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The Usage of Symbols, Imagery, Allegory and Dreamlike Portrayals in C.S. Lewis’ The Lion, The Witch and The Wardrobe and their Allusions

Mr Kishore Kumar Gopoji

Research Scholar (English), Department of English, Arts College,

Osmania University, Hyderabad.

Abstract

C.S. Lewis’s “The Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobe” is a masterpiece that incorporates biblical themes and symbolism to convey profound meaning. The story revolves around four children named Ann, Martin, Rose, and Peter, who are relocated from London due to air raids. The story begins with a “continuous precipitation” that prompts the children to explore Narnia, where Lucy, a character reminiscent of John, is portrayed as a symbol of moral righteousness. The protagonist’s name remains undisclosed in the novel Lion, but in The Magician’s Nephew, it is revealed that the protagonist is Digory Kirke, a surname significant to Lewis. The children indirectly discover their path to Aslan’s country through a church.

The story highlights the importance of storytelling and symbolism in conveying biblical truths. In the Chronicles of Narnia, the petrified beings are resurrected by the great lion, Aslan, symbolising the end of the Winter and the advent of Spring. The presence of talking beasts and centaurs and the transformation of ordinary people into kings and queens is another powerful example of Lewis’ surrealistic symbolism. The children embrace Lewis’ writings for their engrossing portrayals, depictions, and narrations. The Chronicles of Narnia by C.S. Lewis is a captivating literary work exploring fantasy, folklore, and thrill themes. The story revolves around the lion, Aslan, who is encircled by various beings engaging in physical aggression, verbal abuse, and derogatory gestures against him. The protagonist, Aslan, experiences demise and is engulfed by many beings, including mice and Aesop’s fable. As the White Witch indicates, the Stone Table has a historical association with sacrificial rituals, representing death. The story also features the celestial body, Venus, symbolising the imminent resurrection. The resurrection of Aslan occurs at the exact moment that the sun’s edge emerges on the horizon, and the Stone Table breaks, symbolising the conclusion of the law. The character Edmund undergoes a restorative process to address his physical injuries and facilitate his emotional and spiritual recovery. Despite being authored by an Oxford scholar, the Chronicles lacks favorability towards educational institutions, resulting in long-term psychological and emotional distress. The lion, the witch, and the wardrobe are symbols of fantasy, myth, and religion, reflecting the magical world of Narnia.

Keywords: Lion, Aslan, Narnia, Witch, White Witch, Chronicles of Narnia, Father Christmas

Introduction

C.S. Lewis has undoubtedly achieved honour and fame that made him immortal today. Even seven decades after his life, his name is remembered far more exceedingly than his own time.

Lewis’ imaginative writings overpower his readers by inducing a vivid and dramatic visualisation into their reading, displacing them from their real world into an arena of fantasy, folklore and thrill. He surpassed his contemporaries in his literary achievements through a genre that would have been felt absurd by the people of his time and age. Hence, his reputation, fame and glory outlived him.

The literary work titled “The Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobe” (hence referred to as “Lion”) can be identified as the most prominently influenced by biblical themes among the seven Chronicles. It effectively incorporates several motifs about Christ’s suffering, death, and resurrection.

Symbolism is employed by the author in the literary work titled ‘The Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobe’ (LWW). By strategically using symbols, the author effectively conveys a deeper layer of meaning within the narrative that may not be readily apparent upon initial examination. Lewis sought to convey a more profound significance through the utilisation of symbols. This article examines how the author’s symbolism conveys several scenarios in the literary work “The Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobe.”

Lewis chose to tell the children the fundamental Christian truths through “allegories”.

Lewis creates scenes so dreamlike and fascinating to the perception of his readers. The genesis of the narrative can be traced back to a series of visual depictions, namely a faun in possession of an umbrella, a regal queen on a sledge, and a majestic lion. Initially, no inherent Christian essence was associated with them; rather, the Christian element gradually inserted itself autonomously. In relation to the topic (Of Stories 46), it is worth noting.

When Lewis attempted to construct a narrative using these images in 1939, there seemed to be a lack of biblical connotations: “This literary work revolves around four individuals named Ann, Martin, Rose, and Peter.” However, the primary focus of the discussion revolves around Peter, who is identified as the youngest individual in the given context (Hooper 29-30). There are two notable distinctions between this version and the original opener penned by Lewis during the late 1940s.

Discussion

In the past, a group of four individuals was identified as Peter, Susan, Edmund, and Lucy (1). In the initial endeavour, it can be inferred that Ann would have likely been the eldest, a position that typically entails some leadership obligations. However, the modification places Peter in leadership, a function that Lewis consistently believed should be held by a male. Furthermore, when the children assume the role of Aslan’s “disciples” to a significant extent within the narrative, the alteration of names serves to establish a connection between Peter (who eventually becomes the “High King”) and Peter, the recognised leader of the apostles in our reality.

The decision to relocate the four children from London and arrange their accommodation with a solitary professor during wartime was grounded in real-life circumstances. According to the story, Lewis and his household accommodated multiple youngsters from London due to the air raids. The commencement of the adventures is triggered by the occurrence of a “continuous precipitation”, which compels the youngsters to embark on an exploration of the abode, described as “the type of dwelling that appears to lack a definitive conclusion…” (4). In his autobiography, Lewis reflects on his upbringing, describing himself as a byproduct of extended hallways and secluded attics that he would explore during solitary moments, particularly on long afternoons marked by rainfall (Joy, p. 10).

Jesus was accompanied by a select group of three disciples, Peter, James, and John, who constituted an inner circle. These individuals were privileged to see significant events, such as the Transfiguration and the prayer in the Garden of Gethsemane, which the remaining apostles did not witness. It is not overly imaginative to perceive Peter, Susan, and Lucy as analogous to these three individuals. Given Lewis’s lack of initial intention to create a sequel, he was unaware that Susan would eventually depart from the disciples during this period. If Peter might be seen as a parallel to the apostle Peter, while Lucy can be seen as a parallel to John, the disciple who is often referred to as “the one whom Jesus loved” in the Book of John (20:2, 21:7…).

In the series, Lucy has the highest level of commitment to moral righteousness, and she is the individual who experiences the most frequent encounters with Aslan, demonstrating the utmost affection and care. It is probable that the choice of her name was influenced by Owen Barfield’s daughter, to whom Lewis dedicated the book with much fondness, referring to himself as her “affectionate Godfather.” Owen Barfield served as a longstanding legal counsel and close companion to Lewis.

In the conversation between Lucy and Tumnus, Lucy informs Tumnus that she has accessed Narnia by means of the wardrobe located in the spare room. In response, Tumnus characterises Lucy as the one hailing from “the distant realm of Spare Oom, where an everlasting summer prevails in proximity to the illustrious metropolis of War Drobe” (11). According to Brian Sibley, a potential reference to this concept can be found in Edith Nesbitt’s work titled “The Aunt and Anabel,” where the enchanted realm is accessed through a location referred to as the “Big wardrobe in the spare room” (Land of Narnia 21).

Lucy in LWW, gets talked into accepting the fawn’s invitation of having some hot chocolate at his humble abode. The fawn’s intention was a malicious one of taking the child to be delivered into the hands of the White Witch of Narnia. He plays his flute and lulls Lucy to sleep. After sometime she wakes up to realize the fawn is with a treacherous intent to deceive and harm her. She cries to let the fawn know how she thought him as her friend. For a moment her trust in friendship is shattered. However, the fawn gets moved in his heart by the little child’s purity, love and naiveté. He sets her free cautioning her never to return to Narnia. With a sense of gratitude and as a person filled with love, Lucy hugs him and walks out and away from there to see her siblings engrossed in playing hide and seek. For her she’s gone for many hours. However, to her two brothers and sister, she’s just gone for a few minutes. All this part of the story from The Lion the Witch and the Wardrobe seems like in a dream. Escape from a modern world and abrupt cum unexpected encounter  of Lewis’s characters with Narnia makes it an easy trade for him to illustrate the scenes by transforming them into a dreamlike setting.

Upon being informed of Lucy’s extraordinary account of Narnia, Peter and Susan promptly approach the professor with whom they are currently residing, expressing their apprehension. In the novel Lion, the protagonist’s name remains undisclosed, possibly because to Lewis’ lack of determination at the time. However, in The Magician’s Nephew, it is revealed that the protagonist is named Digory Kirke, a surname that holds significant significance for Lewis. The term “Kirk” is derived from Old Norse and Scottish languages, and it refers to a place of worship, specifically a church. Consequently, the children, however indirectly, discover their path to Aslan’s country by means of the church.

Professor Kirke prompts the youngsters to logically analyse Lucy’s story, presenting them with a limited set of three potential outcomes. There are three possible explanations for your sister’s behaviour: she may be engaging in deceit, experiencing a mental health issue, or conveying accurate information. It is evident that she is a person of integrity since she consistently demonstrates honesty, and there are no indications of any mental instability. In the absence of other proof, it is necessary to assume that she is being truthful (45).

In their dreams, people encounter incidents indescribable and at times, bizarre. In a dream, one can go to the ends of the world or maybe to places across their country or even continent and experience being a part of an event that they are desperate for or most afraid of. In these two cases, obsession is the reason for their respective experience through a dream. Lewis makes his readers experience such dream-like situations in his books which are beyond the perception to a common mind. Differential time lapse is an ingenious invention by Lewis. A few minutes in our world can be many hours in Narnia. A year on earth can be a thousand years in Narnia. Lewis undoubtedly synthesised this differential lapse of time concept from the Bible, which says a 1000 days to humans is as one day to God and vice versa. This very concept helped Lewis to create the dream-like Narnian experience for both the readers and to his characters alike in the story. 

We come across people getting petrified due to the wrath of a god or a goddess in the ancient epics, globally, almost in every ethnicity. Fairy tales and folklores relevant to such an incident are numerous. Such tales are neither unknown nor uncommon.   Even the Bible tells us of Lot’s wife, who became a pillar of salt as she broke God’s command not to look back. Maybe Lewis draws his idea from that part of the Bible. Everyone who disobeys the witch’s command is turned into a stone by her magical power. This, too is dreamlike to the readers, while being scary simultaneously. Just as in the ancient epics, when the curse is lifted, the petrified person gets back their life and human form; in Chronicles of Narnia, the petrified beings, both humans and animals, get resurrected from temporary death or petrification. Here their life is resuscitated by the true king of Narnia, the great lion, Aslan. He breathes over the faces of the statutes to resurrect them. Lewis attributes such a power to the “profound magic” of Narnia. This, too is dreamlike. 

As the two beavers lead the four Pevensies across the frozen land of Narnia to meet with Aslan, as they are about to reach their destiny, the sudden melting of ice over the waterbody and everywhere else also is so surrealistic. It symbolises the end of the Winter and the advent of the Spring. Percy Bysshe Shelley’s West Wind line, “if winter comes, can spring be far behind?” represents that good days will come after bad times. Lewis might be applying the same symbolism to indicate that the bad days under the regime of the White Witch will soon be gone. The abrupt melting of snow in Narnia indicates that the cold rule of Queen Jadis shall end and will be overtaken by the great lion. 

Besides the above, the presence of talking beasts and centaurs and the transformation of ordinary folks such as Pevensies in the Kingdom of Narnia into kings and queens too is a powerful example of Lewis’ surrealistic symbolism which he employs throughout his Narnia books. Such illustrations entice the readers and leave on them a powerful and mesmerising impact. Here, his readers are the children. Hence, they embrace Lewis’ writings for his engrossing portrayals, depictions and narrations. One of the key sources he employs amongst the others is magic which is deeply rooted in the land of Narnia.

 The myth of Santa-claus bringing toys as gifts to the children across the world during Christmas season is fortified by Lewis through the narration of Father Christmas bringing gifts to the four Pevensies. However, on the contrary to gifts of peace, Lewis uses him to bring tools of defence, weapons of warfare for his prominent characters. Such a thing is strange, uncanny and unbelievable to the readers. Hence, the incident can be treated as the one with surrealistic traits. 

Magic is one element that is common throughout the books of Narnia. This is one other thing that helped Lewis master the art of producing fantasy works in fascinating, realistic and enthralling ways. Many of the magical acts that take the reader in awe, spell-bind them and swing them into a dreamlike setting seem so realistic. However, they are far displaced from reality while being surrealistic simultaneously. 

The youngsters are informed by Mr. Beaver of Aslan, the Christ-like character depicted in the Chronicles. Aslan is appropriately represented as a lion due to the lion’s longstanding designation as the “king of beasts” (as stated by Mr. Beaver, with a capitalised “K,” in the eighth chapter). Furthermore, the phrase “Lion of the tribe of Judah” is among the appellations used in the Bible to refer to Christ. This may be observed in Revelation 5:5, where Christ is depicted as using his authority by successfully unsealing seven previously intact seals. According to a letter from 1952, C.S. Lewis obtained the term “Aslan,” which is the Turkish word for lion, from Edward Lane’s translation of Arabian Nights (Letters to Children 29).

According to Mr Beaver, four thrones await human monarchs at Cair Paravel, a coastal city that is intended to function as the capital of Narnia. The etymology of the city’s name potentially derives from a phonetically extended form of the term “caravel.” Caravels emerged as a type of sailing vessel during the fifteenth century in Europe. It is worth noting that two out of the three ships utilised by Columbus, comprising his flagship, were caravels (Chamberlin 29). Furthermore, the term “Cair” originated from Old Norse and was then adopted into Middle English, denoting the action of “going.” The Old Norse element “Andros” was employed sporadically in creating place names, as shown in J. R. R. Tolkien’s utilisation of it in the designation of Cair Andros, an island featured in The Return of the King (103).

The beavers and the children hastily escape from the witch as they traverse the rural landscape, ultimately encountering Father Christmas. Tolkien expressed strong disapproval towards this particular figure, perceiving it as an encroachment of mythical elements into a narrative segment about the advent of Christ in human history.

The encounter of Edmund with the White Witch of Narnia is fantastic and so obsessive. Edmund’s desire for the dessert Turkish Delight is fulfilled in a snap. The witch’s intention was that the boy would certainly fulfil her desire of bringing all his siblings to Narnia. Edmund agrees to it. However, he breaks his promise. Instead of keeping his promise, he ignores it and doesn’t reveal anything related to it to anyone. Hence, the witch wants to capture the four Pevensies.In this pursuit, she sends a pack of wolves which are cruel beasts and totally submissive to her as a slave is to its master. However, they fail since now the Pevensies are armed with the weapons of warfare brought by Father Christmas and gifted to them. Due to the victory, the four children had against the wolves, they have a safe passage to Narnia.

Father Christmas bestows presents upon the children, that, in a manner reminiscent of a mingling, bear some resemblance to the spiritual gifts bestowed upon the church. Peter is provided with a shield and a sword. The verse in Ephesians 6, commonly known as the “full armour of God,” designates the shield as faith and the sword as the word of God.                                                                                                                   The meeting between the great lion, Aslan and Peter, Susan, Edmund and Lucy is surreal. Who would talk to a lion in one’s real life? It’s exceptionally far from human imagination. Such a thing is possible alone in a dream.

Upon their collective arrival in Narnia, the four youngsters boldly announce the formidable presence of Queen Jadis, often known as the White Witch. They are accompanied by her loyal wolf police commander, Fenris Ulf. In British editions, the character is called Maugrim, a name with clear implications of “grim maw,” denoting a ferocious mouth. “Jadis” originates from French and means “belonging to a previous era or time.” With the arrival of the four, a great peril is due in Narnia. Since the witch could not capture and captivate them, she herself arrives at the great lion’s abode. She’s unwelcome there, no matter how strong and demanding her reason is. She complains about Edmund’s betrayal. For the three to be set free, Edmund has to be sacrificed on the stone table since he is a deceiver. Here, the story takes a  twist. Aslan takes Edmund’s place. This is precisely what the witch desperately desires. To kill the true King of Narnia so she could usurp the throne and rule unopposedly. 

Upon the witch’s confrontation with Aslan, she invokes the concept of the “Deep Magic,” asserting her claim over every traitor as her rightful prey and asserting her entitlement to murder for each act of treachery (Lewis 1:39). The statement appears to allude indirectly to Romans 6:23, which states that “the consequence of sin is death.” The term “lawful” is suitably selected in this context, as the magic inscribed on the Stone Table is symbolic of the stipulations outlined in the Old Testament law. Additionally, it is worth noting that in American copies predating 1994, the phrase “the World Ash Tree” is included, representing a fusion of Norse mythology with Christian influences. The Stone Table, as indicated by the White Witch, has a historical association with sacrificial rituals, thus representing death. 

The witch informs Aslan that, as a consequence of Edmund’s betrayal, the law of Narnia mandates the offering of blood, which can be interpreted as a direct allusion to various passages, including Hebrews 9:22. This biblical verse states that the majority of things are cleansed according to the law through the act of bloodshed, emphasising that forgiveness cannot be attained without the shedding of blood. If this objective is not achieved, Narnia will face destruction by the combined forces of fire and water. This allusion to the biblical narratives of Noah’s deluge and the anticipated ultimate annihilation of the earth by fire would likely resonate with readers familiar with biblical literature.

In this particular incident, Edmund experiences a sense of obligation to express himself or take action. However, shortly thereafter, he perceives that he does not need to engage in any activity except to remain patient.(140). Although it may seem rather imaginative, John Milton was prominent among Lewis’ preferred authors. The final word, in conjunction with the conveyed concept, resembles the conclusion of Milton’s poem regarding his loss of sight: “They also serve who just stand and wait.” According to Milton (168).

The lion will be sacrificed on the stone table representing the cross on which Lord Jesus Christ gets sacrificed for the songs of the world. Jesus is crucified to erase the sins of Adam and his progeny. Similarly, Aslan the Lion is also sacrificed for the same sins as the progeny of Adam, namely Edmund and his siblings. As death could not rule over Christ, it could not rule over Aslan. Since Aslan is innocent and sinless, his life is restored to him as per the rule of Narnia, which the Witch was unaware of. Ultimately, she is baffled to see the resurrected lion, Aslan, who was her doom, death and annihilation of her evil kingdom. In this context, Edmund is the sin that Aslan bore. Aptly, Lewis does not impart deception to all Narnian beasts as well by limiting it to the children of Adam, the four humans. Edmund keeps it a secret, whereas the other three family members are unaware of what he has done and promised the evil woman. Edmund is the representation of sin of the progeny of Adam, whereas the Lion and the Witch are representations of Lord Jesus Christ and the devil, respectively. The Lion, Edmund, Witch, and the stone table are all powerful symbols Lewis employs.

The fourteenth chapter of the Chronicles, titled “Lion, Aslan’s Passion,” exhibits a significant amount of biblical allusion. The identification of parallels in this particular segment necessitates acknowledgement rather than commentary. Therefore, I will proceed to enumerate them in a straightforward manner. Firstly, I will provide the similarities found in the Lion section, followed by the corresponding counterpart passage from the Bible.

Finally, Peter replied, “However, you will be present there, Aslan.” The Lion responded by stating, “I cannot provide any assurance over that matter.” (143)

Simon Peter said unto him, “Lord, whither goest thou?” Jesus answered him, “”Whither I go, thou canst not follow me now.” (John 13:36)

(Aslan speaking) *I am sad and lonely. Lay your hands on my mane so that I can feel you are there, and let us walk like that.” (147)

Then saith he [Jesus] unto them, “‘ My soul is exceeding sorrowful, even unto death: tarry ye here, and watch with me.” ( Matthew. 26:38)

Had the Lion chosen, one of those paws could have been the death of them all. (149)

“Thinkest thou that I cannot now pray to my Father, and he shall presently give me more than twelve legions of angels?” (Matthew. 26:53)

But he made no noise. (150)

But Jesus held his peace. (Matthew. 26:63)

Rapidly, he found himself encircled by a multitude of beings engaging in physical aggression, verbal abuse, and derogatory gestures against him. Subsequently, they proceeded to spew saliva across his visage and subject him to physical blows. The biblical passage in question is Matthew 26:67. The individuals who detained Jesus engaged in derision and physical assault against him. (Luke 22:63)

In the concluding section of the chapter, the character Aslan experiences demise. During the nocturnal hours, Susan and Lucy endeavour to release him from his restraints, though they prove unsuccessful. This event resembles the narrative in Mark 16:3, wherein the ladies en route to the tomb realise that they will have difficulty displacing the stone. In both the fiction and the Bible, it is observed that the groups exhibiting concern about the body are predominantly comprised of females. However, a group of mice emerges that can chew through the ropes, effectively resolving the predicament presented in the plot. This development also serves to include Aesop’s fable into the narrative simultaneously. The female individuals see that as the break of day approaches, the stars gradually diminish in brightness, except for a single prominent star positioned at a lower point on the Eastern horizon (156-7). In our contemporary society, the celestial body referred to as Venus, sometimes known as the morning star, assumes the role of Aslan, symbolising the imminent resurrection. This allusion draws parallels to Christ’s self-identification in Revelation 22:16 referred to as “the bright and morning star”.

The resurrection of Aslan takes place at the precise moment that the sun’s edge emerges on the horizon (158).

During Aslan’s resurrection, the Stone Table breaks, serving as a symbolic representation of the conclusion of the law. This occurrence may also draw parallels to the breaking of the temple veil, as described in the Gospel of Matthew 27:51. Similar to the apostles mentioned in Luke 24:37, who had the belief that they had encountered a spiritual being, Susan contemplates the possibility of Aslan being a spectre. Aslan’s retort, “Do I appear to possess such qualities?” can be identified as one of his less formal utterances within the Chronicles. The subsequent retrieval of the sculptures aligns with the conventional concept of the Harrowing of Hell, a theological belief prevalent in mediaeval and Renaissance eras. Following his death, this doctrine posits that Jesus liberated the souls of the Jewish ancestors who had passed away before his arrival.

Conclusion

Towards the conclusion of the literary work, as the ultimate conflict draws to a close, Edmund undergoes a restorative process, wherein he is administered a small quantity of the healing potion to address his physical injuries and facilitate his emotional and spiritual recovery. This occurrence potentially alludes to a biblical reference found in James 5:15, which states, “And the prayer of faith shall save the sick, and the Lord shall raise him up; and if he has committed sins…” Lucy observes that Edmund’s current appearance is the most favourable since his initial enrollment at the unpleasant institution, where he started deviating from the right path (177). Despite being authored by an Oxford scholar, the Chronicles lack favorability towards educational institutions. As evident to any reader of the autobiographical work titled “Surprised by Joy,” Lewis strongly disliked his experiences throughout his time in school. The autobiography of an individual in his fifties allocates a significant portion, precisely 40%, to recounting his intense aversion towards the educational institution. This experience has left a lasting impact on the individual, resulting in long-term psychological and emotional distress. Notably, the first chapter dedicated to this topic is titled “Concentration Camp,” further emphasising the severity of the individual’s negative perception of his schooling experience. The Chronicles benefit from the limited inclusion of references to Lewis’s education, as these sections are not very favourable regarding literary quality or coherence.

The Chronicles prominently features the Lion character, which can be interpreted as having strong biblical and Norse influences.

This intriguing attribute brings to light an aspect of Lewis that has been previously disregarded.

Although it is true that the individual in question combines photos from several sources, Lewis typically chooses a majority of images that are somehow related to the book’s setting and/or theme. In the context of a warm and wet climate, such as the Caspian region, Lewis incorporates many Greek features. Conversely, in a warm and dry climate, like that of Horse, he incorporates several aspects influenced by Arabian and Turkish cultures. The narrative of Lion mostly takes place within the Narnian realm, and a significant chunk of the story unfolds within the perpetual winter imposed by the witch. To align with the atmosphere of the narrative, Lewis incorporates a higher quantity of Norse components than is typically observed. Lewis adeptly combines a diverse range of aspects in each of his books, with the bulk of these elements enhancing the overall setting.

References

1. Chamberlin, E. R. Everyday Life in Renaissance Times. New York: G P. Putnam’s Sons,1965.

2. Davidson, H. R. Ellis. Gods and Myths of Northern Europe. New York: Penguin, 1964.

3.DiCesare, Mario A., ed. George Herbert and the Seventeenth-Century Religious Poets. New York: Norton, 1978.

4. Hooper, Walter. Past Watchful Dragons. New York: Macmillan, 1979.

5. Lewis, C. S, The Horse and His Boy. New York, Macmillan, 1954

7. —. Letters to Children. Ed. Lyle W. Dorsett and Marjorie Lamp Mead. New York: Macmillan, 1985

8. —. The Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobe. New York: Macmillan, 1950.

9. —. Mere Christianity, Rev. ed. New York: Macmillan, 1952

10. —. Surprised by Joy. New York: Harcourt Brace, 1954.

11. —. On Stories. Ed. Walter Hooper. New York: Harcourt Brace, 1982.

12. Milton, John. Complete Poems and Major Prose. Ed. Merritt Y. Hughes Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1957.

13. Sibley, Brian. The Land of Narnia. New York: HarperCollins, 1990.

14. Sturluson, Snorri. The Prose Edda. Trans. Jean 1. Young Cambridge: Bowes and Bowes, 1954.

15. Tolkien, J, R. R. The Return of the King. New York: Ballantine, 1965.

P. H. Newby’s Something to Answer For: A Rare Post- Colonial Text Decoding Different Shades of Colonialism which Fails to Answer about Accountability 

Dr. Krishna Kant Singh

Professor of English

P. G. Dept. of English

Veer Kunwar Singh University, Ara

Abstract: 

This paper aims to study the dual role of the imperialism during colonial period in different parts of the world. P. H. Newby who is highly critical of the role of the British empire, tries to show the lack of responsibility and accountability as well as mindset of the rulers busy in exploiting innocent people of the colonized country. His novel Something to Answer For seems to be the real embodiment of such critical expression dealing with his motive to explore various dimension in this regard.

Keywords: Imperialism, Colonialism, Colonial, Colonized, Expression, Dimension Accountability, Responsibility 

 Percy Howard Newby (1918 – 1997) was an English novelist and broadcasting administrator. He was the first winner of the Booker Prize for his novel Something to Answer For in 1969, also the year of the beginning of the Booker Prize. He was a voluminous writer during his long span of time. He wrote more than twenty novels during his career. His novels do not increase only volumes but have the wonderful quality of creativity the novelist has tried to maintain all the time. In all his novels, P. H. Newby has presented human life with some hidden truth combined with literary beauty and grace. At the same time, he has also raised some of the important issues of the modern world related to international relations and the impact of two World Wars. His wonderful way of creativity enables him to see the world in different perspectives. 

            Something to Answer For is a wonderful novel by P. H. Newby in which he has beautifully and remarkably presented the emotional breakdown of the widow who is in search of the heritage of her husband Elie Khoury and did not take pain to travel a distant land to know something about him. In her search, she met with several persons and came across with different incidents which are full of emotions and passions. About the wonderful quality of narration in this novel, a critic rightly observes in Times Literary Supplement in these words:

An absorbing feat of narrative ingenuity, a study of psychological disorientation which traces its plot – line with immense skill and resource through the mist of the mental confusion which besets its main character. The book is brilliantly resourceful entertainment. 

            The plot of the novel is well – knit and the story – line is not so much complicated because the setting of the novel which is quite universal in nature. There is a wonderful correspondence between the title and the plot because the question of responsibility as well as accountability has been incorporated with great perfection. The novel puts the basic question that everyone must be accountable for his or her action and one should not deny at all his or her accountability. If anyone belongs to the particular nation, he must be influenced by the deeds as well actions of the rulers of the particular country. Newby, in this wonderful book, does not hesitate to discover the relationship between the colonizer and the colonized, and above all he seems to be criticizing the English rulers for their nature of exploitation. He seems to be the bold writer. About his this quality, a critic writes in Paris Review in these words:

“Graham Greene called him a fine writer who has never had the full recognition that he deserves, “and that is as true now as it was in Newby’s lifetime. ‘Something to Answer For’ boasts a wonderful sense of place.”

            In this novel, P. H. Newby beautifully incorporated the events after the Second World War which affected the world politics. The novel is set in Egypt in 1956, during the Suez Crisis. The problems occurred after the Second World War had changed the entire scenario of the world. The novel would like to unfold some of the hidden truths related to world politics. In the novel, the nationalization of Suez Canal by President Nasser forms the major issue. President Nasser nationalized the canal and Egypt took control of an extremely important asset from the British and French. The Egyptians offered compensation but the British and French suspected the move which would reduce their influence in the region, while the Egyptians did like the thought that western countries wished to continue colonialism. Israel attacked Egypt after secret talks with England and France, perceiving Egypt as a possible threat, and England and France also invaded. America, concerned that Russia would take sides with Egypt, pressured England and France into a ceasefire and pursued a resolution through the United Nations.

            The narrative of the novel is full of thrills because of the travelling of the memory of the characters all the time. Here, past and present run simultaneously with sudden stroke. Mrs. K. has her own agenda to know about the death of her husband while Townrow has his own agenda. However, things do not quite go according to the plan for Townrow. In a stopover in Italy on his way to Egypt he meets an Israeli reporter who asks him why the British did not warn the Jews against getting on the German trains in World War II. In effect, the reporter blames the English for the magnitude of the Holocaust. Townrow cannot accept that this is true but is nevertheless bothered by the implication that England is a country without higher ideals. He has critical opinion regarding the attitude of the English people for not behaving rightly at many times. He says in these words:

   In the U. K. you trusted people. In the main you took it for granted people acted decently. You made an assumption about the man who sat next to you on the tube. You did not know for sure. You just assumed. Well, if you did not make assumptions like that how could you trust in the government? Townrow wanted to tell Mrs. K. that trust is big things started with personal relations. (p. 43)

            In the character of Townrow, Newby puts so many things altogether. His character gives opportunity to the novelist to make his own opinion on several issues altogether. His character has everything – thrill, fascination, imagination, confusion, contrast, controversy, dilemma, etc. And all these characteristics make him quite unique also. But at many times. Townrow is not able to control the narrative and it happens due to disorientation in his personality.

            Apart from the conversation between Townrow and Mrs K., the book is full of other remarks also which throw light on the contemporary situation of European politics. After the Second World War, some new assumptions came into existence because of the division of opinions the controlling power of time. All these external remarks are also centred around the approach of Townrow and Mrs. K.

            But at many places in the novel, Townrow’s expressions give the true impression of contemporary politics. He often talks about the expression of Churchill who believes that Egyptians were an inferior race and their attitude finds casual expression in the novel. Similarly at one place, the novelist writes about the same view in these words: 

The Egyptians and the Irish have a fellow feeling. They are both victims of British imperialism and one and once your estate is in my name they’d no more think of sequestrating it than the rock of Cashel itself, assuming it was on Egyptian territory and occupied by the Irish Ambassador. It makes no difference at all that there is no Irish Embassy in Cairo. A citizen of the Irish Republic always gets a welcome at the American Embassy, you know. (p. 67)

            Right from the beginning of the story, Townrow’s character is full of confusion and contrast. Sometime, he is himself responsible for making confusing remarks and putting himself in that danger. Very early in the story, he is beaten up, suffering a head injury. While this might explain at the plot why Townrow confuses many matters, it does not explain the importance of Townrow’s difficulties for what the novel has to say about personal as well as nation morality at many times. The novelist writes about Townrow’s problems in these words: 

Townrow was not at his best talking to Mrs K. He was not at his best talking to any women. There were so many unsaid things to remember. Nowadays people talked a lot of cant about the equality of men and women. The fact was though, that Mrs. K. had been dispossessed of her flat because she was a woman and he was a man. (p. 71)

            The novel seems to be a typical modern text in which various thematic perceptions are assigned to decode modern life in the context of modern assumptions. The novel seems to be a post – colonial text in which modern problems related to human existence have been analysed with and contrast. This aspect of the novel reminded us of Kafka and the pointlessness of, for example, trying to explain exactly what Joseph K. may have been arrested for, or the labyrinthine machinations of the legal system which holds him. The whole point is to be confused as he is, surely. We wondered whether Newby, himself may have been influenced by Kafka or not, that is the big question. But the impression which has been created by the implication in the character of Townrow seems to remind Kafka’s philosophy of absurdity. 

            Apart from the post-colonial textual quality as well as post-modern textual impressions, the novel throws lights on the shifting morality and assumptions from one era to another. Moral questioning arises from having one’s narratives challenged and arriving at uncertainty. For example, when Britain’s integrity is challenged by the reporter, Townrow finds it difficult to reconcile his conception of a country he believes is a moral leader with one that might act improperly. There is a direct correlation between the moral culpability of an individual. Townrow has rationalized his own actions for so long believing, for instance, that the fund he milks is of none to anyone, which only a step away from the grifting of people like Mrs. K. by more direct means. All these sense of morality is visible in the case of England’s attitude after the nationalization of the canal by the Egypt. The people of the Egypt believed that this thing is not tolerated by the British people at all. The novelist writes at this juncture in these words:

The assumption the British were nasty enough to start a war was what annoyed Townrow. Anybody would think Amin and that Israeli at Rome Airport had been putting their heads together. (p. 76)

            Like so many people, the novelist deals with the role of colonial rule in the countries. There is an utter sense of confusion and contrast regarding role of the colonizers in different parts of the world. Townrow holds the same view when he says:

There is no need. This country is lucky the European power it has had most to do with is England and not Germany, or Russia, or even France. They are fine people. I say that as an Irishman. They are fine people, except when they are in Ireland. I’d say the devil had gone out of them nowadays. (p. 77)

            Townrow’s remarks are full of considerations. All his words cannot be taken in the manner of confusion rather his words tell the reality of contemporary politics as well as contemporary world relations. He seems to be quite straight forward in his remarks. At another place, he says in these words:

In a way yet to be determined you were concerned with the violent death of an Egyptian citizen. What I am immediately interested in is the reason for your being in Egypt at the hottest time of the year… As a foreigners you are under obligation to keep the police informed of your movements. Is this to be your address while staying in the Republic. (p. 77)

            Townrow would like to get the property Mrs. K. anyhow. According to the critics, Townrow’s personality shows the chaos and anarchy in the time after the Second World War. When people have to live in such devastative condition, there is no question of any kind of morality at all. There is no question of law and order in such situations. Townrow seems to be the typical fellow living in the era after the devastative condition visible after the Second World War. Townrow’s lust for the property of Mrs. K. is the real example of the disorientation visible in human personality. Townrow says in these words:

The conventional thing would to be say I was a crook … but as long as you do not hurt anybody, all the rest is red tape, technicalities. Jobs for the lawyers. Take Mrs. K.’s property. If she does not give it to me the Egyptians are going to confiscate it, are not they? There are two kinds of law, book law and real law. Breaking book law is like blood sports. What annoys people is not that you are breaking it but that you are doing a bit of good for yourself, enjoying yourself if you like. I never broke any real law. But I know enough of the matter to know that the real law is God’s law. I’ d never break that. I don’t think I could. It isn’t in my nature, except when I lose my temper. (p. 137)

            The conversation between Townrow and David Abravanel. Their correspondence is quite symbolic in many reasons altogether. Their talks raise many inevitable questions regarding her issues pertinent during that period. For instance, in one of his letters, David Abravanel writes to Townrow in these words:

Dear Mr. Townrow, [the writing was a debased copper – plate in purple ink, like a menu in a French restaurant]. The Egyptian Government will soon nationalise all property of British and French nationals and it is to her advantage for Mrs. Khoury to transfer all her property to an Egyptian national, myself. She will not listen to me. Will you please persuade her? (p. 152)

            The reply of Townrow is quite objective. He would like to bring truth before the readers regarding the racial discrimination and prejudices. According to the critics, this might be one of the thematic perceptions in the novel. The Second World War produced such devastative effects as far as racial discrimination is being concerned. The reply of Townrow may be taken in this direction because it evokes many things altogether: 

Certainly not, [Townrow wrote the same sheet of paper] I am an Irish citizen and neutral. Property in my name would not be touched. You are Jewish. Mrs. K. seems to know a thing or two. How do you know you won’t be stripped as an Israeli sympathiser? Worse things have happened. (p. 153)

            The problem related to racial discriminations forms the major part in the novel. Townrow and David Abravanel discuss this issue with more curiosity. Abravanel was amazed as well as surprised by Townrow’s decision to stay in Egypt. The novelist writes about these things at this juncture in these conflicting words:

I wonder you stay in this country. There is no future for Jews here. Now look, you’re Jewish, you do not believe the British could have done more than they did to save European Jews during the war… your own common sense should tell you, shouldn’t it? There are a lot of Jews in England. You don’t think they’d have stood for it if they thought the government was not doing everything. Don’t you agree? (p. 154)

            Townrow was worried about the property of Elie who was the husband of Mrs. K. His lust for materialistic upliftment is quite suggestive and at the same time it also evokes many hidden issues the novelist would like to highlight. Townrow tells Abravanel in these words:

If you think there is going to be a British invasion why worry about Elie’s property being nationalised. It would only be for about a fortnight. (p. 155)

            Townrow’s strategy evokes many questions before the readers. His adventures are quite ambiguous in nature. About his morality, the policeman rightly says:

This is not the question of sexual morality. Under the revolution we shall have high standards, in public life, private life, everywhere. But first we have to destroy the imperialist aggressions. (p. 161)

            There seems to strong contrast between Mrs. K. and Townrow. Townrow seems to be highly productive while Mrs. K. has strong sense of sensitiveness and her this attitude comes on surface when she talks about her husband and her relationship with him. Still the memory of her husband haunts her every time. She would like to do everything to make enquiry about his disappearance or murder. There seems to be strong sense of bonding between them and that is why she is much interested in him even after his death. She is not able to leave his association with her. She tells about her emotional bonding with Elie in these words: 

He was a man with his limitations. I don’t deny that, all to do with his nationality and his country. I am not a Roman Catholic, you know. My father was C. of E. It had something to do with his command, conducting religious services on board, marrying people and burying them at sea. You could say it was professional. My first husband was a congregationalist. I do not believe in God, but I do have this feeling of obligation and duty to my husband, and that is not easy for some of us to understand. (p. 189)

            Unlike Townrow, Mrs. K. seems to be a character with strong will and determination. She has strong moral sense which does not allow her to anything wrong. There seems to be a perfect correspondence between her words and action. She does not become panic at all at any juncture. About the politics going on that time, she has a strong sense of observations in her mind. In her discussion with Leah about the question of morality, Mrs K. tells her in strong words:

Everybody has done something wrong you know the English expression, a skeleton in the cupboard. We have all done bad things. It is only natural. Let him that is without sin cast the first stone. And you know what happened? Nobody moved. Now, you being Jewish, you would know that story. (p. 191)

            The last part of the novel has much pace and the narrative goes in hustle. All the characters Leah, Mrs. K. Townrow, etc have become much closed to each other for different reasons altogether. Their conversation shows a strong sense of contradictions in their approach towards life and some other things also. Specially, the in the conversation between Townrow and Mrs. K. does not support the adventures of European army in Egypt. She tells:

I am not afraid for my father any more. When there is a European army here the Jews will be all right. Did I tell you my husband was sick? He needs more than my father. A woman has to choose. (p. 222)

            Something to Answer For is not only about the thrills, fascinations, drama and melodrama occur during Mrs. K.’s enquiry about her husband, but the central motive of the novelist seems to familiarize the common belief of the oppression of the Jews in the hands of European army, the dominance of the white world over others, racial discrimination, etc. Townrow, Leah and Mrs. K. are very vibrant in their expression regarding all these issues. Even though Towrow was very much obsessed with Leah, but even in the conversation between Leah and Townrow, we notice same kind of thematic perceptions. John. H. Bright rightly remarks in this direction:

The central motive of the novelist in ‘Something to Answer For’ is display the contemporary politics with some ironical display of narration which includes many things altogether. There is emotion, passion, drama, melodrama, thrill, fascination and expression in the book, but every time, the novel deals with the contemporary politics which seems to be in the centre of the book. Objectivity and subjectivity run in this book simultaneously. (Adventures and Politics in Contemporary Birtish Fiction, p. 113)

            So, internal as well as external conflict in the novel goes simultaneously. Sometime there is description of sex and such pleasure and the next moment, there is description of bombardment. But the imaginative flight of the novelist is so excellent that he is able to capture the attention without any much pain. For instance, at one place, he describes about such bombardment in these words:

The town rocked. This was no ordinary bombardment. The pale sky balanced and broke out in a worried penciling of little clouds. The sun pushed up out of Asin to meet this jerky incandescence from the west Townrow wanted to rush up to the roof as he was, naked, dragging Leah with blood. (p. 225)

            The last part of the novel is full of drama. Some sudden and inevitable incidents bring a note of conflict and contrast. This is what makes the ending of the novel interesting. The exhumation of Elie’s coffin to bury it at sea becomes farcical. It is also a desperate attempt by Townrow to reconcile his competing moral obligations to Mrs. K. who will not leave Egypt where her husband is buried and to Leah whom he desired to accompany if he can, so that he might be judged a moral man. But there is ultimately a futility in Townrow’s morality laid bare by the presence of the British fleet.

            The mystery of some incidents brings the inevitable twist in the plot as well as story in the novel without any doubt. Even if the reader is left to wonder what has happened, what it all means, this is an entertaining yet unsettling novel. A novel which had merely retold the Suez crisis through a bland narrative could not have achieved what this novel does. It is aimed at a western audience naturally, predominantly British. But the unsettling as well as dissonant narrative is enough to challenge entrenched attitudes and a national sense of entitlement. The Suez crisis is said to mark the end of British dominance and its empire, and this novel challenges the moral assumptions that sustained that empire. About the multiple suggestiveness in the plot, Boris Mayer rightly remarks in these words:

There is an extreme sense of multiple depiction in the book which denotes a sense of decoding through proper documentation. Newby seems to put many questions before the readers which must be answered. (Boris Mayer, Creativity in Post – Colonial Era, p. 147)

            The last part of the novel are full of moving notes. The writer finds an opportunity to dive deep into human emotions and passions. The funeral of Elie has been described with much gravity and with philosophical notes. There are so many deaths in the novel which provoke the sense of seriousness in the narrative. The description which contains such kind of gravity and seriousness are abundance in the book. For instance, at one place, the novelist writes in these words:

The first funeral had found him thinking exactly the opposite. Life and sanity depended on giving the woman up. The second funeral made it seem life and sanity depended on grabbing her. He realised his desires were running in opposite directions. He had not changed. The explanation was not that the first funeral came before the second. (p. 249)

            Among all the characters, Mrs. K. seems to be more pathetic as well as compassionate. Her suffering which is more emotional in nature, evokes the bare truth the novel would like to evoke. The novel seems to be about those who create only problem, havoc and commotion, but do not come forward to take any kind of responsibility. The writer tells about her problem:

It was not true Mrs. K. had insisted on brining Elie with her. She had been all for staying in port said, even when the Connel and an officer our of movement control called and said all British nationals, French nationals, united states citizens, in fact pretty well everybody. Without Egyptians papers, were being evacuated. They accepted no responsibility for her safety. (p. 259)

            Mrs. K. does not want to leave the place of her husband’s ‘Karmabhumi.’ Her decision is quite remarkable as well as convincing. It adds many dimensions to her character also. She has strong faith and belief in the country in which her husband lived for a longer period. There seems to be a kind of emotional connectivity with that place. Even though the Britishers leave Egypt after Suez crisis, but some people like Mrs. K. does not want to leave rather would like to live in spite of unrest and discomfort. Mrs. K. tells about her obligations towards this place and her connectivity with her husband in these words: 

I am not leaving this town. I am not afraid of the Egyptians. This building is my husband’s property. Was his property. He’s buried in this town. I’m too old to quit. Ten years ago I might have quit. There’s nothing for me anywhere else. I am comfortable here. I cannot start again. It’s come all too late. Elie is in this town and I’ll stay with him. (p. 259)

            Certainly, the title of the novel is quite apt and appropriate for many reasons altogether. Mrs. K. realises the fact that the Britishers are quite responsible for this mishaps and problems notice during this crisis. Townrow still persists Mrs. K. to leave Egypt because of inevitable danger, unrest and discomfort. On the other hand, she does not mind all these things and insists on living in the country where her husband is buried. She tells Townrow these words which are full of meaning and significance: 

I am ashamed of being British. Why start an invasion if you do not mean to go through with it? Why stop when you have got as far as this? I will tell you what, we British have lost our nurve. People of my father’s generation would not have lost their nurve. Thank God he’s dead and spared the shame. It was bad enough for him me marrying a foreigner but he’d have been really upset at the thought of British troops giving way to the United Nations, black Africans most of them, or yellow men, though I know that for the sake of appearances they sent mostly white troops. But they are Indians. Did you see the Yugoslavs? Now, there is a people I admire, not their politics, but they are independent, you see, and they have got this pride. I was a nurse in Montenegro in the First war and I know. They had just give up, those Balkan people. But there as a lot of tipping. I some ways they had no self – respect. You tipped shop assistants. But they’d never have quit like the British. So that’s one reason why I’m staying. (p. 260)

                        At the end of the novel, though it was uncertain how much of what was related actually took place or how much was a fever or drunken dream, Townrow also, like Mrs. K. comes to believe that a citizen is not responsible for the morality of his government and has only himself and his own actions to answer for. Both things are quite apparent here. An individual is also not responsible for the events take place on behalf of the government and vice – versa, the government is also not responsible for an individual’s action. The question of morality is quite esoteric and varies from person to person and nation to nation. So, a person should not be accountable for the decisions taken by the government and on the other hand, the government should also not be blamed for the anything done by the individual. So, the title directly corresponds with the plot, and the book throws light on some of the international issues of discussion and importance. Politics, drama, emotions, passions, thrills, charm and fascinations are enough in the book. All these things make this book quite unique and significant.

Works Cited:

  1. Bright, John H. Adventures and Politics in Contemporary British Fiction Newman, London, 1971.
  2. Mayor, Boris, Creativity in Post – Colonial Era, Hoggard, London, 1984.
  3. Newby, P. H., Something to Answer For, Faber and Faber, London, 1968.
  4. Paris Review
  5. Something to Answer For http://www. faber.co.uk.
  6. Times Literary Supplement.

The Mode of Documentation Decodes Tragedy in Githa Hariharan’s Fugitive Histories

Dr. Krishna Kant Singh

Professor of English

P. G. Dept. of English

Veer Kunwar Singh University, Ara

            Githa Hariharan’s novel Fugitive Histories deals with an often discussed and oft – quoted problem or we can call it disaster – the communal riots between Hindu and Muslims and its repercussions in comprehensive manner with full microscopic view of presentation. This novel of Githa Hariharan touches the heart of the literary world for many reasons altogether, especially for unfolding the bitter truth of inhumanity which comes out during the communal riots in the shape of unwanted bloodshed and violence in which not the rich and the poor but the poor humanity dies all the time. Unlike her other books like – The Art of Dying, The Ghosts of Vasu Master, When Dreams Travel, In Times of Siege or her first novel. The Thousand Faces of Night, Fugitive Histories, is an account of dying humanity in the modern era because of false conceptions of Hindu Muslim myth. A reviewer rightly remarks in Tehelka in these worlds about the novel Fugitive Histories:

To Githa Hariharan’s great credit, she looks unflinchingly into the ugliness of sectarian destructiveness and strife with an almost photographically realistic lens, but always remains within earshot of her protagonists ‘small, personal voices … As subtly constructed as Chinese box, concealing narratives within narratives and yet remaining blindly clear in all its exposition of public and private realities, complex though it is, Fugitive Histories is Hariharan’s most compelling simple book. 

            The novel has three parts: – Missing Person, Crossing Borders and Funeral Rites. Three different cities – Delhi, Bombay and Ahmadabad have discovered in the journey of memories. Almost all the characters of the novel – Bala, the grandmother of Mala, Mala, Asad, Samar, Sara, Yasmin, Rajat, Nima and many more – are not the victims of time and space, rather they have victimized time. The basic question the novel arises in the context of communal riots – whether human beings victimize time for their own personal purposes. The novel is based on the reflections of the memories of the characters in the journey of the time. The novel opens with the memory of Mala, the central protagonist of the novel. Mala’s husband Asad is now no more because of his demise. Mala lives in this world with Asad’s memories, especially with his paintings which seem to be the real source of inspiration for Mala.

            The novel opens when Mala was diving deep into memories of Asad, her husband, a muslim fellow who is now no more, but his memories of Asad. The novelist writes in these words:

Asad’s diaries, his notes to himself, include stray words, a few captions an occasional paragraph in that space – devouring handwriting. But most of it is image – notes. There are meticulously detailed drawings, as whole and complete as poems, an occasional rough drafts, pencil, pen, charcoal or watercolour giving up midway before it has completed its sentences; several doodles, many of them far from funny. Most of the images are portraits of people. In some of them, people who didn’t know each other or live in the same place or even in the same time inhabit the same sheet of paper.

            Mala is spending her life without Asad who is now no more. But his paintings are enough to inspire Mala to live life with full of memories. Mala and Asad had two children – one son and one daughter. Now both of them have become young and spending happy life in Bombay. Sara joined an NGO office and works for the documentary film along with Nina and others. Samar, too, works in Bombay but in different companies. On the other hand, Mala has to spend her life only with the memories of Asad, her husband. Sara is very crazy in her life. Her life becomes too much obsessive with her desire to work for NGO and discover something new in her life, especially do something to highlight life of the riot victims of Gujarat. She tries to discover something new in the lives of those victims who are still suffering a lot for different reasons altogether. She gathers many documents related to 2002 communal riots occurred in Gujarat after Godhara train incident in which many Hindus were burnt. The document reads:

On 27 February 2002 the Sabarmati Express was attacked in Godhra station in Gujarat and two of its carriages set on fire. The train was carrying ‘Hindu activists’ on their way back from Ayodhya. Godhara is a muslim locality. In the days and weeks that followed, the muslims of Gujarat became the target of brutal violence. The statements of survivours, eyewitnesses and relief workers suggested that state officials and the police connived with the attackers. 

            After Godhara incidents, a large number of innocent people lost their lives in the bloodshed and violence. More than one thousand people from both sides lost their life in the communal violence and bloodshed. A large number of mothers became childless, children became orphans, women became widows, sisters become brotherless and brother became sisterless. A large number of girls and women had been raped and molested. Sara would like to discover the world of the victims who had lost everything. They had become refugees in their own country. Their own country had become a different land for them. The novelist writes at this juncture:

To this day the dispossessed of Gujarat live in ‘safe areas’ – muslim ghettoes – without civic amenities. In Ahmadabad, for instance, people who used to be part of the city’s life – bakers, on to drivers, shopkeepers, engineers, school – teachers – are now refugees in their own city.

            In the eyes of the critics and readers, the attitude and arguments of Asad may be called progressive in nature but in the eyes of the respective communities, they are the culprits for their crime, they have to face the consequences through whole of their lives in this world. In India or also in the countries of the Muslim communities, it is quite difficult to break the stigma and cross the border line easily. Still Hindu and Muslim are two extreme poles as North and South and when the question of community comes, even the so – called intellectuals and progressives belonging to communities lose control and utter a lot over such trivial issues. But Githa Hariharan has presented Asad as a real progressive in his attitude. It perhaps happen because of his inclination towards art or the sacrifice of Mala in his eyes is too great that he never wants to think of the questions of borderline. Asad asserts his opinion:

A women marrying into the community is one more womb colonized. That is how both sides see it. It would have been a better test of the lady and co. If Nasreen wanted to marry a Hindu; he sounds sorry he cannot turn female to make his point. Then he cheers up, ‘Anyway we have nothing to do with either lot. It is not as if we think of ourselves as Hindu or Muslim. 

            In the portrayal of the characters of Mala and Asad, Githa Hariharan retains her acute sense of realism all the time. In the traditional set of Indian society, love marriage is still the matter of beyond imagination and such things are not seen with respectable way. The society in which the individuals live does not allow them to do such things for unknown reasons. If anyone would like to be famous in India, he or she must have to elope and cross the borderline by marrying a boy or girl belonging to the opposite community. Githa Hariharan is aware of this fact and she reveals in the novel in these words without any hesitation:

Mala has become almost famous at least in the neighbourhood in Madras where her parents live, and among her extended family scattered across three continents – for having eloped with a Muslim. 

            Still in the conservative Hindu community, Muslims are considers the untouchables and they are not allowed to participate in the functions or visit the temples or even not allow to eat in the same plates or drink water in the same glass. Githa Hariharan is quite aware of this quality of the Indian society and narrates the events in which Asad is not allowed to eat in the same plate or not invited in the family function. The novelist writes about all these things to highlight the problem.

Surprisingly, the uncle is quite courteous to Asad the barbarian, especially when courtesy does not include eating with him. In any caste, he has made sure there will be no polluting accidents. The cook has been instructed to serve Asad’s food on a white plate, not the usual stainless steel ones. Mala recognises this plate instantly. It is an old friend – or enemy; it is the plate reserved for any woman in the household who has to eat alone because she has her periods. The plate is almost basin – shaped; it has always reminded Mala of the kind of plate people used to feed their pet dogs. 

            Anyhow, Sara is able to meet Yasmin, a muslim girl whose brother Akbar is still missing. Sara is able to find the new house of Yasmin in the refugee’s camp. But Sara has to cross the borderline and crossing this borderline is not easy at all. An unwanted borderline has been created in the city and across the borderline the Muslim community lives with pain and pathetic lot in their hearts and mind. The novelist narrates the compassionate state of the newly established territory. She writes about this mini Pakistan as the people of the city always remark:

‘They call this a border… and some call this area mini Pakistan… the auto crosses the border, enters the safe for muslims zone, goes deep into its bowels, just in case. It makes a sharp turn into a winding road. Swerring and jolting and barking to avoid people, pothels, animals, hawkers, loiterers. Despite people, the open shops, the stalls, the noise, all the breathing, throbbing signs of life, the road is somehow cheerless, as if it has assessed the whole business of living and knows it’s pointless. The auto too gives up, it stutters to a halt at the mouth of a lane twisting away from the road. The lane itself leads to a clutch of unhappy buildings.

            Yasmin would like to do something in her life for her aging parents. She has many things to do in her life. She has different notions in his life. She has different ambitions and aspirations in her life because of different reasons altogether. She has to fulfil the dreams of not only hers but at the same time of many people. Yasmin’s character symbolizes a unique as well as inevitable struggle in the vast domain of emotions and feelings. In this world, she has to fulfil the ambitions of many people. She is the dream of her Abba and Ammi. She has to realize this and the beauty of her character is that she often realises of her character is that she often realises this fact. 

            Sara meets with a large number of people in Ahmadabad and herself visualises the bitter experiences of the people living in that area. There is a long list of especially women engaged in different types of work. Some of them consider themselves lucky and some of them consider themselves unlucky as well. Here, Sara meets with Sultana also who is also the victim of that communal riot. The thoughts of Yasmin always dive deep into human emotions and passions. There is an essence of struggle in the character of Yasmin. The novelist beautifully narrates the feelings and thoughts of Yasmin in these words:

            Sara would like to meet the Ammi of Yasmin to know about the horror and terror of those communal riots. Yasmin gives details of her entire family in unique way. Yasmin’s Ammi and Abba were still hopeful about the return of his son Akbar. Every morning, they went to the police station to make enquiry about their lost son Akbar who was missing since the communal violence. But the police did not give any proper and suitable reply. All the time, the police gave false reply to Yasmin’s parents but they developed the habit of hearing all these things patiently and silently:

Every morning they set out for the police station, their faces swollen with anxiety and hope. Making that report tricked them, it gave them hope. They wanted to believe that saying what had happened, making a report, filling it in the thana, would mean Akbar would come back unharmed or at least come back.

            Githa Hariharan does not leave an opportunity to present the devastating effect of the communal violence. How people became mad and attacked each – other without any emotions and feelings. The father of Yasmin visited many places in order to make an enquiry about his missing son who had not returned after that communal violence.  He went here and there in search of the dead body of his son and that is quite pathetic for him. Githa Hariharan has narrated the entire episode with open eyes in order to show the mental disturbance of such people who are not only helpless but hopeless also. She narrates the stories of the people searching the dead bodies of their relatives in these words:

Abba spent all his time visiting the places where the corps were piling up. He had never seen anything like it before, the parade of body after body that bore so little resemblance to a real body. To a human being, even a dead one … it meant missing a body part – an arm, a leg, even ahead… there was one body with its belly torn open… another body was just burnt   coal… 

                        In India, it has been seen that problem is not being tackled like the problem. Indian politicians have made the problems worst; in spite of solving the problems, they are more interested to multiply the problems. And that happens every time when such unfortunate incidents take place. Sara once upon a time or even today in her life face the same problem in her life. Both Sara and Yasmin were in search of safe place and their search is continuous. Yasmin refers a place “in between” place as the safe for living. Sara also finds herself in the same place. Githa Hariharan writes about this ‘in – between’ as referred by both Yasmin and Sara in these words:

In – between whenever Yasmin refers to the safe area in which she lives now, that is the phrase that comes to Sara’s mind. In – between in transit, on the way to somewhere else, there is a silver of hope in the coupled words that says this place is only in between, there is something else coming after. But there is also the uncertainty of it, the waiting involved without knowing for what. What comes after may be better, but it may also be worse. Sara too is in between. She’s seeing and hearing almost as well as Asad would have liked her to, but she cannot talk about it yet, leave alone begin writing a script. 

            The communal violence in India occurs frequently and people of the both communities have become quite crazy about such trivial things. They do consider it as something inevitable and the continuous process of the making of the society in general. How they dare and their hands do not stop at the time of killing of the fellows living in the same area for many generations is certainly the matter of surprise and wonder. How they burnt the houses and livelihood of each – other is also the matter of surprise and wonder for each other. But they do it and do it and after doing that they call themselves religious or devotees of God. It is shame on their part. They molest little girls and rape the minor one without any hesitation. During communal violence in 2002 in Gujarat, a large number of little girls were molested and minor girls were raped by the people involved in the communal violence. They did it for the sake of religion. Certainly it was shameful action. Do religious allow or force them to do such things? Certainly not, they are the real threats to humanity and supposed to be the puppets playing in hands of the politicians.  

            During the communal violence of 2002 in Gujarat, the house and shop of Yasmin were burnt and nothing was left safe in the house and shops both. Not only house and shop was set to fire, but at the same time their emotions and feelings were set to fire, they remained hopeless and helpless too. Such is the condition of Yasmin, her parents and many more who are the victims fo such communal violence. People became too hostile to each other that they are bound to kill each – other without any thinking. They would like to spread the message of terror and horror everywhere. 

            Fugitive Histories is certainly a novel of frightening memories which have been shared by the community in state of fear and darkness for generations. The horror and terror of those days and right were not easy to be washed out from the mere water. 

            Githa Hariharan beautifully presented the horror and terror exists in the mind of the people. in the novel, Reshma, Zainab Bano, Najma, Razia, Nusreen, Zahida Khala, Zakia, Zulckha and many more are still living in the state of discomfort and this discomfort is not only physical but emotional and mental. Certainly, the experience of these women is a blot to the so – called advanced world which acknowledges it as more human than anything else. The cruelty and brutality the people show during such occurrences is the symbol of loss of faith in human values. Here it will be appropriate to quote the experiences of these women to show how humanity and morality die during communal violence within stroke. For instance, Salma say:

First they asked for jewellery, money. Then they started cutting so people could not run away. I saw a woman’s foot being cut … she fell. She was raped, she was cut some more. Then she was burnt. 

            Farida has also the same experience. She tells pathetically about that nightmare which was the reality:

We do not know the names of the others or where they came from, but they had trishuls with them. They wore saffron cloth round their heads. There is no mystery about who they were. 

            Even Zakia, a pregnant girl has the same experience of those horrible and terrible nights. She unfold her own heart to Sara in these words:

I saw it with my own eyes. The little boy next door, they poured petrol in his mouth. They put a lit matchstick into his mouth as if it was a lollipop. He just burst. 

            Among all those girls or women who are eager to share their experiences of horror and terror, the experience of Zulekha is more compassionate and full of pathetic lot. She has a sense of anger in her heart and states her arguments before Sara and Nima in the same mood:

So you want to hear what really happened? You would not be able to bear it. Once you have heard it, it’ll never let you forget. Those girls were screaming, they were begging us to remove the stumps of wood that had been pushed into them. Each one was crying, “me first, remove mine first,” I will never forget their screams. Even now, when I tell you this, my blood boils.

            The experience of Sufia Bano is no less horrible. She unfolds her own heart in these pathetic words to Sara and Nina about her sleeping in the graveyard for many days:

We spent weeks sleeping in a graveyard. The relief camp we sent to was in a graveyard. We were still living but we had to sleep where the dead sleep. We had to sleep between the graves.

            The experience of Sufia is so pathetic and full of compassion that there is no word for it. The horror and terror in the mind of these women which one can notice is certainly asking many questions at the time. Her washing of many dead bodies before putting them into the graveyard is full of emotional touch and at the same time it fulfils every human heart full of anger. Abeda tells Nima and Sara once again:

I washed so many bodies before they buried them. One day I washed fifteen of them and only one was in one piece. The others were split down the middle or they did not have hands or fact or a head. All of them were burnt. The next day I just could not do it. I throw water over them and left them. I could not do anything more.

            Noorjehan also has the same kind experience like other women of the community. All of them have their own experiences of suffering and exploitations. Noorjehan’s words are certainly alarming but full of pathos and it may fulfil every heart with hate and outrage. She tells Sara in these words:

My name is Noorjehan. They burnt my husband, they burnt my father, they burnt my son. His name was Safique, he was just fifteen years old. If only I could have buried them properly, with some dignity … if only I could have given them the respect everyone should have in death.

            Many activities acknowledge administration and the police. But one thing that is taken into account that if human beings are such and behave like this, what can the administration and the police do. The role of the police or the administration is to establish the rule of law and order. But when the moral and cultural fabric of the nation or the society is bleak, what can other things do something to save – that is the big question. Communal violence, bloodshed, riots cannot be stopped at all unless and until there is a sense of morality, love and respect for each – other.

            But the role of the police and administration is quite devastating and alarming the communal violence during 2002 in Gujarat, the land of Mahatma Gandhi, the worshipper of truth and non – violence forever. The blame of the people was quite right because several communions have been constituted to recognise the responsibility of the police and administration during those riots. But the common opinion of the people was the same for many reasons altogether. The public blame the police in these words without any hesitation.

The police was with them. When we ran, the police began firing.

We had nothing but stones to pelt them with,

We could do nothing but hide.

We hid in the toilets.

We hid on the roof.

We hid in our neighbour’s house.

We hid in the fields.

We hid in the well.

We hid underground, in the water tank.

When they found us we were already grieving for each – other,   we knew we were lost. 

            Certainly, the role of the police and the administration was not enough at all. They must have been protective. I still remember the words of Late Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee who was highly critical of those communal riots bloodshed and violence. He told the then chief minister of Gujarat that the government, civil administration and the police must have followed the rule of “Raj dharma”. If the kings failed to protect the people of their realm, who might happened to humanity, it can be noticed in such communal riots and violence. There was a common outrage in the minds of the people:

Government? What government says every Hindu will vote for them because they got rid of muslims? 

            The novelist also acknowledges the fact that the minority still lives in the state fear and panic, especially in the time of the festivals. Muslims are always in the state of fear that anything can happen during festival and we have seen the same fact that so many communal violence took place during the festivals. But each and every citizen of the Hindu community is not bad as it is commonly believed the muslims. It has been observed that a large number of people helped the injured and such needy persons at the time of violence and bloodshed. 

            In India, people are more concerned and conscious about these types of feelings. We can observe the mentality of the people especially about those children like Sara and Samar who belong to both Hindu and Muslim communities or belong to nowhere. For Asad, the question of his cremation or burial is not important because he is now no more here to listen or seen such tupes of moments. But what will happen to Sara and Samar. The entire people present at the time of the death of Asad were busy in discussing the question whether Asad’s body would be buried or cremated. But they are not aware of the fact that real graveyard in such condition lies in the open air as the novelist writes about:

The real graveyard is an open, sunny place.

            Githa Hariharan is quite critical about communal violence or bloodshed or riots. People always exploit such moments especially spread during communal violence. The novelist is aware with the sheer mentality of the people involved in communal violence and she writes about Aslam’s feelings:

Words of feelings do not rape and kill and burn, people do. It was only a question of time. We have been idiots, we got too comfortable thinking it would not happen again. 

            The novel puts many questions before the readers which are still answered because of the dilemma and attitude of the society in which we are living does not allow us to think in that direction. Asad’s own life was the symbol of internal pain and suffering. Mala, too, is the victim of time and space. Asad’s danger is not external but internal and always feels the same in closed walls of his room. Although he was an artist of great rank his imagination always goes beyond but he cannot stop the advances of the society in the form of the critical remarks or such rubbish things which cannot be easily avoided. The novelist writes about the mental state of Asad in these questioning words:

The real Asad looked for safety in a room without a view, not on the street or on the sidewalk. 

            In the society in which there is more care about traditional or religious imposition, the emotion and feeling of the people have less significance. The society divided into such caste as well as religious politics, does nothing to create a healthy atmosphere for living. Sara, who discovered the life of Yasmin, failed to do the same for her because of the many reasons. She provided an identity to Yasmin but the same she could not do for her. 

            Thus, Githa Hariharan’s Fugitive Histories is certainly a classic in terms of unfolding the crisis in the form of communal violence, bloodshed and riots on the one hand, and the question of identity especially of those like Mala, Asad, Sara and Samar, and many more like them on the other hand. Really, the book seems to discover a new world in which all these people along with Yasmin and others may live with ease and comfort in the midst of real humanity or in the religion of humanity which is certainly above everything.

 Works Cited: –

  1. Githa Hariharan , “Missing Persons”, Fugitive Histories,  Penguin Books, 2009
  2. Githa Hariharan, “Crossing Borders”, Fugitive Histories
  3. Githa Hariharan, “Funerral Rites”, Fugitive Histories
  4. K. R. S. Iyengar, Indian Writing in English, Sterling Publishing Pvt. Ltd., 2013
  5. M. K. Naik, History of Indian English Literature, Sahitya Academy, 2011
  6. Tehelka  – quoted in the novel Fugitive Histories by Githa Hariharan.
  7. Verve – quoted in the novel.