research by adding organizational culture as a moderating variable. This is to test whether organizational culture could moderate the relationship between the independent and dependant variable. Furthermore, to investigate if there is any type of organizational culture that could weaken or strengthen the relationship between job autonomy and organizational cynicism.

Another useful extension for the future researchers to highlight is to conduct more research into investigating the consequences of organizational cynicism For example, by examining whether organizational cynicism could influence the level of employees engagement, employee deviant behaviour and employees’ union commitment. . This can be examined by having organizational cynicism as a mediating variable.

5.2 Conclusion

This research summarizes that job autonomy is negatively related with organizational cynicism, where organizational cynicism may reduce if job autonomy is high and given focus attention. Additionally, it gives an important indication that job autonomy appears to be something that is need to be highlighted in organizational cynicism research context, whether it is beneficial or risky to the employees. With these findings, this research contributes a new knowledge in the organizational cynicism research.

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FISH PRODUCTION, POVERTY MITIGATION AND CO-OPERATIVE GOALS OF FAGAM CO-OPERATIVE FISH FARM IN KANO STATE, NIGERIA.

M.A.Dambatta,¹ O. A. Sogbesan,² A.U.Fagge,¹Suleiman I. Dutse,¹A.U. Shuaibu³

Abstract:

The effort was made to make this research project to become reality this was achieved by visiting (Fagam-farm) a case study area. With a view to explore how fish production mitigate poverty among the populace of Kano state and to identify the challenges facing the farmers and marketing operation of fish produced, the socio-economic characteristic of the fish farmers of Fagam co-operative farm, the fish production form, marketing strategy and the co-operative goals. Based on the above observation made, recommended that, female are not involves in the sector due to the religion purposes and the majority of the respondent are single within the age category of (8-25). Most of the respondents possess an educational certificate of secondary level were minority of them possess Qur’anic, primary and tertiary certificate. Also majority of the respondents are within the extended family and their family size are in the category of (5-10) where others are in the category of (11-15) it indicated that, all the respondents that interviewed in Fagam farm are purely Muslim in religion whereas no any Christian that work or employed in the farm. The highest numbers of pond that they use in Fagam farm are concrete ponds while others are earthen and plastic pond. Also the type of ponds size dimension are all largest size and the higher percentage of practical culture method they practice is mono-culture while the less percentage is poly culture and all the pounds were constructed manually. The type of feed they used is only imported and the majority type of farming management consider is intensive system while the minority is semi-intensive and the cost of feeding poor circle obtained is 100% high, because the farm has a big size and they practice intensive management system which consumes more capital than the other management system included in the farm.

KEY WORDS: POVERTY, MITIGATION, FAGAM, KANO STATE, COOPERATIVE.

INTRODUCTION

Aquaculture continues to grow rapidly every day, and then became bigger industry every year. So, understanding the basic part behind aquatic production facilities is of increasing importance for all the working in this industry. Aqua-culture requires knowledge and skill of the many general aspects of production such as spawning, production of Nutrition etc (Anderson; 2004). Fisheries constitute an important sector in Nigeria agriculture providing valuable food and employment to millions of population and also serving as a source of livelihoods mainly for women. In coastal communities eg processing teenagers helps Sule and Raji (2011). Nigeria has a coastline of 3,122km (Earth trends, 2003) shared by 8 states (lagos, Ogun, Ondo, Delta, Bayelsa, River, Akwa-ibom and Cross-River respectively) out of total of 36 states in the country. Coastal fisheries are important and contributed at least 40% of fish production from all source. In Nigeria between 1995 and 2008 (FAO, 2010). According to the fisheries society of Nigeria, small scale fisheries provide more than 82% of the domestic fish supply, giving livelihood to one million fishers folks and up to 5.8 million fisher folks. In the secondary sector comprising processing preservation, marketing and distribution. The total contribution of fisheries to Nigeria’s gross domestic product is estimated at about $US 1 billion. According to estimates, Nigeria requires about 2.1 million metric tones (mm+) of fish/year but produce only 0.65 metric tons and imports over 990 metric tons/years at a value of US $800m to meet this short full (Ajiboso, 2009). Considering Nigerians has availability of water resources human capital and other natural endowments. The federal department of fisheries (FDF, 2004).

OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

General objective

The broad objective of this study is to evaluate the fish production, poverty mitigation and co-operative goals of Fagam fish co-operative farm at Mariri, Kumbotso L.G Kano state, Nigeria.

The specific objective includes:

Identify the challenges facing the farmers and marketing operation fish production.
describe the socio-economic characteristics of the fish farmers of Fagam co-operative farm

To study production demand and cost of feed in the production circle.

METHODOLOGY

STUDY AREA

Kano state lies between latitude 13⁰N (north) 11⁰S (South); and longitude 8⁰W in the (west) and 10⁰E (east). Kano state is made up of fourty four (44) local government areas. E.G Albasu, Bunkure, Danbatta, Gaya, Wudil, Kumbotso, Doguwa, etc. The total land area of Kano state is 20,76059 kilometer with an average population of 9,383,682 (2006 census). Kano has mean height of about 472.45m above the sea level (Olofin and Tanko, 2002). According to Kurawa (2003) the temperature of Kano state usually range between a maximum of 33⁰c and a minimum of 15.8⁰c although sometimes during the harmattan it falls down to a slow as 10⁰c. Kano has two seasonal periods, which consist of 4-5 months of wet season and a long dry season lasting from October-April. The movement of the south-west maritime air masses originating from the Atlantic Ocean influences the wet season which starts from May and end in September. The commencement and length of wet season varies between northern and southern parts of Kano state. The average rainfall is between 63.3mmt to 48.2mmt in May and 133.4mmt, 59mmt in August, the wettest months. The movement of tropical maritime air masses from the south west to the north determines the weather of Kano state during the wet season. The air mass carries a lot of moisture from the Atlantic Ocean this moisture condenses when it is forced to rise by convection or over a barrier of high lands or air mass, it then fall back as rain. The period of the height occur when the sun passes over West Africa between March and June. The dry season starts from October and last till about April of the following years. Temperature are low during this period and because the sun is in the southern hemisphere and because of movement of the desiccating continental air mass, which originated from sahara area and below from the north east carrying along with it then harming kano state(kurawa,2003). According to Kurawa (2003), the vegetation of Kano state is the semi-arid savannah. The sudan savannah to the sand witched by the sahel savannah in the north and the Guinea savannah in the south. The savannah has been described as the zone that provides opportunity for optimal human attainment. This is because it rich in faunal and floral resources, it is suitable for both cereals agriculture and livestock rearing and the environment is relatively easy for movement of natural resources and manufactured goods.

DESCRIPTION OF FAGAM FARM

Fagam farm was opened in the year 2004 as a fish farm with seventy (70) employees/personnel. And they started by using earthen ponds, those were two hundred (200) in numbers and stocked five hundred thousand (500,000) fish in all ponds. In which each one out of ten ponds stocked four thousand, five hundred and fourty five (4,545) fishes. Only one pond stocked or contained four thousand, five hundred and fifty (4,550) fishes respectively.. And an additional pond for hatchery is up to twenty six (26) followed by eight (8) nursery ponds. The method of fish culture they practice is “Intensive fish culture”. And also Claries and tilapia are the type or species of fishes been cultured. In the year 2008 fagam re-employed additional thirty (30) employees/personnel. In the year 2013 they reduced the number of employees by three (3) people. Up to now 2014, the employees/personnel are (97) in number and all the descriptions above are still in progress.

MARKETING OF FISH IN FAGAM FARM

Harvesting of fish is carryout at every six (6) month when the fishes reach table size for consumptions patterns. The price of fish is N600/1kg; the fingerling is sells to the wholesaler at the price of N20-25 per 1 fingerling depending the amount which the producer needs. And the juvenile is also sale as wholesale at the price of N30-35 per 1 juvenile. The price depend upon the number or quantity of fish that a buyer buy or purchase i.e the higher the quantity the lower the price. Fagam farm is located at Kano east Maiduguri Road, yan-ice street in Dulo area in Kumbotso local government of kano state.

PROBEM MILITATING FAGAM FARM

Insufficient power supply
High cost of feed
Inadequate found
Lack of proper organization
Lack of training personnel 6. Finance 7.Lack of proper storage/cool room

SAMPLING TECHNIQUE

The production and co-operative goals in fagam fish farm at Kano state, Kumbotso L.G.A was conducted irrespective of their socio-economic characteristics and demographic information e.g age, sex, marital status, educational attainment, employment, religion etc. questionnaire and interview were prepared to obtained the parameter of the respondents.

DATA COLLECTION

The data include primary and secondary data. The primary data include 50 structure questionnaires. The secondary data include materials such as internet, journal and relevance text-book which can be used to analyze the data obtained in the study. Descriptive statistics tools used involve the use of tables, frequency distribution percentage etc.

RESULT

In table 4.1 it shows that, all the respondent are male able bodies 50 (100%) whereas no female engage in the activities due to the Islam religion reason and un involvement in the Aquaculture practice. In table 4.2 it shows that, the generality of the respondents are within the age category of 18-25. This is because, most of the cooperative organization are mostly prefer to employ those that have young age for successful achievement of their goals which is tallying the finding of male C. (1985) in study of fish in Dadin kowa in Gombe state where stated that middle age are more better to be employed. In table 4.3 it shows that, majority of the respondent 40 (80%) are single, which revealed that they have the high percentage. While marriage are the surplus percentage up to 10 (20%). In table 4.4 the majority of the respondents 25 (50%) possess an educational certificate of secondary level and 18 (36%) with qur’anic, where 5 (10%) with primary certificate and 2 (4%) with tertiary certificate. The majority of the respondents possess secondary certificate, this is because they don’t have financial opportunity to proceed into tertiary. And qur’anic is the secondary educational level that the respondent have, its because qur’anic study require a few financial activities for governing it.Table 4.5 shows that the highest number that is 40 (80%) of the respondent are within the extended family, its because they do not have financial for getting marital partner. While only 10 (20%) of the respondents are in nuclear family. In table 4.6 it shows that, the family size of majority of the respondents 32 (64%) are within the category of (5-10), this is because they mainly having one wife while 18 (36%) of the respondents are within the family size category of (11-15) because they mainly having (2-3) wives. In table 4.7 indicated that majority of the respondents that interviewed in Fagam farm are purely Muslims in religion which possess up to 50 (100%) whereas no any Christian that work or employed in the business. In table 4.8 it shows that, the highest number that is 30 (60%) of pond that they use is concrete pond, it’s because it retain water than the earthen pond and concrete pond is easy to manipulate and easy to care than the other types of pond, where 10 (20%) are earthen pond and 10 (20%) are plastic pond. Table 4.9 shows that, the type of pond size dimensional that practice in the study area, up to 50 (100%) are largest pond in size this indicated that they contain large amount of stocking fish density. In table 4.10 it shows that, the high percentage of practical culture method they practice that is 40 (80%) is monoculture due to cannibalism and they don’t have good skill personnel those can avoid cannibalism while poly culture only 10 (20%) they practice.

Table 4.2.1 Indicated that, all the ponds were constructed manually that is 50 (100%) due to the lower cost as compare to mechanical method. In table 4.2.2 shows that, all the type of feed used that is (100%) is only imported, because it gives more good result than the others. Table 4.2.3 Indicated that, majority of type of farming management consider 40 (8%) is intensive system in order to get good farming result. The other management consider is semi intensive with 10 (20%) due to low production that the system gives as compare to intensive. In table 4.2.4 it shows that the cost of feeding per circle obtained is 50 (100%) that is its high, because the farm has a big size and they practice intensive management system which consumes more capital than the other management system included in the farm.

SUMMARY

The research was conducted to asses how production of fish mitigates poverty among populace and to identify the challenges facing the farmers and marketing operation of the fish produced, the socio-economic characteristic of the fish farmers of Fagam co-operative farm and to study productive circle using Fagam fish farm as the research area. According to statistical analysis of data show that, all the respondents were male able bodies that is (100)% where as no female engaged in the activities. Although the generality of the respondents were within the age category of 18-25. And majority of the respondents that is (80%) were single while married were (20%). Also majority of the respondents that is (50%). Were secondary certificate owners where (36%) with Qur’anic and (10%) with primary certificate while (4%) with tertiary certificate.

The highest number that is (80%) of the respondents were within the extended family while only (20%) were in Nuclear family. The family size of majority off the respondents that is (64%) were within the category of (5-10) where (36%) were in (11-15) family size category. All respondents in Fagam farm that is (100%) where Muslims where as no institution that work in the business. The highest number of pond that they use that is (60%) were concrete ponds while (20%) earthing ponds and (20%) plastic. The type of pond size dimension they use were (100%) largest. The practical culture method they practice is (80%) monoculture while only (20%) as polyculture. However, all the ponds that is (100%) were constructed manually where there was no mechanical construction. Then, the type of feed that use in Fagam farm is (100%) imported only. The type of management consider is (80%) intensive system where only (20%) is semi intensive system. The cost of feeding particle that they obtained was (100%) high.

CONCLUSION

Conclusively, the result of this research revealed that all the respondents in Fagam farm were male and most of them were within age category of 18-25 which means they have yong age that enable them to do work in the farm hardly and properly than the above age. The study showed that majority of Fagam farm workers were single and majority of them possess. Secondary certificate. The study showed that the highest number of the respondents were within extended family and the family size were within the category of (5-10). And best of the research of showed that all the respondents were Muslim. The study showed the highest number of ponds that they use were concrete pond and the practical culture method that they practice was almost (8%) monoculture and the ponds were all constructed manually. The research indicated that, Fagam fam use only imported feed and the type of management consider that they practice were intensive system and particularly semi-intensive system according to the study, it showed that in Fagam farm the cost of feeding per circle was almost high.

REFERENCES

Anderson (2004) Invasion of Nigeria waters by water Hyacinth” Journal of West African Fisheries (1): Pp 4-14.

Federal Department of Fisheries (2004); Fishermen statistic of Nigeria. Federal Department of Fisheries Federal Ministry of Aquaculture Abuja.

Food and Agriculture Organization (1991) of United Nations. The state of world fisheries and Agriculture. FAO. Fisheries department, Rome Italy, Pp. 30.

Ibrahim A. Kurawa (2006); Geography and History of Kano state. Publications of the Research and Delimination Directorate Pp 16-19, ISBN-928-8092-09-08.

M.A Danbatta (2014) Socio-economic and profitability of fisheries enterprises in Kano state, Nigeria unpulished M. Tech thesis in Modibbo Adama university of Technology Yola, Adamawa State, Department of fisheries and Aquaculture Pp 39-62.

Male. C (1985): Economic analysis of fish marketing in Dadin Kowa, Gombe state Unpublished Msc. thesis university of Maiduguri.

Olafin E.A and Tanko, A.I (2002); Metropolitant kano in Geographical perspective view. Bayero university press, kano Pp 14-45.

Sule O.D; Raji A. (2001) Involvement of fishermen children in fishing activities in Lake chad region. Journal of Arid zone fish Volume (1) 74-88. Pp 74-88.

APPENDIX

SOCIO ECONOMIC CHRACTERISTIC OF THE RESPONDENTS

4.1 GENDER

Variable	Frequency	Percentage %
Male	50	100
Female	–	–
Total	50	100%

Source: field survey, 2015

4.2 AGE

Variable	Frequency	Percentage %
18-25	23	46
26-30	20	40
31-35	3	6
36-40	4	8
Above 45yrs	–	–
Total	50	100%

Source: field survey, 2015

4.3 Marital Status

Variable	Frequency	Percentage %
Single	40	80
Married	10	20
Widow	–	–
Widower	–	–
Total	50	100%

Source: field survey, 2015

4.4 Educational Status

Variable	Frequency	Percentage %
Primary	5	10
Secondary	25	50
Tertiary	2	4
Qur’anic	18	36
Total	50	100%

Source: field survey, 2015

4.5 Family types

Variable	Frequency	Percentage %
Nuclear family	10	20
Extended Family	40	80
Total	50	100

Source: field survey, 2015

4.6 Family size

Variable	Frequency	Percentage %
5-10	32	64
11-15	18	36
16-20	–	–
21-25	–	–
26-30	50	100%

Source: field survey, 2015

4.7 Religion Practice

Variable	Frequency	Percentage %
Islam	50	100%
Christianity	–	–
Traditional	–	–
Total	50	100%

Source: field survey, 2015

FISH PRODUCTION FORM

4.8 POND CULTURE SYSTEM

Variable	Frequency	Percentage %
Concrete pond	30	60
Earthing pond	10	20
Plank or wood pond	–	–
Plastic tank pond	10	20
Total	50	100%

Source: field survey, 2015

4.9 Pond size dimension

Variable	Frequency	Percentage %
Smallest	–	–
Largest	50	100
Total	50	100%

Source: field survey, 2015

4.10 Practical culture method

Variable	Frequency	Percentage %
Monoculture	40	80
Poly-culture	10	20
Total	50	100%

Source: field survey, 2015

4.2.1 Construction method

Variable	Frequency	Percentage %
Manual	50	100
Machine	–	–
Total	50	100%

Source: field survey, 2015

4.2.2 Type of feed used

Variable	Frequency	Percentage %
Imported only	50	100%
Imported and local feed only	–	–
Local feed only	–	–
Total	50	100%

Source: field survey, 2015

4.2.3 Level of management consider

Variable	Frequency	Percentage %
Intensive	40	80
Semi-intensive	10	20
Extensive	–	–
Total	50	100%

Source: field survey, 2015

4.2.4 Estimate the cost of feeding per circle

Variable	Frequency	Percentage %
High	50	100%
Lower	–	–
Moderate	–	–
Total	50	100%

Source: field survey, 2015

Documenting initiatives on urban transformation in South-East Europe

Florina Jerliu¹ and Bujar Bajçinovci^1,^*

Abstract

Rapid transformation of cities and urban spaces in South-East Europe (SEE) since 1990s is closely related to the common experience of post-socialist and/or post-war challenges in the region. Among pressing issues identified as a common challenge in the region is the trend of self-regulation or unchecked urban development, which contrasts the pre-1990s conventional central planning and development format. This has drawn the attention of a wider Europe, which resulted in a number of initiatives, both governmental and nongovernmental, been created to jointly initiate regional projects that aim at developing urban solutions. The emerging criticism developed by such initiatives has played and important role in raising the awareness about the complexity and the need to address the SEE context within the context of Europe as a whole. This paper introduces the nature of urban transformation in SEE through the example of capital cities; it further documents commonly identified urban development challenges by two regional initiatives, NALAS and Archis SEE Network, from the perspective of authors, the first being a member in both networks. Results suggest that the way forward is to foster national legal frameworks in SEE by taking into account the contextual inputs for urban interventions, in terms of both urban policy and case study projects, developed through regional and international cooperation.

Keywords: South East Europe, regional initiatives, urban transformation, self-regulation, unchecked development, urban intervention

1 Introduction

As of 1990s, former socialist countries that make the region of the Southeastern Europe (SEE), and especially those that emerged out of wars in the former Yugoslav Federation have gone through rapid political, social and economic transitions. The most visible effects of such changes are found in capital cities while most complex emerge those being subject to the operations of international processes carried out by the UN.[[1]] Despite contextual differences, the European agenda ranked high in newly formulated state policies, as it guarantees support in overcoming challenges of multiple transitions and investing in economic growth, social wellbeing, as well as acquiring the free movement within European Union countries. As alleged by the EU, all these countries “share the European perspective”,[[2]] which leads to the thought that with all SEE countries becoming candidate, and consequently, member states, the synonym of regional transition would nominally come to an end. However, the ever-growing regional cooperation and networking in SEE has disclosed the fact that the transitional period takes longer, and that the fulfillment of the EU accession criteria doesn’t guarantee the aspired linear, uniform, and successful transition from the former single communist party system and centrally managed state-owned economy, towards a democratic society and market based economy. [1] What is certain is that the development benchmarking and the EU support in this process is highly needed given the fact that the delay in overcoming transitions in SEE shall by default affect European agendas in issues which are crucial to the common institutional, physical and cultural environments.

Among challenges identified through networking initiatives in the region is the rapid transformation of physical environment. Descending practices in shaping urban areas, in many cases to the detriment of agricultural lands, and misuse of natural resources, remain a common denominator for the SEE, regardless of the EU membership status. More specifically, the unchecked urban development has been identified in almost all post-socialist and/or postwar countries in the region, and as such, it has drawn the attention of a wider Europe. Commitments that the SEE countries have taken in this respect, have been addressed and are gradually being met through model projects and initiatives coming from governments and the civil societies. Examples of such engagements are given in this paper in order to document findings and common challenges of urban transformations in SEE.

2 The context of urban transformation in SEE

Although the geographical division of the South-East Europe (SEE) itself is not formally defined by UN [*] [[3]] the term itself has been widely adopted to identify the project designation area by co-financing initiatives and regional networks as a substitute to the geographical and historical term for the Balkan, with the aim of coming closer to the united Europe’s cultural and political orientations. Despite of the number of countries (see: Figures 1-4) that do fall under this region, which commonly varies depending on the cooperation projects or networks, SEE shares rather common challenges in terms of urban regeneration and development issues.

Unchecked urban development has been identified as an issue in majority of SEE countries. The urban self-regulation, commonly referred to housing development without seeking building permit, has been associated with urban growth caused by massive migration of rural population to urban centers. In the case of Kosovo, it is estimated that only during the first two years of the post-war period (between 1999 and 2001) the percentage of urban population increased from 37% to 44%. [[4]] The increasing demands for land for housing in major cities have therefore subsequently affected their outskirts, landscapes and environment in a larger scheme.

This trend has been notable in almost all SEE capital cities. Variations derive depending on the inherited context, mainly being attributed to pre-socialist development level, and infrastructural capacities of cities to accommodate the needs of migration flux, as well as their latter institutional maturity to manage rapid urban changes.

From the left: unchecked development in the outskirts, and urban densification / unplanned construction of the inner-city

While the Adriatic coastline is experiencing new spatial metropolitan-rural interaction and the public space is suffering as a result of this development process, Tirana (Fig. 5) is struggled with consequences of newly formed informal settlements in public land, and Prishtina (Figure 6), Belgrade and Sofia with buildings erected without construction permit. On the other hand, Bucharest is challenged by collective dwellings built in the socialist times, which today are in a critical state in terms both of their structure and social function. Skopje, in the other hand, engaged in building of a new image of the city through an urban plan for city center which has been criticized for its improper neo-nationalistic character. Adding to this the issue of privatization of public space and facilities, which is shrinking and transforming the space in cities, SEE countries are kept in between anticipated modernization/Europeanization trends in one hand, and in the other hand, fragmental and unchecked transformation of urban spaces, which resulted in unsustainable development. Urban solutions therefore are needed for each local context, while looking at possibilities to replicate solutions in both, national and regional terms. In this context, initiatives to document the trends of urban transformation and research scenarios for improvement of urban situations in cities have proved to be helpful in the sense that they provide the ground for collaboration and transfer of knowledge among professionals and decision-makers throughout the region.

3 Regional Initiatives: ‘NALAS’ and ‘Archis SEE Network’

Among initiatives that involved in issues of urban transformation are those launched by the Network of Associations of Local Authorities of South-East Europe, NALAS [[5]], and the Archis SEE Network [[6]]. These two networks are discussed in this paper from the perspective of the member in both networks, which have made possible for the author to expand the initiated strategies for urban regeneration in Prishtina, capital of Kosovo (started in late 2006) resulting in formal cooperation with the city administration, as well as in dissemination about the process and practices, to the local authorities is SEE.

From the left: the map of NALAS member (source: http://nalas.eu/Members); the map of Archis SEE Network members (http://www.seenetwork.org)

3.1 Network of Associations of Local Authorities of South-East Europe (NALAS)

NALAS is a network which currently unites 16 full members from South-East Europe. At the heart of NALAS are the Task Forces which bring together experts from the region, competent association staff and professionals employed in the local government administration. The Task Force for Urban Planning tackles the issues common in the region, such is integration of informal settlements, inclusion of more stakeholders in the urban planning process and collection and analysis of the right parameters in what is known as ’urban economics‘ [[7]].

Common challenges identified by this Task Force during its meeting sessions since 2009 are generally associated with law enforcement. While urban planning legislation in NALAS member countries are drafted against the European legislation model, provisions that regulate instruments for implementation of urban plans and their management are still being devised. Hence, the identified ‘common challenges’ (Table 1) were analyzed against individual contexts and were used to lay the ground for common recommendations and model projects for the member associations.

Source: Working document: “Common Challenges” (2009) available online for members in NALAS Knowledge Tree (document management system)

As it may be noted from the table above, there are evident problems in urban planning and management issues in SEE countries, which require determination of the local authorities to address the gaps in respective legal frameworks and intervention instruments. In this endeavor, NALAS initiated comparative analysis in the different member associations and resulted with the publication entitled “The Legislation and analysis of the implementation of spatial and urban planning in Albania, Kosovo, Macedonia, Moldova, BiH and Turkey as compares to the case of Denmark”, published in 2009.[[8]] Recommendations that were drawn through this initiative (Table 2) were used to develop specific recommendations for improving relevant national legislative frameworks.

Source: The table is a simplified form of presentation of general recommendations provided in the document NALAS (2009) “The Legislation and analysis of the implementation of spatial and urban planning in Albania, Kosovo, Macedonia, Moldova, BiH and Turkey as compares to the case of Denmark, developed for the purpose of this paper

First two recommendations on the local government role suggest that countries must undertake intense reforms, especially in the area of spatial and urban planning, as they are obliged to provide conditions for sustainable development of communities. In other words, the ongoing decentralization process, including fiscal decentralization should generate mechanisms and means that would enable to meet the needs for the social and economic prosperity. The set of recommendations concerning legal framework on implementation of urban and spatial plans suggest complementation by new laws and by-laws that regulate ownership, illegal settlements and illegally built facilities, as well as protection of cultural heritage sites. The problem of ownership and illegal development has been commonly acknowledged by NALAS member associations as the most striking issues that need urgent attention and regulation. Another concern identified as to being problematic in maintaining proper planning and monitoring system is the frequent changes to the legislation concerning the type, content and direction of plans. The quality of plans and public participation in the planning process are also critical in many countries, as it is the quality of services delivered by the planning authorities. In this context, urgent need for fostering municipal capacities and creating competent planning authorities is addressed by NALAS members.

The NALAS cooperation projects have proven to be important as they directly involve local authorities, whose performance is crucial to the future planning systems. In this context, regional initiatives play an important role in creation of the grounds for faster and more equitable socio-economic development and securing improved standards of living in SEE.

3.2 Archis SEE Network

Activism and independent initiatives of architects, urbanists, artists, sociologists and other professionals from the civil society and academia has become quite noted in the region. The idea to bring together these initiatives within Archis SEE Network (created in 2008) has made possible the exchange of knowledge and best practices in coping with various political and social dimensions of the urban environment, as well as to integrate the issues discussed in international discourse on urbanism. About 27 local initiatives have made their projects available through this network, and have gained a wider audience in SEE and beyond. In doing so, local initiatives have maid possible the exposure of their findings about trends and challenges of urban transformation in local level, as well as their involvement in regional projects.

Figure 5. Study on Prishtina: prototypes of illegal buildings – illegal buildings constructed after 1999 are indicated with red color. (Courtesy of: Archis Interventions /AI Prishtina)

The criticism about urban occurrences in SEE coming from the civil society plays and important role in relevant information exchange and in shaping opinions about the context of transition in SEE countries, and the challenges they deal with, in the process of internationalization. Furthermore, their active involvement in devising solutions for certain urban issues in local level that may apply in a wider regional context, have raised the awareness of developing agencies and professionals from other parts of Europe.

Among local initiatives that gained attention of the international discourse through documenting informal building trend in the post-war context and providing strategies and problem solutions, is based in Prishtina. Projects that involve documentation of descending urban trend in the city were initiated in cooperation with European partners,[†] and were jointly developed with regional partners and the local administration in Prishtina. Urban analysis and strategies devised through the local initiative were adopted by the municipality of Prishtina and the model of intervention in Prishtina’s case was disseminated and considered by the SEE local administrations’ network.

The major contribution of this initiative was the launching of the process of legalization of buildings erected without building permit. The process was based on the qualification of prototypes of uncontrolled construction (Fig. 5, Table 3), [[9],[10]] which later evolved into a set of minimal standards for legalization [[11]], later on incorporated in the Kosovo Law for Treatment of Constructions Without Permit.[[12]]

Conclusion

The context of the post-socialist and post-war associated with unmanaged growth in which the built environment was shaping during the last decades in SEE, have negatively affected the cities’ structures, as well as the perception about their future prospect. This has been identified through documentation of local cases of urban transformations by regional initiatives such are NALAS and Archis SEE Network. Studies and recommendations produced through regional networking highlight the need for upgrading the legal framework and complementary implementation mechanisms. In order to achieve this objective, a fostered planning administration in SEE countries is strongly needed. Also, the institutional commitment and the public awareness to treat the existing illegal buildings and their surrounding by means of qualification and treatment must be firm. In this respect, attention should be given to local initiatives and their researches and projects that more often than not provide urban solutions which can be implementable in a specific context, but can also be replicable in the national or regional context. The illustrated case of initiatives in Prishtina, capital city of Kosovo, has shown that taking into account case study projects coming from the grassroots level may directly affect the fostering of national urban policies and legislation, and beyond.

References

[*] There is no formal recognized geographical division of the Southeaster Europe. The Division provided by the United Nations defines regions in Europe into Eastern, Western, Southern and Northern Europe. The division created in late 1990s is programmatic and is linked with development co-funding such is the EU initiative called the Stability Pact for South Eastern Europe. The use of this term has grown and is gradually substituting the historical and geographical term of Balkan by the pretext of diminishing the negative connotation that has been generally associated with by the western European countries.

[†] The local NGO Archis Interventions/Prishtina was founded in 2005 as part of the Archis network, together with Archis Interventions/Amsterdam and Archis Interventions/Berlin. Author of the paper is a co-founder/manager of the Prishtina branch.

[[1]] F.E. Ian Hamilton, Natama Pichler-Milanovi, and Kaliopa Dimitrovska Andrews. (eds.). 2005. Transformation of cities in central and Eastern Europe: Towards globalization, United Nations University, p.11, 13

[[2]] South East Europe / Potential Candidates, in: http://www.southeast-europe.eu/eu-enlargement/potential-candidates.html

[[3]] Composition of macro geographical (continental) regions, geographical sub-regions, and selected economic and other groupings. In: http://unstats.un.org/unsd/methods/m49/m49regin.htm#europe

[[4]] Kosovo Environmental Protection Agency (KEPA), Report on Environmental state 2006–2007, p.20

[[5]] Network of Associations of Local Authorities of South-East Europe (NALAS), in: http://nalas.eu

[[6]] Archis SEE Network, in: http://www.seenetwork.org.

[[7]] NALAS / Urban Planning, In: http://nalas.eu/knowledge-center/Task-Forces/Urban-Planning

[[8]] NALAS Task Force for Urban Planning (2009). The Legislation and analysis of the implementation of spatial and urban planning in Albania, Kosovo, Macedonia, Moldova, BiH and Turkey as compares to the case of Denmark. In:

http://www.nalas.eu/up/legalanalysis/index.aspx#download

[[9]] V. Geci, F. Jerliu, et.al (2007). Archis Interventions The new Prishtina. Volume Magazine, edition 1. Amsterdam. p. 80-93

[[10]] Archis Interventions (2007). The New Prishtina, European Forum Alpbach, In: http://www.seenetwork.org/files/2010/11/16/2/Archis%20Interventions_The%20New%20Prishtina_2007.pdf

[[11]] Archis Interventions Prishtina (2009) Manual on Legalization. In: http://www.seenetwork.org/files/2010/11/16/3/Archis%20Interventions_Prishtina_Manual_2009.pdf

[[12]] Law for Treatment of Constructions Without Permit, Law No. 04/L-188, In: www.kuvendikosoves.org/common/docs/ligjet/04-L-188%20a.pdf

International conference on Recent Innovations in Engineering and Technology

Name of Conference	International conference on Recent Innovations in Engineering and Technology
ISBN NO. for Print Proceedings of Conference	978-1539626459
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Publisher of Print Proceedings of Conference Papers	Edupedia Publications Pvt Ltd, New Delhi
Date of Conference	26^th November 2016
Venue of Conference	Aurora’s Scientific, Technological & Research Academy
Conference Organizers Name and Details	1. Ch. Srilatha – Deputy Director 2. Pradosh Ch. Patnaik – HOD(CSE)
Phone (Inc. Area code)	040-64633637
Mobile	9553119444
Email	Pradoshpatnaik1974@gmail.com
Address	Bandlaguda, Chandrayangutta, Hyderabad.
State	Telangana
District	Hyderabad
Pincode	500005
Website (if any)	http://www.astra.edu.in

An Assessment of the Constraints of Qualitative Secretarial Education in Osun State Polytechnic Iree, Osun State, Nigeria

Omisope¹, B. O., Ajayi¹, A., Olodude², I. I. and Ajayi³, O. A

Abstract

Secretarial education is an area of institution that has been in existence for several decades and it plays very significant role in economic development of any nation. It is a vocational education that is intended to provide the skills and the manpower for the office and other administrative services required by the society. Therefore, this study reviewed the problems of secretarial qualitative education in Nigeria with a view to identify the qualities and functions of a secretary and examine the constraints of secretarial education in Osun State Polytechnic Iree of Osun State, Nigeria. Both primary and secondary sources of data were utilized for the study. The primary data were collected through questionnaires in which 65 questionnaires were administered to the staff and students of department of secretarial studies of the polytechnic out of which only 50 questionnaires were completed and returned. The questionnaires were administered using simple random sampling techniques such as frequency distribution and percentage. Secondary sources of data were generated from internets sources, relevant textbooks and journal on the field of secretarial studies. The study revealed that there is plethora of problems militating against qualitative secretarial education in Nigeria. They include infrastructural challenges, ill-equipped school environment, admission policy and operational regulation, inadequate secretarial teachers and facilitators, lack of government commitment to secretarial education, low society value for secretarial education etc. The study concluded that graduates of secretarial education with second class upper should be employed as graduate assistants and be given further training in higher degree. Also, federal and state ministries of education should provide facilities for ICT in institutions of higher learning so that secretarial education graduates can be trained and equipped to face the challenges of modern business office.

Introduction

Secretarial Education

According to Okolo (2001), secretarial education provides students with adequate skills and information needed to function well in office occupation. Amoor and Magaji (2015) opine that secretarial education is a component of vocational education that provides knowledge and skills needed to perform efficiently and effectively in the world of work. They state further that secretarial education involves acquisition of skills, knowledge and competencies and makes the recipient proficient in secretarial profession.

Secretarial education is a tool for alleviating poverty. This means that a secretarial graduate that is well equipped with technological knowledge could be employed and be on his/her own as an employer of labour. Secretarial education is useful to modern business office in private organization (NGOs), governmental organization and Non-Governmental organization (NGOs) in terms of employment opportunity, job creation and self-reliance.

Despite the role of secretarial education in Nigeria, there are still many problems militating against its survival in Nigeria. It is on this note that this study assessed the constraints of qualitative secretarial education in Osun State Polytechnic Iree of Osun State, Nigeria.

Objectives of the Study

The objectives of study are to

examine the concept of secretarial education in Nigeria.
identify the qualities and functions of a secretary

assess the constraints of qualitative secretarial education in Nigeria.

Literature Review

Concept of Secretarial Education

Secretarial education is a component of vocational education that provides knowledge and skills for would be secretaries to perform efficiently and in the world of work.

It also involves acquisition of skills, knowledge and competencies that make the recipient proficient in secretarial profession (Amoor, 2009).

Secretarial education is offered in Colleges of Education, Polytechnic and the Universities primarily to educate and train students to become competent professional secretaries (Aliyu, 2006).

National Board for Technical Education (NBTE) (1989) defined secretarial education as the type of education that equips students with vocational skills, effective work competencies and socio-psychological work skills essential for interpersonal relation.

Adelani (2006) described secretarial education as an area of instruction that plays very significant role in national development and a tool to combat unemployment crisis.

Secretarial education is an aspect of education which leads to the acquisition of practical and applied skills for employment in various fields of endeavor. Students of this programme are exposed to courses in the special areas as well as in general education.

In addition to acquisition of vocational skills in secretarial education, the students are equipped with effective work competencies and psychological work skills which are very essential in everyday interactions with others (Amoor, Ibid).

Qualities and Functions of a Secretary

Harrison (1979) gave the business qualities of a secretary as secretarial skills, organizing skills, efficiency, reliability, responsibility, discretion, initiative, tact, diplomacy and punctuality. Lauria (1972) highlighted the personal qualities of a secretary as adaptability, level-headedness, good observance, intuitiveness, flexibility, tact, friendliness, accuracy, thoroughness, fore-thoughtfulness, initiative, self-confidence, good listener, a good telephone personality and a good appearance. Egbokhare (2011) outlined qualities of a good secretary under two classifications of business and personal. Business qualities include secretarial and language skills, organizing punctuality, resilience among others. He stated further that the personal qualities include being smart, tactful, neat, friendly, helpful, well informed or knowledgeable, courteous, polite and observant among others.

According to Abolade (1999), a secretary in a polytechnic or in a university performs inter-alia the following functions.

These are:

Taking notes from the head;
Taking minutes of meeting;
Preparing the LPO;
Keeping accurate and up-to-date records of students;
Organizing current departmental information to make it easily retrievable;
Keeping secret departmental information;
Typing with accuracy;
Making and receiving telephone calls; and
Performing other duties as may be assigned by the head of the department.

Adewale (2001) gave the following functions of a secretary. They include:

Setting up and administer systems and procedures for a department or unit.
Word processing text and information such as letters, reports, memos etc.
Composing correspondence, reports and memos.
Performing office duties and arranging meetings
Setting up and maintaining file systems.

Problems of Qualitative Secretarial Education in Nigeria

There are myriad of problems facing qualitative secretarial education in Nigeria. Adelani (2006) pointed out some of the problems militating against qualitative secretarial education. They include infrastructural challenges, ill-equipped school environment teachers /facilitators, lack of government commitment to secretarial education, low societal value for secretarial education.

Nwaokolo (1990) stated that secretarial education lacks basic instructional tools for effective and efficient skills training. He stated further that many institutions teaching secretarial education are without computer for instruction in lecturing rooms and offices.

Okoro (2005) remarked that lack of adequate funding is the bane of secretarial education. Schools, colleges and universities find it difficult to implement business education curriculum to its fullest due to lack of fund.

Okomanyin (2002) agreed with the above statement, he states further that secretarial education is capital intensive expenditure in terms of equipment, laboratory workshop as well as manpower training and retraining. Uzo (1998) also agreed that it would be a mere white wash for secretarial education to be included in a school curriculum without a studio equipped with different types of office machines.

Uzo (Ibid) pointed out that instructional materials are essential for secretarial education but many higher institutions teaching secretarial studies lack these materials for effective and dynamic instruction.

Alilaki (2012) opined admission policy is a great challenge to business education and secretarial education in particular. He asserted that entire qualification is compromised to accommodate frustrated candidates who choose to study office education as last resort. He pointed out further that when some of the alumni of colleges of education who major in secretarial education and wants to further their education to university level always have mathematics as a big obstacle militating them and therefore their admission seekers to switch to another field of endeavours.

Moreover, there is inadequate quality and quantity of secretarial teachers and facilators in Nigeria higher institutions. It is unusual for a secretarial graduate to wish to make a career out of teaching when he can conveniently secure a job as a secretary in oil companies, banks and telecommunication companies. This poses or compels higher institutions to employ sub-standard or half-baked graduates to fill existing vacancies. The effect of this is that the half-baked graduate cannot fit in to the world of work and be productive because he has not been put in his rightful place.

Amoor (2009) ascertained that the federal and state governments are not exonerated from the accusing fingers that are partly responsible for the collapsing foundation in Nigerian institutions. This is because its attention and priority is wholly focused on sciences thereby neglecting this aspect of education.

Usman (2008) concurred with the statement and stated that governments at all level must improve the status of secretarial education by giving it’s a high priority.

Lastly, Nigerian parents of today do not encouraged their wards to offer secretarial education at all levels. This is because the society does not place any significant value or dignity on the secretarial profession. In the support of the above statement, Clark (2002) said that secretarial education programs have been deprived of the prestige by the society because of their reluctant to expunge themselves of the colonial grammar education and white-collar jobs where secretarial education graduates are referred to as “typists” because the programme is associated with typing and shorthand.

Research Methodology

The study was carried out in Osun State Polytechnic Iree of Osun State, Nigeria. Data survey method was used in selecting the respondents for the study. 65 questionnaires were administered to the staff members and students of department of secretarial studies of the polytechnic out of which only 50 questionnaires completed and returned. The questionnaires were administered using simply random sampling techniques such as frequency distribution and percentage. The analysis is based on the Yes or No option.

Result and Discussion

Based on the data collected and the responses received the results of the analysis are presented and discussed below:

Table 1: Infrastructural Challenges

Responses

Respondents

Percentage %

Yes

Nil

100

Nil

Total

100%

Source: Field survey, 2016

Table above shows that the entire respondents are of the option that infrastructural challenges are qualitative secretarial education in Nigeria.

Table 2: Ill-equipped School Environment

Responses

Respondents

Percentage %

Yes

100

Total

100%

Source: Field Survey, 2016

Table 2 above clearly shows that 40 (80%) respondents agree that ill-equipped school environment is one of the constraints facing qualitative secretarial education in Nigeria tertiary institutions.

Table 3: Admission Policy and Operational Regulation

Responses

Respondents

Percentage %

Yes

Total

100%

Source: Field Survey, 2016

The table 3 above clearly shows that 46 (92%) respondents agree that one of the constraints of qualitative secretarial education is admission policy and operational regulation while only 4 (8%) disagree with this assertion. This shows that admission policy and operational regulation is one problems of secretarial education in Nigeria higher institutions.

Table 4: Inadequate Secretarial Teachers/Facilitators

Responses

Respondents

Percentage %

Yes

Nil

100%

Nil

Total

100%

Source: Field Survey, 2016

The data collected and presented in table 4 above shows that all the respondents agree that inadequate secretarial teachers and facilitators is one the factors militating against qualitative secretarial education in Nigerian higher institutions.

Table 5: Lack of Government Commitment to Secretarial Education

Responses

Respondents

Percentage %

Yes

Nil

100

Nil

Total

100%

Source: Field Survey, 2016

All the respondents attest to the fact that lack of government commitment to secretarial education is one of the problems of qualitative secretarial education in Nigerian higher institutions.

Table 6: Low Societal Value for Secretarial Education

Responses

Respondents

Percentage %

Yes

Total

100%

Source: Field Survey, 2016

According to table 6 above majority the respondents agree that low society is one of key challenges of secretarial education in Nigeria tertiary Institutions.

Conclusion

The study assessed the constraints of qualitative secretarial education in Osun State Polytechnic Iree of Osun State, Nigeria. It reviewed existing literature on concept of secretarial education qualities and function of a secretary and constraint facing secretarial education in Nigeria. Data were analysed using descriptive statistics such as frequency and percentage. It discovered that there are many constraints militating against qualitative secretarial education in Nigeria higher institutions such as infrastructural challenges, ill-equipped school environment, admission policy and operational regulation, inadequate secretarial teachers and facilitators, lack of government commitment to secretarial education, low societal value for secretarial education etc.

The study concluded that graduates of secretarial education with second class upper should be employed as graduate assistants and to give further training in higher degree.

Also, federal and state ministries of education should provide facilities for ICT in institutions of higher learning so that secretarial education graduates can be trained and equipped to face the challenges of modern business office.

Recommendations

In line with the findings, it is recommended that the:

(1) Seasoned business educators in tertiary institutions of learning and secretarial administrators in office occupation should consistently and persistently organize and sponsor mass media publicity on the importance of secretarial education and secretarial profession. This will certainly go a long way to create public awareness about secretarial education in tertiary institution of learning hence public awareness on the secretarial profession is very important.

(ii) Secretarial education teachers should acquire new technologies in order to be able to teach secretarial students using relevant equipment.

(iii) Federal and state ministries of education should provide adequate fund for the provision of equipment and facilities to higher institutions offering secretarial education in the institutions.

(iv) Graduates of secretarial education with second class upper division should be employed as graduate assistants in order to solve the problems of acute shortage of secretarial lecturers in Nigerian higher institutions.

(v) Government should review the admission policy through removing problem of mathematics as one of the requisite subjects for admission.

(vi) Federal and state ministries of education should provide awareness of both the society and students on the benefits of secretarial education to the society and the practitioners with the intention to popularize the profession.

References

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Ilorin Journal of Education (IJE), Vol. 9, No 2, pp. 81-83.

[2]Adelani, O. (2006) Inhibitory factors to Qualitative Secretarial Education for National

Advancement in 21^st Century. Journal of Vocational Technical and Business Education. Vol. 8,

No 2, pp. 20-30.

[3]Alikali, P. E. (2009) Problems of Office Education. Unpublished Seminar Paper Presentation

Faculty of Education, Vocational and Technical Education, Business Education Section August, 2009.

[4]Aliyu, M. M. (2006) Business Education in Nigeria: Trends and Issues. Offa: Tosten Print

Media Ltd.

[5]Amoor, S. S. (2009): Secretarial Education in Nigerian Secondary Schools. The Challenges

and Strategies. Journal of Vocational Studies. Vol. 3, No 1, pp. 7 – 11.

[6] Clark, A. O. (2002) Alleviating Poverty through sustainable Business Education. Research

Journal. Vol. 3, No 4, pp. 104-105.

[7] Egbokhare, F. O. (2011) Challenges of Secretarial Administration in a Globalized world. The

Professional Secretary. Journal of the University Secretarial Staff Association. Vol. 2, No 2, pp.

1-5.

[8] Harrison, J. (1979) Secretarial Duties. London: Pitman Publishing Limited.

[9] Lauria, M. (1972). How to be a Good Secretary. London: Pitman Publishing Limited

[10]National Board for Technical Education (1989) Current Curriculum and Course

Specifications for Higher National Diploma in Secretarial Studies. Kaduna: Atman Ltd.

[11] Nwaokolo, P. O. E. (1992): Training the Nigerian Youth for Business Occupations.

Business Education Journal. Vol. 2, No 3.

[11] Okolo, C. I. (2001) Teaching Business Education in Distance Education Programme:

Problems and Strategies for improvement. Business Education Journal.

[13] Okomanyin, O. A. (2002) Focus on Technical Education in Nigeria: Aspiration, Perception

and Realization and Refocusing Education. Benin: Dasylva Influence

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Training and Developing Medical Personnel in Sierra Leone, Guinea and Liberia: It’s Effects on Post Ebola Recovery in the Health Systems

ABDUL AMID AZIZ JALLOH

Lecturer: University of Makeni & University of Science and Technology Sierra Leone.

ABSTRACT

Addressing critically medical issues with limited knowledge capacity pose several challenges in the health systems. Such challenges can only be addressed if organisations can invest in training and developing employees’ capacity to enhance outstanding performance. Considering the above facts, this study seeks to assess the significance of Training and Developing Medical Personnel in Sierra Leone, Guinea and Liberia, and to examine its Effects on Post Ebola Recovery in the Health Systems. The fortitude for this qualitative research led to the retrieval of secondary sources published on the subject matter and analysis of retrieved information disclosed the constituents of training and development such as: on-the-job and off-the-job training, methods of training, formal and informal training, evaluating and transferring training. Further analysis reveals that training and developing medical personnel in these West African countries has positive effects on post Ebola recovery since employees will be equipped with the required skills and competences to forecast, identify and minimise or eradicate issues that will prompt unexpected health circumstances in the future. The relevance of this study could aid medical practitioners in the three West African countries and is also noteworthy to public and private establishments.

KEY WORDS: Training and Developing, Medical Personnel, Sierra Leone, Guinea, Liberia, Post Ebola Recovery, Health Systems

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The role of formal training in organisations today appears to have declined significantly and has been replaced with an emphasis on developing skills (CIPD, 2009). The speed with which skills requirements change in some sectors means that formal, time-consuming, classroom based learning fails to deliver efficiently as required. Furthermore, the growing recognition of human resource development (HRD) as a tool to achieve competitive advantage has raised awareness of the need to embrace learning as a central strategic concern and to be part of the culture of the organisation (Senge, 1990; Pedlar et al., 1997, Garavan, 2007) of which formal training is just one, often small, component. In addition, a government-policy-driven emphasis on individual responsibility for life-long learning and skills development (Leitch, 2006; DIUS, 2007b) gives individuals more responsibility for their own learning with spin-off benefits for the organisation, which reduces the relevance of off-the-shelf, one-size-fits-all group learning. On the other side of this coin is the need to provide employees with workplace-specific skills to reduce the ‘poaching’ of skilled employees which reduces the value of traditional training methods. Employee training equips the employees with adequate skills and knowledge to contribute to the organization’s efficiency and cope with the changes in the environment. There should be a continuous re-assessment of the managerial calibre and skills to cope with environmental changes. Technological changes make the skills obsolete, which necessitates training activities. As a brief review of terms, training involves an expert working with learners to transfer to them certain areas of knowledge or skills to improve in their current jobs. Development is a broad, ongoing multi-faceted set of activities (training activities among them) to bring someone or an organization up to another threshold of performance, often to perform some job or new role in the future (Mahapatro, 2010). Accordingly, strategic concerns and decisions relating to training have moved into the board room. Although trainers and training institutions continue to improve training designs, methods and materials, and develop professional networks and institutions, the policymakers and change managers have taken over the issues of fitting their efforts into overall change strategies, funding and organizational supports. Thus, for ensuring its best possible fit with ongoing change strategies, policymakers and change managers set the specifications which the training has to accomplish (Dwivedi, 2007). Training has always played an important and an integral part in furthering many kinds of human learning and development. If organizations are to make the best of the training function in their response to and promotion of change, the training function will need to be closely linked with business plans. This means that a detailed training policy needs to be agreed and implemented from the top of the organization and supported by management at all levels. It also means that the training and development function has to be accountable in the same way that other functions are (Buckley and Caple, 2009). Many companies have adopted a broader perspective, which is known as high-leverage training. High-leverage training is linked to strategic business goals and objectives, uses an instructional design process to ensure that training is effective, and compares or benchmarks the company’s training programs against training programs in other companies. High-leverage training practices also help to create working conditions that encourage continuous learning. Continuous learning requires employees to understand the entire work system, including the relationships among their jobs, their work units, and the company. Employees are expected to acquire new skills and knowledge, apply them on the job, and share this information with other employees (Noe, 2010). There has been a considerable shift in the way that individual development is understood and characterised. We have moved from identifying training needs to identifying learning needs, the implication being that development is owned by the learner with the need rather than by the trainer seeking to satisfy that need. This also has implications for who identiﬁes the needs and the way that those needs are met. Current thinking suggests that needs are best developed by a partnership between the individual and the organisation, and that the methods of meeting these needs are not limited only to formal courses, but to a wide range of on-the-job development methods and distance/e-learning approaches. There has also been a shift in the type of skills that are the focus of development activity (Torrington et al, 2005). Hallier and Butts (1999) for example identify a change from an interest in technical skills to the development of personal skills, self-management and attitudes. Lastly, while the focus on development for the current job remains high, there is greater pressure for development which is also future oriented. It has been argued (Reynolds, 2004) that: ‘The transfer of expertise by outside experts is risky since their design is often removed from the context in which work is created.’ This is a fundamental problem and applies equally to internally run training courses where what has been taught can be difﬁcult for people to apply in the entirely different circumstances in their workplace. Training can seem to be remote from reality and the skills and knowledge acquired can appear to be irrelevant. This particularly applies to management or supervisory training but even the manual skills learnt in a training centre may be difﬁcult to transfer. Armstrong (2009), describe this as a problem that can be tackled by making the training as relevant and realistic as possible, anticipating and dealing with any potential transfer difﬁculties. Individuals are more likely to apply learning when they do not ﬁnd it too difﬁcult, believe what they learnt is relevant, useful and transferable, are supported by line managers, have job autonomy, believe in themselves, and are committed and engaged. Transfer is also more likely if systematic training and ‘just-in-time training’ approaches are used.

1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY

Disease outbreaks and catastrophes can affect countries at any time, causing substantial human suffering and deaths and economic losses. If health systems are ill-equipped to deal with such situations, the affected populations can be very vulnerable. The current Ebola virus disease outbreak in western Africa highlights how an epidemic can proliferate rapidly and pose huge problems in the absence of a strong health system capable of a rapid and integrated response. The outbreak began in Guinea in December 2013 but spread into neighbouring Liberia and Sierra Leone. In early August 2014, Ebola was declared an international public health emergency. At the time the outbreak began, the capacity of the health systems in Guinea, Liberia and Sierra Leone was limited. Several health-system functions that are generally considered essential were not performing well and this hampered the development of a suitable and timely response to the outbreak. There were inadequate numbers of trained and qualified health workers. Infrastructure, logistics, health information, surveillance, governance and drug supply systems were weak. The organization and management of health services was sub-optimal. Government health expenditure was low whereas private expenditure – mostly in the form of direct out-of-pocket payments for health services – was relatively high. The last decade has seen increased external health-related aid to Guinea, Liberia and Sierra Leone. However, in the context of Millennium Development Goals 4, 5 and 6, most of this aid has been allocated to combat human immunodeficiency virus infection, malaria and tuberculosis, with much of the residual going to maternal and child health services. Therefore, relatively little external aid was left to support overall development of health systems. This lack of balanced investment in the health systems contributes to the challenges of controlling the current Ebola outbreak. Weak health systems cannot be resilient. A strong health system decreases a country’s vulnerability to health risks and ensures a high level of preparedness to mitigate the impact of any crises. If this Ebola outbreak does not trigger substantial investments in health systems and adequate reforms in the worst-affected countries, pre-existing deficiencies in health systems will be exacerbated. The national governments, assisted by external partners, need to develop and implement strategies to make their health systems stronger and more resilient. Only then can they meet the essential health needs of their populations and develop strong disaster preparedness to address future emergencies. In the short-term, non-governmental organizations, civil society and international organizations will have to bolster the national health systems, both to mitigate the direct consequences of the outbreak and to ensure that all essential health services are being delivered. However, this assistance should be carefully coordinated under the leadership of the national governments and follow development effectiveness principles (Kieny et al, 2014).

1.2 RESEARCH AIM

Medical personnel training and development in Sierra Leone, Guinea and Liberia is quite a challenging task as a result of the established medical schools without proper structures, sophisticated scientific instruments/apparatus for practical work and insufficient trained and qualified tutors in handling the prerequisite courses for the various specialties. This situation led to the complications of containing the outbreak since the health systems in these countries lacks the capacity and as a result, brought about the loss of many lives. Considering the critical issues surrounding training and developing the intellectual capital of medical personnel in these West African Countries, this study seeks to examine the elements of training and developing medical personnel in Sierra Leone, Guinea and Liberia and its effects on post Ebola recovery in the health systems.

1.3 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

The research objectives segment the clustered components in the aim and organise such elements systematically in order to develop a structured review process so as to descriptively explain the relevance of the subject matter. The research objectives are outlined as follows:

Describe the definition of training, learning, development and the significance of training and development as investment.
Discuss training needs assessment (organisational analysis, task analysis, person analysis) and readiness for training.
Explain on-the-job and off-the-job training, strategic training, coaching, mentoring, systematic training, just-in-time training, bite-sized training, human relations training
Discuss the features of learning and development strategy, learning culture, the learning organisation, learning theories, contribution of learning and development to organisational performance and comparing learning and training
Describe formal and informal learning, the spectrum of learning from informal to formal, motivation to learn, e-learning, blended learning, self-directed learning, evaluating training and transferring training.

1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

Training and human resource development is a key component in every sector of organisations growth. Governmental and non-governmental organisations operations are effectively and efficiently implemented and objectives are achieved as a result of staff diligence, which is accelerated by training and development. Most successful organisations today realise that training is one of the mechanisms that leads to the achievement of competitive advantage and that kin attention should be paid towards it and sufficient funds allocated for its implementation. Considering the facts expressed, this study is important to the three affected West Africa countries since one of the problems encountered in trying to contain the disease outbreak was as a result of lack of sufficient trained and qualified medical personnel. It is also noteworthy to business establishments and to the management profession since well trained and developed workforce accelerates organisations growth.

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

Definitions of Training, Learning, Development and Significance of Training and Development as Investment

Training is an organized activity for increasing the knowledge and skills of the people for a definite purpose. It involves systematic procedures for transferring technical knowhow to the employees so as to increase their knowledge and skills for doing specific jobs with proficiency. In other words, the trainees acquire technical knowledge, skills and problem solving ability by undergoing the training programme (Mahapatro, 2010).

2.1 Training: Training refers to a planned effort by a company to facilitate employees’ learning of job related competencies. These competencies include knowledge, skills, or behaviours that are critical for successful job performance. The goal of training is for employees to master the knowledge, skill, and behaviours emphasized in training programs and to apply them to their day-to-day activities. For a company to gain a competitive advantage, its training has to involve more than just basic skill development. That is, to use training to gain a competitive advantage, a company should view training broadly as a way to create intellectual capital. Intellectual capital includes basic skills (skills needed to perform one’s job), advanced skills (such as how to use technology to share information with other employees), an understanding of the customer or manufacturing system, and self-motivated creativity (Noe, 2010).

2.1.1 Learning: Learning is the means by which a person acquires and develops new knowledge, skills, capabilities, behaviours and attitudes. As explained by Honey and Mumford (1996): ‘Learning has happened when people can demonstrate that they know something that they did not know before (insights, realizations as well as facts) and when they can do something they could not do before (skills). Learning is a continuous process that does not only enhances existing capabilities but also leads to the development of the skills, knowledge and attitudes that prepare people for enlarged or higher-level responsibilities in the future.

2.1.2 Development: Development involves the processes by which managerial personnel accomplish not merely skills in their present jobs but also competence for prospective assignments of enhanced difficulties and scope. The higher responsibilities embrace complex conceptual thoughts and analyses, and decision making abilities. The development process relates to the pressures, change and growth patterns. Thus, development as applied to managers embraces all those recognized and controlled measures, which exert a marked influence towards the improvement of abilities of the participant to accomplish his present job more effectively, and enhance his potential for prospective higher responsibilities (Dwivedi, 2007).

2.1.3 The significance of training and development as investment: The development of human resource is of utmost significance. While the ‘raw’ human resource can make only limited contribution towards the attainment of organizational goals, the developed human resource—knowledgeable, skilled manpower—can help immensely in the contribution in this respect. Organizations with considerable opportunities for self-development can attract highly promising new entrants. The development of human resource is accomplished through training. Training is a prerequisite to improved performance, preparing human resource for new jobs, transfers, promotions and change-over to modern technology and equipment. In addition to training of new entrants, manpower at all levels requires refresh training from time to time in order to avoid personal obsolescence and improve its competence to hold higher positions. Accordingly, training and development policies and programmes are given top priority, and investment on training, and development has increased tremendously. Thus, these programmes perform a significant educational function and form a valuable source of preparation for performing the present job more effectively and holding new jobs. Indeed, these programmes have become a vital part of the employment costs in modern industrial economies (Dwivedi, 2007).

2.2 Training Needs Assessments (Organisational Analysis, Task Analysis, Person Analysis)

Turning specifically to training, because of the potentially considerable financial and psychological costs involved, a great deal of consideration has to be given to deciding whether to embark on some form of training to meet individual learning and development needs. It is important to appreciate the circumstances which indicate whether or not training is required and there is a need to be thoroughly familiar with the methods, approaches and forms of analysis that have to be used in order to reach the decision to implement training. The criticality of this process cannot be over emphasized bearing in mind the consequences that might arise for organizations which provide too little training or no training at all when a real need exists (Buckley and Caple, 2009).

2.2.1 Organisational Analysis: Organizational analysis involves identifying whether training supports the company’s strategic direction; whether managers, peers, and employees support training activity; and what training resources are available (Noe, 2010). In the broad organizational analysis, trainers compare what the organization is doing and what it should be doing. Trainers focus attention on organizational objectives, skills, inventories, organizational climate, and indices of efficiency, including costs for labour, materials, and distribution (McGehee and Thayer, 1961).

2.2.2 Task Analysis: Task analysis (sometimes called operations analysis) is a systematic collection of data about a specific job or group of jobs used to determine what employees should be taught to achieve optimal performance. Results of a task analysis typically include the appropriate standards of performance, how tasks should be performed to meet these standards, and the knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics that employees need to possess in order to meet the standards (Werner and DeSimone, 2012).

2.2.3 Person Analysis: Person analysis helps to identify employees who need training, that is, whether employees’ current performance or expected performance indicates a need for training. The need for training may result from the pressure points, including performance problems, changes in the job, or use of new technology. Person analysis also helps determining employees’ readiness for training. Readiness for training refers to whether (1) employees have the personal characteristics (ability, attitudes, beliefs, and motivation) necessary to learn program content and apply it on the job and (2) the work environment will facilitate learning and not interfere with performance. This process includes evaluating person characteristics, input, output, consequences, and feedback. A major pressure point for training is poor or substandard performance. Poor performance is indicated by customer complaints, low performance ratings, or on-the-job incidents such as accidents and unsafe behaviour. Another potential indicator of the need for training is if the job changes such that current levels of performance need to be improved or employees must be able to complete new tasks (Noe, 2010).

2.2.4 Readiness for Training: Effective training requires not only a program that addresses real needs, but also a condition of employee readiness. Readiness for training is a combination of employee characteristics and positive work environment that permit training. The necessary employee characteristics include ability to learn the subject matter, favourable attitudes toward the training, and motivation to learn. A positive work environment is one that encourages learning and avoids interfering with the training program (Noe et al, 2011).

2.3 On-the-job, Off-the-job Training, Strategic Training, Coaching, Mentoring, Systematic Training, Just-in-time Training, Bite-sized Training, Human Relations Training.

2.3.1 On-the-job Training: On-the-job training (OJT) is probably the most common approach to training. It can range from relatively unsophisticated ‘observe and copy’ methods to highly structured courses built into workshop or office practice. Cannell (1997) defines OJT as training that is planned and structured that takes place mainly at the normal workstation of the trainee – although some instruction may be provided in a special training area on site – and where a manager, supervisor, trainer or peer colleague spends significant time with a trainee to teach a set of skills that have been specified in advance. It also includes a period of instruction where there may be little or no useful output in terms of productivity. These traditional methods are still very popular ways of teaching new skills and methods to employees, and they can be very effective. However, there are many acknowledged weaknesses that still persist in many organisational practices. There is often a lack of structure and design in the training given, which leads to the passing-on of bad or even dangerous working practices (Cannell, 1997).

2.3.2 Off-the-job Training: Off-the-job/external training, or training that takes place outside the employing organization, is used extensively by organizations of all sizes. Large organizations use external training if they lack the capability to train people internally or when many people need to be trained quickly. External training may be the best option for training in smaller firms due to limitations in the size of their training staffs and in the number of employees who need various types of specialized training. Whatever the size of the organization, external training occurs for several reasons:

It may be less expensive for an employer to have an outside trainer conduct training in areas where internal training resources are limited.
The organization may have insufficient time to develop internal training materials.
The HR staff may not have the necessary level of expertise for the subject matter in which training is needed.
There are advantages to having employees interact with managers and peers in other companies in training programs held externally (Mathis and Jackson, 2011).

2.3.3 Strategic Training: Training is used strategically to help the organization accomplish its goals. For example, if sales increases are a critical part of the company’s strategy, appropriate training would identify what is causing lower sales and target training to respond as part of a solution. Strategic training can have numerous organizational benefits. It requires HR and training professionals to get intimately involved with the business and to partner with operating managers to help solve their problems, thus making significant contributions to organizational results. Additionally, a strategic training mind-set reduces the likelihood of thinking that training alone can solve most employee or organizational problems. It is not uncommon for operating managers and trainers to react to most important performance problems by saying, “I need a training program on X.” With a strategic focus, the organization is more likely to assess whether training actually can address the most important performance issues and what besides training is needed.

Training cannot fix all organizational problems (Mathis and Jackson, 2011).

2.3.4 Coaching: The Industrial Society (1999) defines coaching as: ‘The art of facilitating the enhanced performance, learning and development of others.’ It takes the form of a personal (usually one-to-one) on-the-job approach to helping people develop their skills and levels of competence. Hirsh and Carter (2002) state that coaching is aimed at the rapid improvement of skills, behaviour and performance, usually for the present job. A structured and purposeful dialogue is at the heart of coaching. The coach uses feedback and brings an objective perspective. They noted that the boundaries between what a coach, mentor, counsellor or organization development consultant do are inevitably blurred – they all use similar skills. The need for coaching may arise from formal or informal performance reviews but opportunities for coaching will emerge during normal day-to-day activities.

2.3.5 Mentoring: Mentoring is the process of using specially selected and trained individuals to provide guidance, pragmatic advice and continuing support, which will help the person or persons allocated to them to learn and develop. It has been defined by Clutterbuck (2004) as: ‘Off-line help from one person to another in making significant transitions in knowledge, work or thinking.’ Hirsh and Carter (2002) suggest that mentors prepare individuals to perform better in the future and groom them for higher and greater things, i.e. career advancement. Armstrong (2006) describe mentoring as a method of helping people to learn, as distinct from coaching, which is a relatively directive means of increasing people’s competence. It involves learning on the job, which must always be the best way of acquiring the particular skills and knowledge the job holder needs. Mentoring also complements formal training by providing those who benefit from it with individual guidance from experienced managers who are ‘wise in the ways of the organization.

2.3.6 Systematic Training: Armstrong (2006) state that training should be systematic in that it is specifically designed, planned and implemented to meet defined needs. It is provided by people who know how to train and the impact of training is carefully evaluated. The concept was originally developed for the industrial training boards in the 1960s and consists of a simple four-stage model such as:

Identify training needs.
Decide what sort of training is required to satisfy these needs.
Use experienced and trained trainers to implement training.
Follow up and evaluate training to ensure that it is effective.

2.3.7 just-in-time Training: Just-in-time training is training that is closely linked to the pressing and relevant needs of people by its association with immediate or imminent work activities. It is delivered as close as possible to the time when the activity is taking place. The training is based on an identification of the latest requirements, priorities and plans of the participants, who are briefed on the live situations in which their learning has to be applied. The training programme takes account of any issues concerning the transfer of learning to the job, and aims to ensure that what is taught is seen to be applicable in the current work situation (Armstrong, 2010).

2.3.8 Bite-sized Training: Bite-sized training involves the provision of opportunities to acquire a speciﬁc skill or a particular piece of knowledge in a short training session that is focused on one activity such as using a particular piece of software, giving feedback, or handling an enquiry about a product or service of the company. It is often carried out through e-learning. It can be a useful means of developing a skill or understanding through a concentrated session or learning activity without diversions and is readily put to use in the workplace. But it can be weak in expanding individuals’ intellectual capacity and holistic (or ‘whole view’) understanding of the business – essential qualities to enable employees to respond creatively to the challenges of today’s knowledge economy. It can also be facile and too restricted and relies on the support of line managers, which is not always forthcoming. It is best for training employees in straightforward techniques that they can use immediately in their work or to complement, not replace, longer courses or developmental processes (Armstrong, 2009).

2.3.9 Human Relations Training: Human relations training embraces broad areas including leadership, small group processes, communications, formal and informal organizations, morale and motivation, and building work teams. This method purports to develop among participants an understanding among themselves so that they take into account the needs and aspirations of others. It stresses on attitudes and emotions, and develops leadership styles conducive to high morale and motivation. The human relations training is largely used with supervisors (Dwivedi, 2007).

2.4 Features of Learning and Development Strategy, Learning Culture, The Learning Organisation, Learning Theories, Contribution of Learning and Development to Organisational Performance, Comparison of Learning and Training.

2.4.1 Features of Learning and Development Strategy: A learning and development strategy should be business-led in the sense that it is designed to support the achievement of business goals by promoting human capital advantage. But it should also be people-led, which means taking into account the needs and aspiration of people to grow and develop. Achieving the latter aim, of course, supports the achievement of the former. Learning and development strategy is underpinned by a philosophy and its purpose is to operationalize that philosophy. It is fundamentally concerned with creating a learning culture that will encourage learning and will provide the basis for planning and implementing learning activities and programmes. This concept of a learning culture is associated with that of the learning organization (Armstrong, 2009).

2.4.2 Learning Culture: A learning culture is one that promotes learning because it is recognized by top management, line managers and employees generally as an essential organizational process to which they are committed and in which they engage continuously. Reynolds (2004) describes a learning culture as a ‘growth medium’, which will ‘encourage employees to commit to a range of positive discretionary behaviours, including learning’ and which has the following characteristics: empowerment not supervision, self-managed learning not instruction, long-term capacity building not short-term ﬁxes. He suggests that to create a learning culture it is necessary to develop organizational practices that raise commitment amongst employees and ‘give employees a sense of purpose in the workplace, grant employees opportunities to act upon their commitment, and offer practical support to learning (Reynolds, 2004).

2.4.3 The Learning Organisation: The concept of the learning organization has caught the imagination of many people since it was ﬁrst popularized by Senge (1990) who described it as follows: The learning organization is one ‘where people continually expand their capacity to create the results they truly desire, where new and expansive patterns of thinking are nurtured, where collective aspiration is set free, and where people are continually learning how to learn together. Pedler et al (1991) state that a learning organization is one ‘which facilitates the learning of all its members and continually transforms itself’. Wick and Leon (1995) refer to a learning organization as one that continually improves by rapidly creating and reﬁning the capabilities required for future success. As Harrison (2000) comments, the notion of the learning organization remains persuasive because of its ‘rationality, human attractiveness and presumed potential to aid organizational effectiveness and advancement’. However, Scarborough et al (1999) argue that ‘the dominant perspective of the learning organization concept is that of organization systems and design.

2.4.4 Learning Theories: There are a number of learning theories, each of which focuses on different aspects of the learning process as applied to people in general. The main theories are concerned with:

2.4.4a Reinforcement Theory: Reinforcement theory is based on the work of Skinner (1974). It expresses the belief that changes in behaviour take place as a result of an individual’s response to events or stimuli and the ensuing consequences (rewards or punishments). Individuals can be ‘conditioned’ to repeat the behaviour by positive reinforcement in the form of feedback and knowledge of results. This process is known as ‘operant conditioning. Gagne (1977) later developed his stimulus-response theory, which relates the learning process to a number of factors, including reinforcement, namely:

Drive – there must be a basic need or drive to learn.
Stimulus – people must be stimulated by the learning process.
Response – people must be helped by the learning process to develop appropriate responses, i.e. the knowledge, skills and attitudes that will lead to effective performance.
Reinforcement – these responses need to be reinforced by feedback and experience until they are learnt.

2.4.4b Cognitive Learning Theory: Cognitive learning involves gaining knowledge and understanding by absorbing information in the form of principles, concepts and facts and then internalizing it. Learners can be regarded as powerful information processing machines (Armstrong, 2009).

2.4.4c Experimental Learning Theory: People are active agents of their own learning (Reynolds et al, 2002). Experiential learning takes place when people learn from their experience by reﬂecting on it so that it can be understood and applied. Learning is therefore a personal ‘construction’ of meaning through experience. ‘Constructivists’ such as Rogers (1983) believe that experiential learning will be enhanced through facilitation – creating an environment in which people can be stimulated to think and act in ways that help them to make good use of their experience.

2.4.4 (d) Social Learning Theory: Social learning theory states that effective learning requires social interaction. Wenger (1998) suggested that we all participate in ‘communities of practice’ (groups of people with shared expertise who work together) and that these are our primary sources of learning. Bandura (1977) views learning as a series of information-processing steps set in train by social interactions.

2.4.5 Contribution of Learning and Development to Organisational Performance: Studies on the relationship between learning and development activities and organizational performance have included those by Benabou (1996) and Clarke (2004). The research by Benabou examined the impact of various training programmes on the business and ﬁnancial results at 50 Canadian organizations. The conclusion reached was that in most cases a well-designed training programme can be linked to improvements in business results and that return on investment in training programmes is very high. A national survey of training evaluation in specialized healthcare organizations (hospices) conducted by Clarke (2004) showed that while there appeared to be some links between training and performance it was not possible to reach ﬁrm conclusions about causality. However, the study reached the important ﬁnding that where organizations undertake assessment of their training and development (both formal and informal learning) then there is a greater belief in the positive impact training and development has in the organization. While it is possible and highly desirable to evaluate learning, establishing a link between learning and organizational performance is problematic. It may be difﬁcult to distinguish between cause and effect. Hendry and Pettigrew (1986) warn that it is risky to adopt simplistic views that training leads to improved business performance because it is more likely that successful companies will under certain conditions increase their training budget.

2.4.6 Comparison of Learning and Training: Learning should be distinguished from training. ‘Learning is the process by which a person constructs new knowledge, skills and capabilities, whereas training is one of several responses an organization can undertake to promote learning’ (Reynolds et al, 2002). The encouragement of learning makes use of a process model, which is concerned with facilitating the learning activities of individuals and providing learning resources for them to use. Conversely, the provision of training involves the use of a content model, which means deciding in advance the knowledge and skills that need to be enhanced by training, planning the programme, deciding on training methods and presenting the content in a logical sequence through various forms of instruction. A distinction is made by Sloman (2003) between learning, which ‘lies within the domain of the individual’ and training, which ‘lies within the domain of the organization’. Today the approach is to focus on individual learning and ensure that it takes place when required – ‘just-for-you’ and ‘just-in-time’ learning.

2.5 Formal and Informal Learning, The Spectrum of Learning from Informal to Formal, Motivation to Learn, E-learning, Blended Learning, Self-directed Learning, Evaluating Training and Transferring Training

2.5.1 Formal Learning: Formal learning is planned and systematic. It makes use of structured training programmes consisting of instruction and practice that may be conducted on- or off-the-job. Experience may be planned to provide opportunities for continuous learning and development. Formal learning and developmental activities may be used such as action learning, coaching, mentoring and outdoor learning (Armstrong, 2009).

2.5.2 Informal Learning: Informal learning is experiential learning. It takes place while people are learning on-the-job as they go along. Most learning does not take place in formal training programmes. People can learn 70 per cent of what they know about their job informally. A study by Eraut et al (1998) established that in organizations adopting a learner-centred perspective, formal education and training provided only a small part of what was learnt at work. Most of the learning described to the researchers was non-formal, neither clearly speciﬁed nor planned. It arose naturally from the challenges of work. Effective learning was, however, dependent on the employees’ conﬁdence, motivation and capability. Some formal training to develop skills (especially induction training) was usually provided, but learning from experience and other people at work predominated. Reynolds (2004) notes that: The simple act of observing more experienced colleagues can accelerate learning; conversing, swapping stories, cooperating on tasks and offering mutual support deepen and solidify the process. This kind of learning – often very informal in nature – is thought to be vastly more effective in building proﬁciency than more formalized training methods.

2.5.3 The Spectrum of Learning from Informal to Formal: The distinction between formal and informal learning may not always be precise. Watkins and Marsick (1993) described a spectrum of learning from informal to formal as follows:

unanticipated experiences and encounters that result in learning as an incidental by-product, which may or may not be consciously recognized;
new job assignments and participation in teams, or other job-related challenges that provide for learning and self-development;
self-initiated and self-planned experiences, including the use of media and seeking out a coach or mentor;
total quality or improvement groups/active learning designed to promote continuous learning for continuous improvement;
providing a framework for learning associated with personal development planning or career planning;
the combination of less-structured with structured opportunity to learn from these experiences;
designed programmes of mentoring, coaching or workplace learning;
formal training programmes or courses involving instruction

2.5.4 Motivation to Learn: People will learn more effectively if they are motivated to learn. The motivation to learn can be deﬁned as ‘those factors that energize and direct behavioural patterns organized around a learning goal’ (Rogers, 1996). As Reynolds et al (2002) comment, ‘The disposition and commitment of the learner – their motivation to learn – is one of the most critical factors affecting training effectiveness. Under the right conditions, a strong disposition to learn, enhanced by solid experience and a positive attitude, can lead to exceptional performance.

2.5.5 E-learning: E-learning was deﬁned by Pollard and Hillage (2001) as ‘the delivery and administration of learning opportunities and support via computer, networked and web-based technology to help individual performance and development’. E-learning enhances learning by extending and supplementing face-to-face learning rather than replacing it. It enables learning to take place when it is most needed (just in time as distinct from just in case) and when it is most convenient. Learning can be provided in short segments or bites that focus on speciﬁc learning objectives. It is ‘learner-centric’ in that it can be customized to suit an individual’s learning needs – learners can choose different learning objects within an overall package. The main potential drawbacks are the degree of access to computers, the need for a reasonable degree of literacy, the need for learners to be self-motivated, and the time and effort required to develop and update e-learning programmes (Pollard and Hillage, 2001).

2.5.6 Blended Learning: Blended learning combines online learning, face-to-face instruction, and other methods for distributing learning content and instruction. Blended learning courses provide learners with the positive features of both face-to-face instruction and technology-based delivery and instructional methods (such as online learning, distance learning, or mobile technologies while minimizing the negative features of each. In comparison to classroom delivery, blended learning provides increased learner control, allows for self-directedness, and requires learners to take more responsibility for their learning—all factors consistent with the recommendations of adult learning theory. In comparison to pure online learning, blended learning provides more face-to-face social interaction and ensures that at least some of the instruction is presented in a dedicated learning environment. Blended learning uses the classroom to allow learners to learn together and to discuss and share insights, which helps bring learning to life and make it meaningful. Blended learning has been found to be more effective than face-to-face instruction for motivating trainees to learn and for teaching declarative knowledge or information about ideas or topics. It appears that blended learning capitalizes on the positive learning features inherent in both face-to-face and Web-based instruction. Interestingly, learners react more favourably toward classroom instruction than blended learning. This may be because blended learning courses are more demanding, requiring a greater time commitment because of the use of two learning approaches (Noe, 2010).

2.5.7 Self-directed Learning: Self-directed or self-managed learning involves encouraging individuals to take responsibility for their own learning needs, either to improve performance in their present job or to develop their potential and satisfy their career aspirations. It can also be described as self-reﬂective learning (Mezirow, 1985), which is the kind of learning that involves encouraging individuals to develop new patterns of understanding, thinking and behaving. Self-directed learning can be based on a process of recording achievement and action planning that involves individuals reviewing what they have learnt, what they have achieved, what their goals are, how they are going to achieve those goals and what new learning they need to acquire. The learning programme can be ‘self-paced’ in the sense that learners can decide for themselves, up to a point, the rate at which they work and are encouraged to measure their own progress and adjust the programme accordingly (Mezirow, 1985).

2.5.8 Evaluating Training: Training should be evaluated several times during the process. Determine these milestones when you develop the training. Employees should be evaluated by comparing their newly acquired skills with the skills defined by the goals of the training program. Any discrepancies should be noted and adjustments made to the training program to enable it to meet specified goals. Many training programs fall short of their expectations simply because the administrator failed to evaluate its progress until it was too late. Timely evaluation will prevent the training from straying from its goals (Mahapatro, 2010).

2.5.9 Reasons for Evaluating Training: Companies are investing millions of dollars in training programs to help gain a competitive advantage. Companies invest in training because learning creates knowledge; often, it is this knowledge that distinguishes successful companies and employees from those who are not. Research summarizing the results of studies that have examined the linkage between training and human resource outcomes (attitudes and motivation, behaviours, human capital), organizational performance outcomes (performance and productivity), or financial outcomes (profits and financial indicators) has found that companies that conduct training are likely to have more positive human resource outcomes and greater performance outcomes. The influence of training is largest for organizational performance outcomes and human resource outcomes and weakest for financial outcomes. This result is not surprising, given that training can least affect an organization’s financial performance and may do so through its influence on human resource practices (Noe, 2010).

2.5.10 Transferring Training: Trainers should design training for the highest possible transfer from the class to the job. Transfer occurs when trainees actually use on the job what knowledge and information they learned in training. The amount of training that effectively gets transferred to the job is estimated to be relatively low, given all the time and money spent on training. It is estimated that about 40% of employees apply training to their jobs immediately after training. Among those who do not use the training immediately, the likelihood of it being used decreases over time. Effective transfer of training meets two conditions. First, the trainees can take the material learned in training and apply it to the job context in which they work. Second, employees maintain their use of the learned material over time. A number of things can increase the transfer of training. Offering trainees an overview of the training content and how it links to the strategy of the organization seems to help with both short-term and longer-term training transfer. Another helpful approach is to ensure that the training mirrors the job context as much as possible. For example, training managers to be better selection interviewers should include role-playing with “applicants” who respond in the same way that real applicants would. One of the most consistent factors in training transfer is the support new trainees receive from their supervisors to use their new skills when they return to the job. Supervisor support of the training, feedback from the supervisor, and supervisor involvement in training are powerful influences in transfer (Mathis and Jackson, 2011).

METHODOLOGY

Developing the knowledge capacity of medical personnel has a vital role in combating disease outbreak and addressing critical medical issues. Increasing such intellectual capital is important but retaining it posed several challenges since other countries desire trained and qualified medical personnel and are ready to offer attractive employment contract, which their home countries could not afford to pay and as a result, these countries experience brain drain. The retention aspect of trained and qualified medical personnel is not the focus of this research. This study seeks to assess the significance of training and developing medical personnel in the three West African countries and to examine its effects on post Ebola recovery in the health systems. The thrust for this qualitative research led to the retrieval of information from secondary sources published on the subject matter which will be critically examined in order to establish meaningful conclusion.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Training and staff development has a key role in enhancing employee performance. Competitive advantage is achieved as a result of employees’ outstanding performance which is stimulated by the knowledge that resides in them. An organisation that embarks on developing staff intellectual capital is always seen to be the most successful and its operations are sustained in a competitive arena. Achieving strategic objectives has been and will continue to be the desire of every organisation whether private or public and such desire can only be attained if companies consider the relevance of investing in training and development.

The implementation of a training programme requires an assessment of the need for such training which includes organisational analysis which describes the relevance of the training towards organisations strategic objectives, task analysis which discloses the knowledge capacity an employee should possess to be able to perform a specific task and person analysis which identifies the employee that needs training. The aforementioned should be properly analysed in order to determine a successful implementation of a training programme. Also, organisations should be able to establish facts about the employee’s readiness for a training since unpleasant attitude towards training will result to fruitless endeavour.

Organisations should distinguish its training programme since certain skills can be learnt on-the-job whereas others can only be attained through external or off-the-job training. Training conducted on-the-job should be effective and facilitators or tutors administering such programmes must ensure that trainees grasp the content delivered and can demonstrate positive outcome in its implementation on the job. Coaching and mentoring helps in the conduct of training within the organisation and also human relations training shapes an employee’s relationship with colleagues in order to maintain harmonious working relationship and foster team spirit which leads to organisation’s growth. Off-the-job training programmes are most times conducted in situations wherein an organisation does not have the capacity to facilitate a particular training and as a result, hire training consultant or sends employees to training establishments for further capacity building.

Learning is a culture organisations should imbibe and a learning organisation progresses and serves as a model to rivals firms. Organisational performance in a competitive environment is determined by its commitment in learning and discovering new skills, competences and technologies that makes them distinct. Organisations must ensure that it develops a learning strategy (the path way) that leads towards the successful implementation of what has been taught.

Selecting the best method of learning that suits a particular situation and addresses a critical work challenge is of paramount importance. Employees should be motivated to learn so that their performance will be outstanding. Even though some are intrinsically motivated, but also the extrinsic aspect stimulates them and reinforces the intrinsic. Whatever training or learning method used, it should be followed by an evaluation process to ascertain its impact either negatively or positively and must also ensure that it is effectively transferred to the job.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

Training and developing the knowledge capacity of medical personnel is relevant in every nation as it helps to improve their performance level and minimise critical medical issues and can also be able to contain unexpected outbreaks. The secondary information retrieved from sources published on the subject matter was critically examined and such content disclosed the significance of training and developing medical personnel. Facts analysed establish that the successful implementation of organisations activities requires diligent workforce, which is empowered by the relevant training and development programme. Sources further disclosed that training and developing medical personnel in Sierra Leone, Guinea and Liberia has a positive effect on post Ebola recovery in the health systems, since the major problem identified in containing the spread of the virus was as a result of lack of sufficient knowledge capacity in the health systems and that trained and developed medical personnel will prevent such spread in the future. Also, a well-trained and developed medical team will be able to forecast and identify unforeseen medical issues in which mechanisms will be put in place to combat identified experiments.

This study emanated from a qualitative perspective and restricted its data collection from secondary sources. Nevertheless, further research could be conducted on similar study, using both primary and secondary data in order to ascertain first-hand information and describe specific components of training and development.

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A. INNOVATIVE STATEMENT

B. PROBLEM STATEMENT

C. ADDRESSING THE PROBLEM

D. OUTCOMES

E. LESSONS LEARNT

F. SUSTAINABILITY

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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5.1 Limitations and Direction For The Future Research

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