Gender and Academic Resilience as predictors of Academic Stress among In-School Adolescents in Ibadan, Oyo state, Nigeria

Citation

Babalola, O. I., Alao, O. G., & Akintola, M. A. (2026). Gender and Academic Resilience as predictors of Academic Stress among In-School Adolescents in Ibadan, Oyo state, Nigeria. International Journal of Research, 13(3), 53–71. https://doi.org/10.26643/ijr/5

Olawale Idowu Babalola

Counselling and Human Development Studies

University of Ibadan, Nigeria

lawalebabalola@gmail.com

https://orcid.org/0009-0009-8967-8371

Olayinka Grace Alao

Counselling and Human Development Studies

University of Ibadan, Nigeria

gracefulfy@gmail.com

https://orcid.org/0009-0005-0213-8235

Motunrayo Adenike Akintola

Counselling and Human Development Studies

University of Ibadan, Nigeria

motunrayoadenike001@gmail.com

https://orcid.org/0009-0005-1597-6553

Abstract

The current study examined the extent to which gender and academic resilience are predictors of academic stress in adolescents pursuing secondary education in Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria. The objectives were to (i) determine the relationship between academic resilience and academic stress, (ii) determine the degree to which gender predicts academic stress, and (iii) determine gender-based differences in academic stress.

Academic stress is an over-riding problem of adolescents, and it is largely due to the pressure of examinations, academic workload, parental expectations and school demand. According to previous literature, academic resilience serves as a protective factor in stress response and that female students are more likely to report high levels of stress, although there is a wide range of empirical evidence across cultures and educational settings, especially in the Nigerian secondary school setting.

The survey design used was a correlational, descriptive survey. The sample consisted of 100 adolescents who were chosen through a simple random sampling method. Measurements were made using Academic Resilience Scale (ARS-30) and Academic Stress Inventory. Pearson product-moment correlations, multiple regression, and independent samples t-tests were used, with a significance level of 0.05.

The results of the analyses showed no statistically significant correlation between academic stress and academic resilience. Gender was also not a major predictor of academic stress. However, the independent samples t-test showed that the difference between the academic stress levels between genders was statistically significant, but only slightly with male students reporting slightly high academic stress levels compared to female students.

The results indicate that academic resilience may not have a pronounced effect on academic stress in the analysed group, and gender is not a very relevant predictor. These findings challenge existing assumptions about the universal buffer effect of resilience on stress and the reliability of gender-based differences in academic stress.

The following recommendations, in turn, are offered in the study: the delivery of individualised counselling services, adoption of balanced academic policies, the use of gender-neutral stress-management interventions, increased parental involvement, and additional research on contextual determinants of academic stress in adolescents.

Keywords

‎Quantitative Study, Academic stress, academic resilience, gender differences, In-School Students well-being, academic stress management, learning

1.1 Introduction

Stress is a psychological activity that destablise the reasoning, thinking and behaviour of an individual. It is not age bound as it is experienced at every age group. During adolescence, academic stress has been a critical problem for adolescents at the secondary level of education. Academic stress is the transient experience of pressure, anxiety, or distress related to achieving academic goals (Pascoe et al. 2020). It is the anxiety and pressure associated with schooling and education (Sudiksha et al., 2024). It usually arises as a result of the imbalance between academic duties and social performance. According to Galloway, et al. (2013) explained that students who do heavy homework at home do not have enough time to socialize with their peers and might not have some life skills necessary to accomplish some essentials of life. Adolescents can experience academic stress when they are concerned about their capacity to cope with the academic demands (Lazarus and Folkman, 1984). It is very important to note that academic stress among adolescents can relatively be influenced by their relationship with teachers, the personality of teachers, pressure to excel in exams, the need to complete schoolwork within a given period, and the overall atmosphere of the school. Notwithstanding, participation in co-curricular activities such as debates, quizzes, speeches, music, dance, and arts can help alleviate stress and improve student performance. Whilst continuous tests, grades, the demand for success, and external expectations are the primary sources of stress for senior In-School Adolescents. Addressing academic stress among In-School Adolescents is important given its potentially serious effects on educational attainment and wellbeing. High levels of academic stress are associated with poorer examination performance, mental wellbeing, affect, sleep, confidence, motivation, and even physical health (Shankar and Park, 2016). In their study A Study on Academic Stress among Senior In-School Adolescents, Sudiksha et al (2024) found out that some of the causes of academic stress among adolescents are examination, test, assignment, parental expectations, competition with peers among others. The expectations of teachers and parents seem a source of burden to students. Hosseinkhani et al. (2019) opined that many parents had very high expectations from their children, such as being the best students in school and involving in all school competitions. Also, teachers display unprofessional and disrespectful behaviour by mocking students in front of others and use inappropriate terms in class. Reddy et al. (2018) further stated that parents and schools relentlessly instill the fear of failure in students which consequently affects their self-esteem and confidence. Sudiksha et al. (2024) further suggested that in helping adolescents managing academic stress, counseling service is crucial. Well, not just mere counseling but a resilient and holistic approach to counseling adolescents will help in managing academic stress among the adolescents.‎ Some researches has revealed that female students are more prone to academic stress than their male counterparts (Calagus, 2011; Busari and Omoponle, 2018; Karaman et al., 2019). However, Dhakkal (2013) found that there is no relationship between gender and academic stress and could not pinpoint a significant gender difference in the level of academic stress. In some other studies, it was found that male students experience high level of academic stress and less coping mechanisms than the female students (Chen et al., 2009; Vijaya and Karunakaran, 2013; Rushmi, 2024).

Adolescents are not immune to stressful situations be it academic or non academic. There are many situations that may trigger stress among the adolescents which may include teasing, bullying, disagreements with peers or adults, competition with peers, assignments, tests and class presentations, transitioning from one school to another, etc. In any given stressful situations adolescents find themselves, it is very essential to build resilience.

The concept of Academic resilience is relative, as there has not been a firm or exact definition for its concept. The term Academic resilience has been well understood by various definitions from different perspectives. Academic resilience is not a simple task, as it involves a complex and broad concept which can usually be mixed up with other terms (Pina Lopez, 2015). It can be used to explain different terms, attitudes, and behaviors in the face of academic challenges (Fernandes de Araujo and Bermudez, 2015). It is even becoming harder for researchers to try to provide a standard and acceptable definition (Vinnacia et al., 2007). It emerges as a term within a lot of social sciences (Cichetti and Curtis, 2007) such as Psychology, Anthropology, Sociology and Education. In the 1980s, researchers often used the word “invulnerable” with the attention to describe those people who were able to maintain a positive aspect of view despite negative circumstances (Dimakos and Papakonstantinopoulou, 2012). Margalit (2004) points out that it is not a trait, but a process that involves internal and external factors. Masten (2011) defined it as the capability that students have in order to deal with important threats which can undermine their expected and normal progress and development in their academic journey. It is the capacity to adapt well when faced with adversity or stress in school related works. It helps students stave off the potential negative psychological effects of challenging experiences (Howley-Rouse, 2020). There are various essential abilities associated with academic resilience which are emotional regulation, impulse control, causal analysis, empathy, realistic optimism, self efficacy and opportunity seeking.

Resilient adolescents see academic or social stress in a positive way which enables them to increase their effort and develop new strategies towards achieving their goals. They tend to develop a growth mindset and show minimal problematic behaviours. This is because resilient people display the courage and motivation to face problems and difficulties accurately (rather than denying or exaggerating them) and maintain a positive mindset and the confidence to persevere (Howley-Rouse, 2020)

Academic resilience also contributes to productivity of adolescents as it fosters their beliefs that they have the ability to influence the external factors that contribute to their academic journey. Resilient students are high in autonomy and self-efficacy – they experience feelings of confidence and believe that things will work out. This sense of personal control gives adolescents an advantage in making changes when faced with difficulty and it can moderate the effect of adversity on wellbeing. (Howley-Rouse, 2020). Though fluctuates at different ages and developmental stages, and across different contexts, It is not a character trait that adolescents are born with, but is a developmental process mostly influenced by adolescents’ experiences and relationships. Importantly for Counselors, this means that academic resilience can be learned and developed among In-School studentss in Ibadan, Oyo state.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

The problem of academic stress has become an increasingly relevant concern among adolescents in secondary school, especially at a point where the academic demands and social expectations meet with developmental changes. Young people in Ibadan, Oyo State, are exposed to a lot of academic stressing pressure due to exams, constant tests, school work, parental pressure, teacher pressure, and peer pressure. These stressors are evidenced by a development phase characterised by emotional, cognitive and social changes making adolescents particularly vulnerable to stress-related problems that may interrupt school academic achievements, mental health, motivation, self-esteem and general adaptation to school life.

Although more and more attention is paid to academic stress and its negative outcomes, teenagers do not have a homogenic perception and response to stress. The evidence on gender differences in academic stress is not conclusive; other studies carried out in advance found contradicting evidence with some indicating that female students have a higher level of academic stress and male students have more academic stress and other studies found no significant difference in the academic stress between male and female students. This contradiction renders knowledge gap on the issue of how gender can be used as a predictor of academic stress particularly in the Nigerian context as well as among in-school adolescents in Ibadan.

At the same time, it has been found that academic resilience is one of the central protective factors that allow adolescents to overcome academic challenges and stressors. Adolescents who are resilient have better emotional control, are consistently optimistic, never give up in the face of adversity, and use adaptive coping strategies to fulfil their academic needs. However, even though the academic resilience has received a lot of literature coverage, there is still little empirical evidence on its predictive ability of academic stress in in-school adolescents in Ibadan, Oyo State, and its possible buffering role on academic pressure in this context.

The research gap lies in having an insufficient knowledge of the combined and separate predictive condition of gender and academic resilience with respect to academic stress among in-school adolescents in Ibadan. Without the presence of strong evidence that will outline these relationships, counsellors, educators, school administrators and policymakers will face challenges in formulating specific, effective and contextual relevant interventions to manage academic stress and promote the wellbeing of adolescents. This research gap needs to be considered in order to create comprehensive, resilience-oriented counselling and school-based interventions to help adolescents overcome academic pressures without compromising their psychological health and academic performance.

1.3 Purpose of the Study

The overall purpose of this study is to evaluate the extent to which gender and academic resilience predicts academic stress of married people living in the Abeokuta North Local Government, Ogun State, Nigeria. Specifically, the research attempts to:

Assess if there is any significant relationship between Academic Resilience and Academic Stress among In-school Adolescents in Ibadan, Oyo State.
Examine if gender significantly predict academic stress among In-School adolescents in Ibadan, Oyo State.
Evaluate any significant difference on Academic Stress among In-School Adolescents in Ibadan, Oyo State, based on Gender (Male and Female)?

1.4 Research Questions

Is there significant relationship between Academic Resilience and Academic Stress among In-School Adolescents in Ibadan, Oyo State?
Does gender significantly predict academic stress among In-School Adolescents in Ibadan, Oyo state?
Is there any significant difference on Academic Stress among In-School Adolescents in Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria based on Gender (Male and Female)?

2.1 Literature Review

Academic stress has been broadly noted to be one of the major psychological pressures facing students at all stages of learning. It refers to the psychological and emotional pressure, which accrue due to academic requirements such as exams, homework, time limits, workload, and the directions expected of them as per teachers and parents. When such demands surpass the ability of a student to manage them, stress will result and it can have a negative influence on academic performance, emotional health, and physical health. Academic stress has moved into the focus of growing academic interests especially in the face of greater competitiveness and performance orientation in modern education especially in adolescence and early adulthood when adaptive coping styles are still being developed.

The literature on gender disparity in academic stress is relatively large in number, and it is based on the assumption that male and female students perceive and react differently to stresses because of differences in socialisation processes, biological factors, and cultural demands. Several empirical studies document high levels of stress in the students (female). Graves and colleagues (2021) revealed that female students at college were more likely to report higher levels of moderate-to-high academic stress, and male students were more likely to report lower levels of academic stress, though. Simultaneously, Rubach et al. (2022) showed that academic stress had a more negative direct impact on mental-health outcomes in female students of universities, and stress was a predictor of emotional challenges among women more than among men. In the context of professional training, e.g. nursing and midwifery programmes, Alharbi et al. (2025) observed a greater acute and perceived stress among women; these findings suggest increased susceptibility to academic stress.

However, the data on the issue of gender differences in academic stress is not definitive. Other studies give insignificant or insignificant differences between male and female students. The study carried out by Souza-Lima et al. (2025) found that there were slight gender differences between pre-adolescent pupils, with girls feeling more stressed and bored at school than boys. More importantly, physical exercise reduced stress levels in both genders, implying that behavioural predictors might override gender effects. Similarly, Devchoudhury and Devasagayam (2022) did not find any statistically significant gender effect on general academic stress in the sample of undergraduate students, though female students had a slightly higher mean stress level. The inconsistencies mean that gender-related tendencies are not universal but depend on the context.

Gender differences in academic stress also vary as influenced by cultural context. Amoadu et al. (2024) studied high-school students in Ghana and indicated that they found no meaningful gender differences in academic resiliency or general wellbeing. Male and female students showed similar resilience and high wellbeing which highlights the moderating power of common cultural and educational milieu. The finding highlights the essential contribution of situational variables, such as educational systems, cultural norms, and social expectations, to the development of academic-stress experience.

Gender disparities also occur in the coping mechanisms adopted by students in order to manage academic stress. Emotion-oriented coping strategies are more popular among female students, who look to social support and emotions, compared to male students, who favour problem-oriented coping strategies. According to Graves et al. (2021), female students were more likely to use emotional expression and peer support. Additionally, Benitez-Agudelo et al. (2025) found that female students reported increased anxiety and their perception of stress more often but had more frequent better academic results, which indicates that adaptive coping can counteract stressful disadvantages.

Outside gender, academic resilience has become one of the most important constructs to explain how students react to academic stress. Academic resilience is the ability to adjust favourably and stay in academic activities in spite of difficulties like low grades or exam stress. Instead of an inborn characteristic, it is conceptualised as an active process that is influenced by interactions between personal and environmental factors and is not the same as academic buoyancy, which takes into account the daily struggles in academics (Martin and Marsh 2008).

The literature repeatedly emphasises the importance of protective factors in promoting academic resiliency. Resilience and academic success are predictable by individual factors such as self-efficacy, self-regulation, motivation, emotional intelligence and perseverance and additionally external reinforcements like parental encouragement and teacher emotional support. These associations are endorsed by meta-analytic and systematic reviews (Jowett et al., 2023; Kassis et al., 2024). Under-representation of gender in academic resilience seems to be minimal, and resilience indicates good wellbeing among both male and female students (Amoadu et al., 2024).

Overall, it has been shown that academic stress is common among students and that female students tend to report high instances of stress although this is diverse in terms of age and culture. However, academic resilience turns out to be a crucial adaptive process linked to reduced stress levels and beneficial educational achievement, which is why context-specific, resilience-driven interventions should be implemented to ensure the wellbeing of students.

2.2 Theoretical Frameworks

The theoretical frameworks present systematic statements of the way people go through and cope with stress in the academia and other taxing environments. One of the most conspicuous is the transactional model of stress and coping, the other one is the theory of conservation of resources that collectively provides complementary insights on a stress process, coping, and resilience. In this section, each framework is outlined in specific yet understandable terms that can be interpreted by a novice scholar, specifically touching on the key constructs and its application to academic stress.

2.2.1 Transactional Model of Stress and Coping

The conceptualisation of the transactional model highlights stress as a process in relation as it occurs or does between a person and the influence of the environment instead of an external force imposed or an intrinsic condition. Stress comes in when an individual evaluates a scenario as being burdensome or out of the resources they have thus putting their well-being at risk. The model revolves around two appraisal processes. Primary appraisal is an assessment of the nature of the significance of an event, that it is harm or loss, threat, challenge, or benign irrelevance. Secondary appraisal evaluates the options of coping and personal resources; on one hand, skills, support net or knowledge to depict manageability.

Coping is the process under consideration after the appraisal, referring to the behavioural and cognitive processes aimed at dealing with the stressor or controlling the attendant emotions. Problem-oriented coping is aimed at addressing the cause of the stress per se by engaging in such actions as planning, problem solving, or information seeking. The aim of emotion-oriented coping is to alter emotional reaction, e.g. through acceptance, positive reframing, social support, or evading. The model considers the stress process as dynamic and (iterative) and the feedback line through which reappraisal is pushed. Emotional conditions play a central role because positive emotions enable adaptive coping, and negative emotions may lead to the further development of the cycle of stress.

The framework takes the individual differences in responding to stress. As an example, a challenging test can be perceived as a threat by one student – it gives rise to anxiety and avoidance – whereas as a challenge by another, leading to practise and development. It sheds some light on the demand and resource availability perceptions and the impact they have on performance, mental health, and persistence in an academic setting. Lazarus and Folkman (1987) were the first to define the transactional model, the cognitive-relational character of stress and emotion. The fundamental role of the model has been supported by the literature that followed, with adaptations that add positive emotions towards coping (Biggs et al., 2017). There is empirical evidence both in the clinical and applied fields, including modified versions that are tested on psychosomatic patients (Oehrlein et al., 2021).

2.2.2 Conversation of Resources Theory

According to COR theory, people are compelled to obtain, maintain, defend, and develop resources to survive and ultimately achieve good health. The resources include material goods, commitment to relationships, or employment, personal factors, including self-efficacy and optimism, and such resources as time and physical strength. The main causes of stress are the loss of these resources (or a threat of the same) or a failed investment of resources in creating sufficient returns.

The most influential ones are the primacy of loss, in which loss of resources has a stronger psychological effect compared to the gain with the same magnitude. Individuals spend resources in order to avoid or reduce the losses that might trigger the gain or loss spirals by accumulating or rapidly depleting resource supplies. The resource-rich individuals show more resilience to threats and are placed in better positions to achieve beneficial results, and poor individuals suffer the increased vulnerability of resource-poor people. The resources have a tendency to form caravans, a network of resources and move through passageways, environmental facilitator or hindrances that mediate exchange of resources.

In the academic context, COR theory explains how stressors use up resources; including time and self-esteem due to repeated failures, and hence become spirals that lead to impaired performance or health. Resource development by assistance or skill training has the potential to cushion stress and promote strength. The theory is applicable to chronic and traumatic stress, and it has recognised that resources have to be managed as a form of adaptive functioning. Hobfoll proposed COR as a resource-based substitute of stress models based on demand (1989). Subsequent extensions used the model in the context of organisations and health, and integrated realistic dynamics of resources and outcomes (Hobfoll et al., 2018). Overall surveys emphasise its multilevel format to interpret reaction to adversity (Hobfoll et al., 2017).

To conclude, perceptual appraisals and adaptive coping strategies are predicted by the transactional model but conservation of resources theory revolves around the loss and protection of resources. The two taken together form a strong base of examining academic stress and resilience whereby perceptions of appraisals draw demand and resource management effects have long-term adaptation. The combination of these frameworks can guide interventions that would make more accurate appraisals, bolster coping, and lead to accrual of resources in learning settings.

3.1 Methodology

3.2 Research Design

‎This study used the descriptive survey design of correlation type. This research design was adopted because the researcher will not manipulate the variables of interest in the study.

3.3 Population

‎The target population for this study consists of all In-School Adolescents in Oyo State, Nigeria.

3.4 Sample and Sampling Technique

‎The sample of this study consists of one hundred (100) In-School Adolescents in Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria through simple random sampling technique. This technique was adopted because the target participants have homogeneous characteristics and they have equal chances of being selected for the study. The sample includes males and female In-School Adolescents in Oyo State, Nigeria state.

3.5 Research Instrument

Questionnaire was used as the instrument of collecting data.

3.5.1 Academic Resilience scale

‎The Academic Resilience of In-School Adolescents in Ibadan, Oyo state shall be assessed through the Academic Resilience Scale (ARS-30) developed by Simon Cassidy (2016). Respondents assess their level of Academic Resilience on 8 topics using a 4-point rating system, ranging from strongly agree (4) to strongly disagree (1). The internal consistency reliability coefficients, as measured by Cronbach’s alpha was 0.90.

3.5.2 Academic Stress scale

The Academic stress of In-School Adolescents in Ibadan, Oyo state was assessed using the Academic Stress Inventory by Lin and Chen (2009) because it covers study habits, test anxiety, peer comparison and parents expectations. The internal consistency reliability coefficients, as measured by Cronbach’s alpha was 0.90.

3.6 Method of Data Analysis

The data collected was analyzed through the use of descriptive statistics which include mean, standard deviation and frequency and using Pearson Product Moment Correlation (PPMC) and multiple regression analysis to give guide on the research questions at 0.05 level of significant.

4.1 Results

RQ1: Is there significant relationship between Academic Resilience and Academic Stress among In-School Adolescents in Ibadan, Oyo state?

Table 1: Summary of correlation matrix showing the relationship between the study variables

Variables	Mean	SD	1	2
Academic Stress	20.79	3.45	1.000	.048**
Academic Resilience	27.58	3.39	.048^**	1.000

Table 1 presents correlation analysis between academic resilience and academic stress in in-school adolescents in the Ibadan, Oyo State. The findings indicate a highly insignificant positive relationship (r = 0.048, p < 0.05). The coefficient is not very low, which means that the practical relationship between the two variables is insignificant; however, the coefficient is statistically significant, and the sample size probably led to that. In line with this, academic resilience appears to correlate with academic stress in this group of adolescents very weakly, indicating that increased academic resilience does not significantly lower or modify the perceived level of academic stress among such adolescents.

This finding is contrary to most of the literature that has been done, which often find a moderate negative relationship between resilience (or academic resilience) and stress (or academic stress). Indicatively, meta-analytic research involving college students reveals a moderate and negative correlation of significance (r = -0.29), which means that the stronger the resilience, the less stressful one is (Li et al., 2024). On the same note, a study conducted among students in universities indicates that perceived stress is a predictor of a lack of academic resilience, and resilience is a protective mechanism against stress-related outcomes (Alzoubi et al., 2025). Past studies demonstrated that resilience reduces the adverse impact of academic pressure on the psychological adaptation, mental well-being, and academic success among adolescents (Kim and Lee, 2023; Wang, 2024).

The almost negligible correlation here could be due to the contextual issues of in-school teens in Ibadan, including cultural bias, or differences in the measures, or the emphasis on the acute, and not the chronic stressors. It correlates with non-significant or weak correlations of links in some groups of students occasionally (Huwae, 2022). These discrepancies highlight the fact that additional studies on the topic are required to investigate moderators (age, cultural situation, or particular dimensions of resilience) in Nigerian adolescents.

RQ2: Does gender significantly predict academic stress among In-School Adolescents in Ibadan, Oyo state among In-School Adolescents in Ibadan, Oyo state?

Table 2: Multiple Regression Analysis on Academic Stress

R		R Square	Adjusted R Square		Std. Error of the Estimate
0.150		0.022	0.001		3.45222
SUMMARY REGRESSION ANOVA
Model		Sum of Squares	Df	Mean Square	F	Sig.
	Regression	25.477	2	12.738	1.069	.001^b
	Residual	1108.356	93	11.918
	Total	1133.833	95

Coefficients^a
Model		Unstandardized Coefficients		Standardized Coefficients	t	Sig.
Model		B	Std. Error	Beta	t	Sig.
	(Constant)	15.079	1.906		7.910	.000
	Gender	-1.014	.732	.142	-1.384	.170

The table 2 revealed the relative contribution of Gender to Academic Stress among In-School students in Ibadan, Oyo state; Gender (β = .142, t= -1.384, p>0.05) had no significant relative contribution to Academic Stress among In-School students in Ibadan, Oyo state. That is, Gender does not predict Academic Stress of In-School students in Ibadan, Oyo state.

The finding is in line with a number of studies that indicate that there are no significant gender differences in academic stress mainly in adolescent or secondary school environment. Indicatively, studies conducted on secondary school students have tended to have equal levels of stress in both genders with any differences being cultural, measurement, or contextual (Devchoudhury and Devasagayam, 2022). Similarly, gender has been reported as non-significant in some studies in Nigerian university and more general groups of adolescents when other predictors, like age or course of study, are incorporated, albeit having some mixed patterns (Fadipe et al., 2024).

However, in contrast, there is more evidence that indicates that gender is a valid factor; the female students tend to report greater academic stress. The meta-analyses and empirical studies have consistently shown that females have higher stress levels caused by societal expectations, differences in coping, or higher sensitivity to academic requirements (Graves et al., 2021; Li et al., 2024). Certain regression models have found that there is a notable gender impact (β = 0.177, p < 0.05) and females are more vulnerable (Fadipe et al., 2024).

This is because the absence of a strong gender influence in the study could be due to the nature of the sample. In Ibadan, adolescent in-school population can be subjected to acute stressors like exams that overshadow the chronic ones, or, the culture can even even the genders in terms of experiences. The above factors indicate the significance of context in the interpretation of the role of gender in academic stress.

RQ3: Is there difference on Academic stress among In-School students in Ibadan, Oyo State based on gender (Male and female)?

Table 3: Summary Table of t-test for independent measures showing comparison of Academic stress based on gender

	Gender	N	Mean	SD	Df	T	Sig
	Male	61	21.16	3.37
Academic stress					94	.352	.549
	Female	39	20.14	3.54

From Table 3, the result showed that there was significant difference in Academic stress based on gender (male and female) among In-School students in Ibadan, Oyo State (T₍₉₄₎= .352, p<.05). From the table above, a mean score of 21.16 for male participants while female participants had a mean score of 20.14 with a mean difference of 1.02 and statistically significant. This implies that the academic stress among In-School students students in Ibadan, Oyo State based on gender (Male and female) is difference. Male experience more of academic stress than the female.

The significance of this finding is that it contradicts the generally observed trend in previous studies, where the female students tend to report greater academic stress. The majority of studies on adolescents and secondary-school students indicate that girls can be more stressed, with a higher tendency to emotional sensitivity, an increased perception of workload, more social and performance expectations, and a different coping behaviour (Graves et al., 2021; Li et al., 2024). Most empirical studies, such as meta-analyses and extensive surveys, tend to show small to moderate differences, which are characterised by women having higher levels of stress (Souza-Lima et al., 2025). According to post-COVID-19 studies, female students experienced more stress and worse emotional adjustment when academic disruptions occurred (Sharma et al., 2022).

Nevertheless, an increasing body of literature confirms our observation and indicates that male adolescents and secondary-school students are also more likely to report higher levels of academic stress. In South Asian countries like India and Nepal, male students experience higher scales of academic stress, grade anxiety and self-expectations. It is postulated that these differences are due to cultural norms of male success, performance pressure imposed socially, and unique goal-setting and role socialisation (Adhikari et al., 2025; Frontiers in Public Health, 2025). On the other hand, the case in the Sub-Saharan Africa, especially in Nigeria is inconclusive. Some studies indicate no strong gender variations whereas others note tendencies that seem to be dictated by local culture, school types, or testing tools (Amoadu et al., 2024; other studies in Nigeria).

The small yet meaningful outcome of greater male stress in our sample puts into perspective this contextual image. The pattern may be attributed to factors such as high pressure during exams, high cultural expectation of male success in schools and measurement instruments that identify particular stressors in Ibadan. The difference is low (M = 1.02) and t-value is low, hence the effect-size is small and to be handled with care. These findings should be validated by conducting larger and more heterogeneous studies.

In total, these findings reveal that context and culture determine gender differences in academic stress. They further emphasise that gender-sensitive and context-specific interventions are required to support male adolescents in Nigerian schools and not to presuppose that all students are equally vulnerable as in the whole world.

4.1 Discussion

The findings of this study point to the fact that academic resilience is not considerably correlated with academic stress in in-school adolescents in Ibadan, Oyo State. This result is in contrast to the current literature assumed to suggest that academic resilience is a protective factor that enables successful coping with academic stress (Howley-, Rouse, 2020; Masten, 2011). The immediate conclusion is that the recovery skills in the event of academic misfortune do not necessarily go together with the reduced academic stress experiences as observed in the present setting. However, the finding agrees with Dhakkal (2013), who indicated that academic resilience showed a non statistically significant relationship with academic stress. The first reason could be that the presence of adaptive resources does not significantly reduce academic pressure and demands on resilient students when multiple stressors remain chronic and endemic or prevalent in a system, and as is the case with examination-based learning in school.

Besides, the evidence indicates that gender is not a statistically significant predictor of academic stress among respondents. This finding matches Dhakkal (2013), though it is opposite to a number of studies that indicate high stress levels among female students, which is often explained by high emotional sensitivity, parental demands and pressures in society (Busari and  Omoponle, 2018; Karaman et al., 2019). The lack of any visible gender effect of the current study suggests that academic stress might be presented in a widely similar way in both male and female adolescents in Ibadan, which could be because of common school setting, similar academic demands, and similar exposures to stress factors in school.

The independent t -test, however, demonstrated a slightly higher average level of academic stress in the males in comparison to their female counterparts. The difference is minimal, whereas it is contrasted to the overwhelming results of the literature which tend to document higher levels of stress in female students (Reddy et al., 2018). Such a trend can be related to contextual issues, including culture-based expectations on male students to perform on the academic level, the pressure to live to societal and or family expectations, or unequal perceptions and reporting of stress. However, due to the small scale of the difference, it should be considered with caution, and a new study is advised.

Overall, the discussion highlights that the popular beliefs about predictors of academic stress, including academic resilience and gender, might not be consistent across the context. The results also point out the relevance of considering environmental, cultural, and systemic factors in the studies of academic stress among adolescents.

4.2 Conclusion

This paper concludes that academic resilience is not a significant predictor of academic stress in in-school adolescents in Ibadan, Oyo state. Similarly, the gender does not have noticeable effects on the academic stress levels among this group of people. The findings, therefore, dispute existing hypotheses that academic resilience is an inherent buffer to academic stress and that there is gender difference in stress everywhere. Since the issue of academic stress continues to attract the attention of in-school adolescents, it is clear that additional factors, including parental expectations, the school climate, instructional practises, and personal strategies of coping, might have a stronger impact on the stress experiences of students.

4.3 Recommendations

Counselling and Support Services: Schools should support counselling services that help the in-school adolescents develop personalised, pragmatic stress management strategies, as opposed to using resilience-building interventions.

Whole Academic Policies: School administrators are expected to champion equitable academic policies that reduce overworking and integrate extra-curricular activities that enhance psychological health of the students.

Gender-Neutral Stress Management Interventions: Since there was no significant gender predicted academic stress, stress management programmes must be designed on an inclusive basis, which is able to help all students without favouring certain gender categories.

Parental Involvement: The parents must also be informed about the effects of academic stress and made to be supportive of the home environment where encouragement and understanding are promoted instead of the undue pressure.

Future research: Future research ought to examine other causes of academic stress, such as socioeconomic status, type of school, peer pressure and family life to provide a more complete picture of the factors that contribute to the occurrence of academic stress among adolescent students in Ibadan.

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Trauma and the Pursuit of Equality and Empowerment of Women: A Comparative Analysis of Texts by Margaret Atwood, Kiran Desai, and Arundhati Roy

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Citation

Qureshi, T., & Javed, I. (2026). Trauma and the Pursuit of Equality and Empowerment of Women: A Comparative Analysis of Texts by Margaret Atwood, Kiran Desai, and Arundhati Roy. International Journal of Research, 13(2), 135–145. https://doi.org/10.26643/ijr/2026/38

Tanzah Qureshi Dr. Indira Javed

Research Scholar, tanzahq02@gmail.com Professor

BU, Bhopal SNGGPG College Bhopal

Abstract-

This paper focuses on various cultural, social and political nuances that help to subjugate the women and the impact this has on the quest for equality. The women writers though shy away from being called the feminist still focus on the issues faced by women, their silent endurance to the discrimination and cultural subjugation which results in various problems faced by them. The female characters in the respective novels face their trails and are triumphant by resolving their psychological or sociological issues. The women writers by talking about these problems have brought them to the centre stage and have thus created a dialogue for gender equality. This analysis delves into Margaret Atwood, Kiran Desai, and Arundhati Roy’s intricate connection between trauma and the quest for empowerment of women by examining the specific manifestations of subjugation within their respective narratives.

Keywords– Trauma, Women empowerment, Gender equality, Alienation, Estrangeness Effect

Objectives

To understand the perspectives of gender from the view point of Margaret Atwood, Arundhati Roy and Kiran Desai,

To explain the effect of gender and patriarchy on women psyche,

Methadology

The research methodology of this research paper is qualitative in design. Researcher has used both primary and secondary material to prove the objectives. Textbooks, critical material such as Research Papers, Journals and viewpoints of experts have been utilized. This is descriptive, explanatory, analytical and comparative study.

Introduction

Trauma acts as a major barrier to women’s equality, rooted in systemic patriarchal structures, gender-based violence, and transgenerational cycles of abuse. It induces fear, anxiety, and diminished self-confidence, hindering autonomy and economic empowerment. Overcoming this requires trauma-informed approaches, safe spaces, and active engagement of men to dismantle inequality. Addressing trauma is not just an individual, therapeutic need but a necessary step for societal progress in achieving gender equality and empowering women to fully participate in all aspects of life.

Review of Literature and Discussion

“Through her vivid portrayals of women’s struggles and triumphs, Roy critiques the patriarchal systems that perpetuate gender inequality, while also celebrating the resilience and agency of her female protagonists” (Raman and Kumar 2021). This quote suggests that Roy in extreme goes against the gender restrictions and patriarchal norms. She is a feminist and womanist who thinks for women and talks about their empowerment in society, family and state.

Trauma manifests in many things, including the oppressive weight of patriarchal norms, the suppression of individual voices, and the psychological impact of societal expectations. These authors critically examine the systemic pressures which inflict deep-seated wounds upon women, and are manifested as internal conflicts and external struggles for autonomy by women. In Margaret Atwood’s works, female protagonists frequently navigate environments marked by male violence and exploitation, employing psychological defenses to process their suffering before embarking on a transformative journey towards self-reclamation. Specifically, in The Handmaid’s Tale, Atwood shows the extent of identity loss that the handmaids are stripped of their names. “My name isn’t Offred, I have another name, which nobody uses now because it’s forbidden” (Handmaid’s Tale 3).Atwood explores the intricate relationship between individual memory and societal control, demonstrating how the protagonist Offred utilizes personal recollections to maintain her sense of self amidst Gilead’s systematic attempts to erase her identity. This struggle for self-preservation through memory and resistance against oppressive systems is a recurring motif in Atwood’s works, often highlighting the specifically female nature of these struggles, such as issues surrounding reproductive rights and societal objectification (Banurekha and Abhinya). Atwood’s narratives consistently feature female protagonists who, despite their individual circumstances, actively resist victimhood by finding unique ways to assert their agency and challenge the patriarchal structures that seek to diminish them (Banurekha and Abhinya) ( Jaisy). We see Offred being subjected to gender-based oppression, violence, and objectification. Yet, she subtly defies these constraints through her passive rebellious acts like trying to maintain her autonomy by preserving the memories of her family. Furthermore,in Surfacing, Atwood intricately weaves the themes of environmental degradation and gendered oppression, portraying them as co-dependent systems of domination, where women’s bodies and the natural world become parallel sites of control and commodification ( Muthuswamy and Venkateshkumar). Atwood’s narratives delve into the fragmented psyche of her female characters , often caused by the female subjguation that they face, they have to reconnect with their past to make themselves whole again or to fight the demons of their past and overcome them. This fragmentation often stems from the deceptive patriarchal ideologies that diminish women’s autonomy and the sense of self. Offred, for instance, reclaims her fragmented self through storytelling and her monologues, critiquing the Gileadean propaganda and asserting her individuality. Her internal monologues serve as a critical tool for mental survival, allowing her to resist the imposed subjugation and maintain a semblance of her former identity

The profound psychological impact of such systemic subjugation necessitates a rigorous examination of the coping mechanisms and resistance strategies employed by these protagonists. The narrative often functions as a critical medium for these women to articulate their experiences and reclaim themselves within the oppressive structures.

Kiran Desai in her novel, ‘The Inheritance of Loss’ shows how trauma and displacement profoundly affect the identities and futures of its female characters, illustrating their arduous journeys toward self-discovery amidst postcolonial anxieties. Her protagonists grapple with both personal and collective traumas, revealing how gendered experiences intertwine with broader socio-political dislocations to shape their inner lives and external realities. “Could fulfillment ever be felt as deeply as loss?” (Inheritance of Loss 3)

This poignant question encapsulates the existential dilemmas faced by Desai’s characters, who are often caught between cultural expectations and personal aspirations. In her Novel, characters like Nimi, the judge’s wife went through abuse. “He beat her with a brass vase. She was never the same again”(Inheritance of Loss 186).

This line highlights the impact that abuse has on women and the subsequent changes that come with it. Nimi was beautiful and rich, Jemubhai, took advantage of the dowry money and yet he did not even treat his wife as a human being. Once he hurled her face in the toilet. whenever he met her, she had gone through phases of abuses and his ultimate decision to never see her brings her even more misery. She was neglected and abused. This systemic mistreatment, including marital violence and abandonment, leaves indelible psychological scars, illustrating how patriarchal structures inflict lasting damage on women’s sense of self-worth and agency. Such portrayals underscore the pervasive nature of gender inequality, where women are often confined to subordinate roles and subjected to various forms of exploitation, including psychological, economic, and sexual abuse. These profound and multifaceted traumas necessitate resilient coping mechanisms, which often manifest as internal resistance and a determined pursuit of self-redefinition against oppressive societal norms (Devraju) ( Sharma and Chouhan). The female characters in Desai’s works frequently navigate the complexities of cultural hybridity and identity crises, often reflecting the broader post-colonial struggles for self-definition in a globalized world (Tennyson) .

Desai through Sai shows the generational gendered changes. The changes are albiet subtle but Desai has shown these tranformations. Sai, though more educated and modern, still grapples with gendered expectations. Her romance with Gyan exposes the fragility of her autonomy in a society where women’s choices are often undermined. Her experiences highlight the subtle yet persistent ways in which patriarchal norms continue to influence even seemingly liberated women, forcing them to negotiate their desires within established societal frameworks (Desai). Her attempts to assert independence are frequently met with resistance, underscoring the enduring societal pressures that circumscribe female agency even in contemporary contexts.

Arundhati Roy also exposes the Indian society’s fragility when Ammu falls in love with Baba. This transgression of caste and social boundaries leads to tragic consequences, illustrating how societal rigidity and patriarchal control restrict women’s emotional and physical freedom, ultimately shaping their destiny. Roy’s novel The God of Small Things further underscores how societal prejudices and patriarchal systems contribute to the trauma experienced by women, often through the lens of forbidden love and its devastating repercussions on female protagonists. The tragic narratives of Ammu and other female characters reveal how the intersection of gender, class, and caste often subjects women to systemic oppression, leading to profound personal and intergenerational trauma. Her relationship with Velutha, an Untouchable, challenges the deeply entrenched caste system, highlighting the intersection of gender and caste as sites of resistance (Chacko 2000 and Nair 2002).

“She’s a woman. She’s not allowed to decide what she wants” (The God of Small Things 45). This statement profoundly encapsulates the pervasive subjugation experienced by women within rigidly hierarchical societal constructs, wherein patriarchal norms systematically curtail individual agency.

Rahel navigates a different path. She modern, independent well eduacted but still bears the scars of this societal conditioning, manifesting in her struggles with relationships and a pervasive sense of displacement. She does get married to a man but she struggles with emotional intimacy. She recognizes that Larry loves her, and she accepts the void that exists in her marriage.

“He couldn’t understand her. She couldn’t explain. They didn’t agree on things” (The God of Small Things 20). Their inability to bridge this communicative chasm underscores the profound alienation that can arise even within intimate partnerships when fundamental understandings of identity and desire diverge, a consequence often exacerbated by the entrenched societal pressures impacting female autonomy.

In The God of Small Things, the female characters, including Mammachi, Baby Kochamma, Ammu, and Rahel, despite their intellect and affluence, are unable to achieve their full potential due to a system of oppression rooted in gender. She understands the profound impact of her mother’s ostracization on her own capacity for connection, highlighting the intergenerational trauma inflicted by societal strictures. This intergenerational trauma, exacerbated by societal judgments and restrictive norms, manifests as a perpetual struggle against systemic oppression, impeding the women’s achieving their full potential and well-being (ALI).

Specifically, the analysis delves into how these authors utilize distinct narrative techniques to portray the psychological impact of trauma, often linking individual experiences of distress to broader socio-political injustices (Abubakar, 2017). Moreover, this section explores how the authors’ representational choices, particularly concerning gender and sexuality, contribute to a nuanced understanding of trauma within marginalized communities, thereby offering fresh insights into the intricate interplay of power and vulnerability (Ranga & Prasad, 2025). For instance, Atwood’s *Surfacing* explores the protagonist’s journey of individuation, directly linking her psychological recovery from past traumatic experiences to an introspective exploration of her unconscious mind (González Hernández, 2015) (Heidarizadeh, 2015). Desai, on the other hand, through characters like Bim, explores the enduring nature of trauma within familial structures, highlighting how intergenerational patterns of abuse and societal expectations shape feminine identity within traditional contexts (Kumar, 2024). Roy further complicates this by depicting characters, such as Rahel, who navigate complex socio-political landscapes where caste, gender, and historical legacies profoundly impact their identity and choices, underscoring the pervasive influence of societal and familial pressures (Kumar, 2024). This analytical framework further extends to examining how these authors, through their distinct literary styles, dismantle hegemonic narratives concerning gender and sexuality, advocating for more inclusive and equitable societal visions (Ranga & Prasad, 2025). Through their narratives, these authors collectively illuminate the intricate connections between personal suffering and systemic inequalities, advocating for a deeper understanding of how trauma permeates individual and collective consciousness (Heidarizadeh, 2015).

Discussion

The discussion section will elaborate on the implications of these findings, drawing connections between the narrative techniques and thematic concerns identified in the results section to broader theoretical frameworks concerning trauma studies, postcolonial literature, and feminist theory. Specifically, it will explore how Atwood, Desai, and Roy contribute to an understanding of trauma not merely as an individual psychological phenomenon, but as a deeply embedded socio-political construct shaped by historical oppressions and power imbalances.

And how these traumatic experiences, specifically of women, pave the way for a more nuanced approach where women realize that their sufferings wouldn’t end until and unless they change themselves. They take charge, and they resolve their traumas. This profound understanding is clearly shown in the generational changes that women see. Rahel and Ammu’s situation is different but the inherent trauma remains the same This cyclical nature of trauma across generations underscores the need for profound societal transformation rather than individual adaptation, suggesting that collective action is essential for true liberation from oppressive structures. Moreover, the enduring effects of Partition, as depicted in various literary works, highlight how historical events continue to shape the traumatic experiences of women, emphasizing the need for a comprehensive understanding of their lived realities.This literary analysis delves into the psychological underpinnings of female protagonists, revealing how characters like Mariam and Rahel internalize their mothers’ trauma, perpetuating cycles of self-perception influenced by gendered oppression and cultural exclusion (Işık, 2025). This intergenerational transference of trauma not only molds their individual identities but also reflects broader societal narratives where women’s worth is often defined by their roles within patriarchal structures (Kumar, 2024).

Furthermore, the psychological exploration of these characters often reveals a fractured self, necessitating an internal journey toward self-knowledge and integration, much like Jungian individuation, where protagonists reconcile conscious and unconscious elements to achieve wholeness (González Hernández, 2015) (Banurekaa & Abinaya, n.d.).

Result and Findings

This section presents the findings from the textual analysis, highlighting recurrent thematic patterns and narrative strategies employed by Atwood, Desai, and Roy in depicting trauma and the struggle for equality. A critical examination of these literary works reveals how deeply ingrained societal structures exacerbate personal suffering, simultaneously illuminating the resilience and agency of characters striving for liberation.

Anita Desai has focused on the psychological nuances of her characters, delving into their inner lives and frustrations within a changing societal landscape. Her protagonists often grapple with neurotic conditions arising from an inability to adapt to harsh realities, leading to psychological disturbances whether they react aggressively or compromise with their situations

Atwood’s female charcters often grapple with deeply personal traumas such as abuse, imprisonment, and objectification, which underscore the broader societal pressures faced by women.

Conversely, Kiran Desai’s protagonists frequently navigate the trauma of displacement and cultural alienation, revealing the profound psychosocial impact of globalization and postcolonial identities on individuals. In contrast,

Arundhati Roy’s literary contributions explore the pervasive trauma inflicted by systemic injustices, including caste discrimination and environmental degradation, demonstrating how deeply rooted societal structures perpetuate cycles of suffering and inequality.

Conclusion

These narratives, through their poignant portrayal of female suffering and resilience, highlight the critical need for gender equality as a means to alleviate the deep-seated trauma inflicted by patriarchal structure. Roy intricately weaves the stories of three generations of women—Baby Kochamma, Mammachi, Ammu, and Rahel—to highlight the difficult situation of women in post-colonial nations, demonstrating how their social positions were profoundly affected by the legacies of imperialism and the British colonizers’ oppressive humanitarian missions. This intergenerational trauma, exacerbated by societal judgments and restrictive norms, manifests as a perpetual struggle against systemic oppression, impeding the women’s achieving their full potential and well-being.

The women writers by highlighting the generational changes in the autonomy of women show the changes that have occurred over time and the need for continued advocacy to achieve full gender equity.

Atwood, Desai, and Roy, bring trauma and gender equality to the forefront of their narratives, using literature as a powerful space to explore the collective loved experience of women under the oppressive systems of patriarchy. Their works emphasise that trauma is not just a personal or psychological issue but also a reflection of broader social, cultural and political forces that affect women. By portraying trauma as a product of patriarchy and postcolonial structures, these authors challenge the traditional approaches and call for a more inclusive understanding of healing. Their narratives emphasize that true empowerment requires both personal recovery as well as dismantling the systems that perpetuate harm. These authors use fiction to amplify women’s voices, confront systems that perpetuate harm and envision a future where healing is tied to equality and liberation. They bring trauma to a center stage as a feminist and political issue making a strong case of empowerment of women through narrative and structural change.

References

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ALI, Yaseen. The Politics of Feminism in the Eyes of Postcolonial Studies. DergiPark (Istanbul University), July 2021.

Atwood, Margaret. The Handmaid’s Tale. Toronto, Ontario: McClelland Steward Ltd, 1985.

_____ and J. Brooks Bouson. Critical Insights. 2013.

Banurekaa, S., and S. Abinaya. Emerging Women in Margaret Atwood’s Select Novels.

Barman, R. P. Exploring Feminine Identity Challenges in Anita Desai’s Fiction. SSRN Electronic Journal, Jan. 2024.

Chacko, M. Caste and Gender in Arundhati Roy’s The God of Small Things. Economic and Political Weekly, Issue 35 volume 42, 2000. PP, 3745-3750.

Desai, Kiran. The Inheritance of Loss. Penguin, India. 2006.

Devaraju, Vanitha. The Theme of Loss and Grief in Shashi Deshpande’s Small Remedies. Smart Moves Journal Ijellh, Vol. 6, no. 10, Oct. 2018.

González Hernández, Ma Lourdes. The Mapping of the Self. 2015.

Heidarizadeh, Negin. “The Significant Role of Trauma in Literature and Psychoanalysis.” Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences, vol. 192, June 2015, p. 788.

Jaisy, D. L. An Eco-Feminism: A Study OF Margaret Atwood’s The Handmaid’s Tale. 2018.

Kumar, B. Magesh. “Exploring Feminine Identity: A Comparative Analysis of Female Protagonists in Anita Desais- Clear Light of Day and Arundhati Roys- The God of Small Things.” International Journal for Research in Applied Science and Engineering Technology, vol. 12, no. 6, June 2024, p. 1670.

Mutuswamy, Priyadarsini, and Venkateshkumar. “Roots of Ruin: Ecofeminist Echoes of Environmental and Gendered Subjugation in Margaret Atwood’s Dystopias.” International Journal For Multidisciplinary Research, vol. 7, no. 3, June2025.

Raman, P. and Kumar. The Language of Rebellion: A Study of Arundhati Roy’s Narrative Techniques. International Journal of Literature, Volume 22, Issue 3, 2021. PP, 395-410.

Ranga, R., and Pushkala Prasad. “The Politics of Representing Gender and Sexuality in Arundhati Roy’s Selected Books.” World Journal of English Language, vol. 16, no. 1, Sept. 2025, p. 305.

Sharma, Divyani, and Swati Chauhan. “Portrayal of Patriarchal Subjugation of Women in the Selected Works of Anita Nair.” Rupkatha Journal on Interdisciplinary Studies in Humanities, vol. 15, no. 5, Dec. 2023.

Tennyson, M. E. “Cultural Hybridity and Identity Crisis in The Inheritance of Loss.” Studies in Social Science & Humanities, vol. 3, no. 7, July 2024, p. 37.

Wangmo, Thinley, and Margaret Atwood. The Fall of Women under the Masculine World and the Rise of Women through the Awakening of Feminist Instinct in Surfacing by Margaret Atwood. Apr. 2018.

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Analysing the Perception of Violence in Walker’s Short Story Collection In Love and Trouble: Stories of Black Women

Daily writing prompt

Have you ever unintentionally broken the law?

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Dr. Ireshadsaheb Usmansaheb Shaikh

U. P. Arts and Science College, Dahiwel, Dhule (M.S.) Dec. 2025

ireshad.shaikh11@gmail.com

Abstract: Alice Walker is a renowned African American novelist, poet, short-story writer, and social activist.She became known worldwide with the publication of her seminal work, The Colour Purple. She is regarded as a radical black feminist author. She propagated her theory of womanism in her stories. Violence is a recurring theme in her stories. Walker’s narratives demonstrate the hardships, tribulations, and dilemmas faced by African American immigrants in the United States. Alice Walker’s short story collections explore the theme of violence, particularly as it relates to women of color during the era of chattel slavery in the United States. Women of colour have historically been subjected to violence by both white and black men. While violence against black women is dehumanising, their resistance offers the possibility of a new identity. Walker exposes the traumatic lives of black women resisting oppression and violence in her short story collections in various forms, such as physical, mental, self-inflicted, and societal violence.

Keywords: Violence, Oppression, Resistance, Resilience, Mammies, Emotional abuse, Sexual harassment.

Alice Walker is a versatile and globally recognised American author, best known for her Pulitzer Prize-winning novel The Color Purple (1982). She is regarded as a radical feminist writer and is known for formulating Womanism, also known as Black Feminism. Walker believed that the feminist movement was primarily owned by white women, leaving little room for women of colour, as white feminists often failed to acknowledge or relate to the experiences of Black women. Along with other Black feminist critics, she helped develop a feminist theory that includes the issues and problems of women of colour. For Black feminists, race and class are as vital as gender is for white feminists. Racial and gender discrimination have equally contributed to the dehumanisation of women of colour, prompting efforts to dismantle racist structures.

A recurring theme in Alice Walker’s short story collection In Love and Trouble: Stories of Black Women(1973) is the testament of the exercise of verbal and physical violence against women of colour in the public and domestic spheres. She lays bare the truth of crafting an image of a Black woman as subhuman, unworthy of empathy, asexual, servile, angry, and bestial. Despite being labelled as inhuman, these women persist in asserting their voices and expressing pride in their cultural heritage. Walker’s narratives demonstrate the hardships, tribulations, and dilemmas faced by African American immigrants in the United States. Through these experiences, Walker’s Black female characters endure racism and ultimately gain the strength to challenge and dismantle oppressive patriarchal structures within American society.

Alice Walker’s short story collections explore the theme of violence, particularly as it relates to women of colour during the era of chattel slavery in the United States. Enslaved women were often subjected to dehumanising stereotypes, being labelled as breeders, mammies, jezebels, hoochie mamas, and sapphires. In her stories, Walker delineates these negative perceptions. Representations of Black women in art, literature, and popular culture have frequently depicted them as strong, masculine, bulky, boisterous, and angry, which has contributed to the notion that they could endure or were susceptible to violence. In the story ‘Everyday Use,’ a mother describes herself as,

“a large, big-boned woman with rough, man-working hands……. I can kill and clean a hog as mercilessly as a man. My fat keeps me hot in zero weather. I can work outside all day, breaking ice to get water for washing; I can eat pork liver cooked over the open fire minutes after it comes steaming from the hog. One winter I knocked a bull calf straight in the brain between the eyes with a sledgehammer and had the meat hung up to chill before nightfall.” (Walker 46)

A prominent example of colonial and racial exploitation in European history is the case of Sarah Baartman, who was paraded and exhibited half-naked in street shows in London and Paris around 1811. Crowds were invited to observe her body, described as large, uncommon, and erotic, and she was labelled the ‘Hottentot Venus’. After her death, her body parts were preserved in jars and displayed in a museum. This violence was perpetuated by the dissemination of negative images of black women. Baartman’s narrative documents abuse, violence, sexual harassment, and rape. The construction of a false narrative about women of colour was intended to coerce them into inhumane and degrading conditions, thereby normalising violence against them and discouraging resistance. Women of colour have historically been subjected to violence by both white and black men. While violence against black women is dehumanising, their resistance offers the possibility of a new identity. In “Her Sweet Gerome”, the black female protagonist is described as a “big awkward woman, with big bones and hard rubbery flesh” (Walker 26) and endures domestic violence. Her husband physically abuses her and fails to recognise her as an equal partner. She gives him all her money and attempts to conceal the visible marks of abuse with makeup. She married him for his perceived gentlemanly behaviour towards other women and initially felt proud to be his wife, but his actions ultimately contradict this image. Although he is a civil rights activist, he beats her “black and blue” (Walker 27), yet the community continues to regard him as a gentleman.

Walker exposes the harshness of black men even as they fight for their own rights, highlighting the violation of the protagonist’s rights. He never treats her as a wife; when she seeks affection, he responds with violence. He also inherits her father’s money. Despite enduring his violent and abusive behaviour and spending all her resources, she becomes distraught upon discovering his affairs with other women. In her search for the truth, she realises his obsession with the Civil Rights Movement and the black revolution. In a moment of heartbreak, she destroys his books with a knife and sets fire to the bedroom. “Overwhelming with pain,” she hides her face behind her slightly burned hands and “screamed and screamed” (Walker 34).

“The Child Who Favored Daughter” depicts the severe abuse, crime, and violence experienced by women of colour at the hands of both white masters and black men. The narrative centres on the suffering of three women. The story begins with a black man described as “father, judge and giver of life” (Walker 35) who has a daughter named Daughter. In his youth, his sister, also named Daughter, fell in love with his white master, who treated them inhumanely. She is described as “like honey, tawny, wild and sweet,” and her brother cared for her deeply. Despite his pleas, she left with the white man. She later returned, accompanied by another woman’s husband, appearing hysterical and profoundly changed. She had lost her long hair, “her teeth wobbled in her gums when she ate,” and no longer recognised anyone. She sang continuously and was “tied on the bed as she was at the mercy of everyone.” To keep her silent at night, her father beat her with a belt. Eventually, she was found dead on the compound spikes.

The narrative describes a man who, overwhelmed by his emotions, violently abuses his wife, ultimately causing her death and leaving behind a daughter. This daughter, depicted metaphorically as a flower, mirrors her mother’s fate by falling in love with a white man. Upon discovering this, the father subjects her to prolonged physical abuse, as described: “he beats her for a long time with a harness from the stable, and where the buckles hit, there is a welling of blood that comes to be level with the tawny skin, the spill over and falls” (Walker 43). The violence continues the following morning, culminating in further brutality: “he sees her blouse, wet and slippery from the rain, has slipped completely off her shoulders and her high young breast is bare.” In a frenzied state, he “gathers their fullness in his fingers……. he is suddenly burning with unnamable desire……draws the girl away from him pulling off his own arm and with quick slashes of his knife leaves two bleeding craters the size of grapefruits on her bare bronze chest and flings……to the yelping dogs” (Walker 43). Walker poignantly narrates the girl’s traumatic experience, drawing a comparison to flowers and emphasizing her defiance: “flowers pledge no allegiance to the banners of any man” (Walker 44). The story explores the pervasive violence faced by women of colour, particularly within familial and romantic relationships. Walker’s narratives detail the profound suffering of black women as they navigate relationships with fathers, brothers, husbands, and lovers, striving to survive and find meaning within oppressive circumstances.

“The Welcome Table” exposes the racist and violent actions of white individuals toward a poor, elderly Black woman in the American South. The protagonist attempts to pray at a church, but, due to her age and mental state, she does not realise it is a church designated exclusively for white congregants. Convinced that her devotion to Jesus Christ will protect her, she enters, only to be forcibly removed by members of the congregation. She experiences humiliation and injury and is found dead beside the road the following day. The narrative highlights her deprivation of human rights and the community’s indifference to her suffering and the injustice she endures. Similarly, “Flowers” depicts the realities of violence, lynching, and segregation during the Civil Rights Movement. White individuals would often fabricate accusations of rape against Black men to justify lynching, which served as a tool to degrade and dehumanise Black communities. The story follows Myop, a young girl who discovers the body of a lynched Black man, leading to her loss of innocence as she confronts the brutal realities of racial violence. Her stories are poignant and address themes of physical violence, beatings, fear, threats, the threat of rape, lynching, and death.

The story “The Revenge of Hannah Kemmhuff” explores the theme of physical violence. Here, the protagonist, Hannah, is physically abused by her husband, leading to a dramatic and violent confrontation. “Really, Doesn’t Crime Pay?” is another powerful story in Walker’s collection that deals with emotional abuse. The protagonist, Roselily, is trapped in an oppressive marriage with a man who emotionally manipulates and controls her, while another man in her life destroys her creativity by stealing her manuscript of stories. Stories like “Roselily”, “Everyday Use”, “The Welcome Table”, “Strong Horse Tea”, and “The Diary of an African Nun” demonstrate the societal violence, through systemic racism and sexism, confronted by women of colour, making them prone to violence and oppression. Stories like “Entertaining God’ and “We Drank Wine in France” reveal the theme of self-inflicted violence. Walker’s female characters struggle with internalised oppression, leading to self-destructive behaviours.Walker’s stories expose dark realities of the experiences of women of colour, filled with violence and subordination. Her stories attest to the resistance and resilience of women of colour.

Reference:

Allaham, Ali Ahmad. “The Short Story As a Form of Resistance :A Study of the Short Stories of Ghassan Kanafani, Ngugi Wa Thiong’o, and Alice Walker.” 2009, https://core.ac.uk/download/153778714.pdf.
Bagabas, Riham. “Analyzing “The Welcome Table” by Alice Walker from a WomanistPerspective.” 2022.Christian, Barbara. “The Contrary Women of Alice Walker.” The Black Scholar, 1981, pp. 21–71, doi:117.240.50.232. Accessed 4 Dec. 2025.
Collins, Patricia Hill. “What’s in a Name? Womanism, Black Feminism and Beyond.” The Black Scholar, vol. 26, no. 1, 2001, pp. 9–26.
Harris, Trudier. “Folklore in the Fiction of Alice Walker: A Perpetuation of Historical and Literary Traditions.” Black American Literature Forum, vol. 11, no. 1, 1977, pp. 3–8. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/3041531. Accessed 13 Mar. 2024.
Harrison, Jade M. “The Core Four: An Examination of Contemporary Black Women\U27s Writing in The Norton Anthology of African American Literature.” 2019, https://core.ac.uk/download/635587962.pdf.
Hubbard, Dolan. “Society and Self in Alice Walker’s ‘In Love and Trouble.’” Obsidian II, vol. 6, no. 2, Summer 1991, pp. 50–75. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/44485248. Accessed 4 Dec. 2025.
Mickelson, Anne Z. Reaching Out: Sensitivity and Order in Recent American Fiction by Women. Scarecrow Press, 1979.
Morrison, Toni. Playing in the Dark: Whiteness and the Literary Imagination. Harvard University Press, 1992.
Murugan, Seema. The Fiction of Alice Walker: A Study of Black Images. Authors Press, 2008.
Petry, Alice Hall. “Alice Walker: The Achievement of the Short Fiction.” Modern Language Studies, vol. 19, no. 1, Winter 1989, pp. 12–27. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/3195263. Accessed 4 Dec. 2025.
Ross, Sinclair. “Racism.” Oxford Reference, Oxford University Press, http://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20111012125231893. Accessed 8 Dec. 2025.
Walker, Alice. The Color Purple. 10th ed., Phoenix, 1982.
The Complete Stories. 1994. Phoenix, 2005.
In Search of Our Mothers’ Gardens. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1983.
Weida, Kaz. “Womanism.” Encyclopedia Britannica, 5 Dec. 2023, http://www.britannica.com/topic/womanism.
Winchell, Donna Haisty. Alice Walker. Twayne Publishers, 1992.

Accessed January 6, 2025.

Myth and Folklore in Naga-Mandala by Girish Karnad

Daily writing prompt

Who are your favorite people to be around?

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Vijay Tulshiram Jadhav

Department of English

Mahatma Gandhi Vidya Mandir, Karamveer Bhausaheb Hiray Arts, Science and Commerce College, Nimgaon, Tal–Malegaon, Dist.–Nashik

Email: vjadhav8390@gmail.com

Abstract

Girish Karnad is a major figure in modern Indian English theatre, known for his effective use of Indian myths, history, and folklore to examine contemporary social issues. Rather than merely retelling traditional stories, Karnad reshapes them to address problems related to marriage, gender relations, and individual identity. His play Naga-Mandala (1988), which is based on two Kannada folktales, is a clear example of this creative method.

This paper examines how myth and folklore function as important narrative devices in Naga-Mandala. Through symbols such as the serpent (Naga), magic roots, the anthill, and the Raat-Rani flower, Karnad brings attention to the suppressed emotional and sexual experiences of women within a patriarchal social system. These symbolic elements expose the emotional distance, moral weakness, and hypocrisy that often exist within male-dominated institutions, especially marriage. The contrast between the socially respected but emotionally indifferent husband and the caring mythical lover highlights the failure of patriarchal masculinity to provide emotional fulfilment.

The paper argues that Naga-Mandala uses folklore as a means of feminist expression by giving space to women’s inner experiences and desires. At the same time, it also reveals the limitations of traditional belief systems, as women’s acceptance depends on social and ritual approval. By combining oral folk traditions with modern theatrical form, Karnad shows that myth continues to be a meaningful and effective medium in contemporary Indian English drama.

Keywords: Girish Karnad, myth, folklore, patriarchy.

Introduction

After India’s independence, Indian English drama gradually moved away from Western dramatic models and began to draw inspiration from indigenous cultural sources. Playwrights started using myths, history, and folklore to express social tensions, psychological conflicts, and postcolonial concerns. Among these playwrights, Girish Karnad holds an important place because of his ability to reinterpret traditional stories in a modern and critical manner.

Karnad does not simply retell myths; he questions them. His plays examine the power structures and social values hidden within traditional narratives. Naga-Mandala (1988) is a strong example of this approach. The play is based on oral folktales that are usually told by women within domestic spaces. By transforming these stories into a modern play, Karnad explores issues of patriarchy, marriage, and female desire. Unlike classical myths that focus on male heroes, the folktales used in Naga-Mandala arise from marginal voices, especially those of women, and therefore challenge dominant cultural traditions.

Research Objectives and Methodology

Research Objectives

The objectives of this paper are:

To examine how myth and folklore operate as narrative tools in Naga-Mandala.
To study the symbolic meaning of elements such as the serpent, magic roots, anthill, and the Raat-Rani flower.
To explore how Karnad uses women-centred folktales to question patriarchal marriage systems.
To establish Naga-Mandala as a feminist reinterpretation of folklore in modern Indian English drama.

Methodology

This study follows a qualitative method of textual analysis. It makes use of:

Myth criticism, especially Northrop Frye’s ideas about archetypes,
Feminist literary criticism focusing on gender, power, and sexuality, and
Folklore studies, particularly the oral traditions discussed by A. K. Ramanujan.

The primary text for analysis is Naga-Mandala. Secondary sources include critical writings on Karnad, Indian theatre, mythology, and feminist theory.

Girish Karnad and the Use of Myth and Folklore

Girish Karnad’s plays regularly use myths, legends, and folktales to explore modern human problems. In Tughlaq, he presents the conflict between political idealism and failure. In Hayavadana, myth becomes a means to explore questions of identity and completeness. In Naga-Mandala, however, Karnad shifts his attention from classical myths to folktales that come from women’s oral traditions.

These folktales are often seen as simple or insignificant, but they express deep emotional truths about women’s lives. By presenting them on the modern stage, Karnad gives importance to voices that are usually ignored. Folklore thus becomes a medium through which suppressed experiences are expressed and social norms are questioned.

Literature Review

Many critics have discussed Karnad’s use of myth and folklore. Aparna Dharwadker explains that Karnad’s plays create a balance between tradition and modernity, using myth as a space for social and ideological debate rather than mere cultural revival. Meenakshi Mukherjee points out that Indian English writers often adapt traditional narratives to address contemporary social issues.

K. Ramanujan’s work on Indian folktales is particularly important for understanding Naga-Mandala. He observes that folktales often preserve women’s suppressed emotions and experiences, especially in relation to marriage and sexuality. While earlier studies recognize the role of folklore in Naga-Mandala, they pay limited attention to how women’s desire and agency are expressed through symbols. This paper attempts to focus on this aspect.

The Serpent (Naga) Myth and Patriarchal Masculinity

In Indian mythology, the serpent or Naga is commonly associated with fertility, renewal, and masculine power. Karnad reshapes this symbol to question traditional ideas of masculinity. The Naga, who takes the form of Appanna at night, shows affection, care, and sexual sensitivity—qualities missing in the real Appanna.

Appanna enjoys respect in society but lacks emotional depth. His cold behaviour towards Rani reveals the emptiness of patriarchal authority, which values control over emotional connection. The Naga’s presence brings emotional and physical fulfillment into Rani’s life, showing how patriarchal systems deny women genuine intimacy.

Magic Roots, Anthill, and Transformation

Magic roots are common in Indian myths and usually symbolize fertility and change. In Naga-Mandala, the blind woman Kurudavva gives Rani a magic root to awaken Appanna’s desire. When it fails, it exposes Appanna’s emotional weakness. Rani throws the root into an anthill, which leads to the awakening of the Naga.

The anthill acts as a symbol of birth and transformation. Rani’s accidental action leads to a major change in her life. This suggests that nature and folklore offer possibilities of change that rigid social rules do not allow.

Marriage and Patriarchy: A Critical Reading

Marriage in Naga-Mandala is shown not as a sacred relationship but as a social system that supports male dominance. Appanna’s good reputation in society hides his cruel behaviour at home. Rani’s silence in the beginning reflects how women often accept oppression as normal.

The Naga’s role challenges the belief that marriage alone ensures happiness. By presenting an alternative emotional relationship, Karnad exposes the emotional emptiness of patriarchal masculinity.

Folklore as Feminist Resistance

Rani does not openly rebel against her situation, yet folklore works as a silent force that empowers her. At the end of the play, her transformation into a goddess shows how myth validates women’s experiences even when logic and reality fail to do so.

At the same time, Karnad remains critical. Rani’s acceptance by society depends on a test of purity, showing that folklore can support patriarchal values as well. This double nature of folklore makes the play complex and realistic rather than idealistic

Conclusion

Naga-Mandala clearly shows Girish Karnad’s skill in using myth and folklore to examine social realities. By focusing on women’s oral narratives, the play highlights the emotional suffering caused by patriarchy and the neglect of women’s desires. Myth becomes both a means of resistance and a reflection of social contradictions.

Karnad neither blindly supports tradition nor completely rejects it. Instead, he questions its values and power structures. Through Naga-Mandala, he connects the past with the present and confirms the importance of myth in modern Indian theatre. The play establishes Karnad as a major voice in Indian English drama who successfully combines tradition with critical insight.

References

Karnad, Girish. Naga-Mandala: Play with a Cobra. Oxford University Press, 1990.

Dharwadker, Aparna. Theatres of Independence: Drama, Theory, and Urban Performance in India since 1947. Oxford University Press, 2005.

Mukherjee, Meenakshi. The Twice Born Fiction. Heinemann, 1971.

Ramanujan, A. K. Folktales from India. Pantheon Books, 1991.

Frye, Northrop. Anatomy of Criticism. Princeton University Press, 1957.

Beauvoir, Simone de. The Second Sex. Vintage, 1989.

Diasporic Consciousness in Bharati Mukherjee’s Wife

Daily writing prompt

Are you patriotic? What does being patriotic mean to you?

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Dr. Dinesh P. Patil and Miss. Shiba Akhtar Khan

Appasaheb R. B. Garud Arts, Commerce, and Science College, Shendurni. Tal. Jamner.

Email ID: dinesh.p.patil@gmail.com, shibakhan0290@gmail.com

Abstract

This research paper explores diasporic consciousness through Bharati Mukherjee’s novel Wife, which follows Dimple Dasgupta, a young Indian woman navigating the complex realities of immigration in the United States. It discusses how migration heightens issues of identity crisis, cultural displacement, alienation, and gendered oppression. The novel depicts the emotional and cultural confusions faced by immigrants, balancing inherited traditions with assimilation pressures in a foreign land. The analysis shows Mukherjee’s portrayal of diasporic consciousness as a fragmented state characterized by alienation, identity struggles, and cultural disturbance. Dimple’s attempt to reconcile her expectations of marriage, self-identity, and freedom with patriarchal constraints and racial marginalization reveals gendered aspects of the diaspora. The paper argues that Mukherjee depicts diasporic consciousness as a traumatic, dissonant process rather than a seamless cultural blend. Ultimately, the novel highlights the psychological pain of migration and questions the idealized notion of the American Dream for immigrant women.

Keywords:Immigration, Hyphenated Identity, Cultural Displacement, Expatriation, Alienation, Identity Crises.

Introduction

The term for the sense of alienation, nostalgia, and displacement among immigrants is diaspora, derived from the Latin word ‘diasperian’, meaning dispersion. Originally, it refers to the dispersion of Jews outside Israel. The Jews were forced to leave Jerusalem, their homeland, and thus they scattered across the world. This exodus led to the loss of their identity. Sunil Amrith, in his critical work, Migration and Diaspora in South Asia, explains that the term diaspora is “the dispersion or spread of any people from their original homeland” (pg. 57). James Clifford, in his work, Routes: Travel and Translation in the Late Twentieth Century, uses the phrase, “dwellings in displacement” (pg. 310). Since dwelling is a key aspect of defining diaspora, the ideas of home and homemaking are essential in diasporic spaces.

Today, the term now encompasses ideas beyond its initial links to hostility, tragedy, alienation, loss, exile, and the aspiration to return. It also signifies a shared homeland—whether through voluntary or forced migration—and involves feelings of estrangement and marginalization within the host country. Vijay Agnew, a Social Science professor, describes diaspora in his book _Diaspora, Memory, and Identitynot just as the dispersal of people from a particular place but also as involving “the collective memory and trauma involved in such dispersion” (p. 193).

Even though the term ‘Diaspora’ has evolved in meaning over time, it still retains certain characteristics such as rootlessness, homelessness, alienation, and love for the homeland. Salman Rushdie, in his critical work, Imaginary Homeland, shares his personal experience as an expatriate, stating that:

“Exiles or emigrants or expatriates are haunted by some sense of loss, some urge to reclaim, to look back, even at the risk of being mutated into pillars of salt. If we do look back, we must also do so in the knowledge – which gives rise to profound uncertainties – that our physical alienation from India almost inevitably means that we will not be capable of reclaiming precisely the thing that was lost; that we will in short, create fictions, not actual cities or villages, but invisible ones, imaginary homelands, Indias of the mind” (pg.10).

In simple terms, when people leave their homes, they often feel lonely and are surprised by how much they miss the comfort of a real home. Connecting with a new culture can be naturally difficult. Differences in cultural and religious backgrounds often make it hard for individuals to find their identity. During the process of settling into a new environment, many diasporic communities experience psychological trauma. Even after adjusting, these communities often face discrimination, alienation, and identity struggles. Common themes in diasporic literature include feelings of displacement, loneliness, societal alienation, and longing.

P. Malikarjuna Rao states that “the lives of immigrants do not follow straight lines or smooth paths, as they are compelled to confront centuries of history within their lifetime, thereby having to endure the experiences of multiple lives and roles.”

Homi K. Bhabha, in his book The Location of Culture, explores the idea of hyphenated identity. He affirms that “I am both a mixture of my home country and host country”. Through this critical work, Bhabha has discussed the concept of hybridity, which emerges when individuals from different cultural backgrounds come into contact. Bhabha emphasized that diaspora communities often inhabit a space of cultural interaction and negotiation, leading to hybrid identities that challenge fixed notions of belonging. He highlights the idea of ‘Third Space’, where new cultural meanings and identities are formed. Moreover, several other diasporic writers have penned down the plight of diasporic communities who suffered a lot to create their identity and adjust to their newfound world.

Diasporic Consciousness

Immigration

Immigration is frequently regarded as the best option for a better life, despite the challenges and difficulties that come with it. For most Asian immigrants, the United States was a “paradise on earth.” C.L. Chua states that “Discovery of the American passage was a dream of fame and failure of egregious identity and material wealth”. (pg. 54). This land of golden opportunities lent a Midas touch for people entering this ‘Promised Land’. In the New Standard Encyclopaedia, the United States is referred to as “a Melting Pot” and “a nation of nations” (pg. 41). All immigrants must, however, go through the process of becoming adopted, Americanized, and integrated into the country’s social and economic structure.

Dimple’s joy is beyond words when Amit reveals that they will be moving to the United States. She gets ready nicely and realizes that everything she needs for a new life is there. Over the phone, Dimple informs her closest friend, Dixie, that she will not be taking any of her old saris with her to America. Relics from Dimple’s past are something she does not want to keep around. Dimple finds being a mother to be a burden. In self-induced abortion, Dimple appears to use abortion as a means of venting her wrath against the Basu family while also assuming control over her body, signifying her mastery over it. She dislikes being directed by her husband and being subject to Basus’ authority. Dimple is excited to move to a place where she won’t have to deal with the demands of domesticity, where she won’t have to live under Basu’s rule or domestication, and where she can be herself.

Dimple might look for ways to escape the role that her community assigns to a wife in America. Her goal is to investigate ways to deviate from the pattern created for middle-class Indian women. She makes friends with Ina Mullick, who she believes broke the traditional expectations of an Indian bride and embraced American culture.

Identity Crisis

Dimple had dreamed since she was a young girl that marriage would give her all the luxuries in the world, but she is now unhappy and disgusted with the circumstances she has found herself in after getting married. To be considered a proper wife by societal standards, she first had to give up her name and then change her way of life. Because of her dark complexion and Bengali name, Dimple finds Amit’s mother, Mrs. Basu, and his older sister, Mrs. Ghosh, repulsive at their first meeting. Mrs. Basu then changes Dimple’s name to Nandini because she doesn’t like it. Dimple was hesitant but did not oppose, and she couldn’t say anything because she wanted to build a strong relationship with her mother-in-law.

Earlier, Dimple was so excited to go to America and start a new journey. Still, after moving to America, it became tough for her to establish her own identity there. Fakrul Alam states that, ‘It is quite obvious, then, that Dimple has come to America, ready to be transformed and willing to seek out an identity that would take her away from her South Asian Community or connect with mainstream American society’ (pg.41). Dimple is helplessly caught in her quest for a female identity as an immigrant. She wants to be like Ina Mullick, who has made her own identity as ‘more American than Americans’. Dimple is so fascinated by Ina and her American ways. But it was tough for her to fully become an American because of the language barrier. She was also unable to operate the elevators. To gain a new American identity, she indulges in an affair with an American, Milt.

Hyphenated Identity

When Dimple goes to the party in Manhattan, she meets various immigrants from all over the world. They show her different ways that being Indian and being American are connected. She hears about Ina Mullick, a Bengali wife whose careless husband allowed her to become “more American than the Americans” (pg. 10). Bharati Mukherjee illustrates the influence of American ways through the character of Ina Mullick, who represents assimilation. Ina has accepted American ways and attitudes, adapting to American culture, food, clothing, and language.

Cultural Displacement.

Cultural displacement refers to the feeling of dislocation that people experience when their cultural identity is challenged or undermined, especially due to migration, globalization, or societal changes. Shyam M. Asani, in his critical work ‘Identity Crises in The Nowhere Man and Wife,’ states that ‘Dimple is entrapped in a dilemma of tensions between American culture society and the traditional constraints surrounding an Indian wife, between a feminist desire to be assertive and independent and the Indian need to be submissive and self-effacing’ (pg. 42). Because she partially accepts both American and Indian cultures, she becomes frustrated and develops neurosis, which leads her to commit destructive acts such as sin, murder, or suicide. The root of her mental disorder is that she was uprooted from her family and homeland. Amit wants Dimple to be a good Bengali wife who takes care of her home and husband and learns how to live in America without becoming too Americanized, which makes her all the more frustrated.

Expatriation

Expatriation is the process of leaving one’s home country to live in another, often for a long time or permanently. It happens for many reasons, such as work, education, personal relationships, or a desire for a different lifestyle. Expatriation is common in developed countries. Christine Gomez, in her work, ‘The Ongoing Quest of Bharati Mukherjee from Expatriation to Immigration,’ provides a clear definition of the term expatriation.

“Expatriation is a complex state of mind and emotion, which includes wistful longing for the past, often symbolized by the ancestral home, the pain of exile and homelessness, the struggle to maintain the difference between oneself and the new, unfriendly surroundings, an assumption of moral and cultural superiority over the host country and a refusal to accept the identity forced one by the environment. The expatriate builds a cocoon around herself/himself as a refuge from the cultural dilemmas and the experienced hostility or unfriendliness in the new country. (pg. 72)

Through the characters of Jyoti and Meena Sen, Bharati Mukherjee illustrates expatriation. Because America is a land of opportunities, the couple travelled to America to earn money. For Jyoti, America was solely a place of wealth. He aimed to make a lot of money, then return to his hometown and build a home, which would have cost him about five lakhs, and thus become the ‘Maharaj of Lower Circular Road’ (pg.9).

When Dimple and Amit arrived in America, they were received by the Sen family. Dimple was very excited to explore America and embark on a new journey, and thus she is very eager to see the Sen’s house. As they reached their house, Dimple was very astonished to see it, which was a typical Indian house. It is exactly like a common Indian house in Calcutta.Jyoti’s American house is very Indian-like, with no chairs in the room, but only a mat and a rug are served to guests. Jyoti’s house makes Amit comfortable because he feels no difference between his house in Calcutta and Jyoti’s house. This indicates that the Sen couple is living abroad in America and aspires to return home once they have saved enough money.

Alienation

Accordingto the Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy, the concept of alienation identifies a distinct kind of psychological or social ill, namely, one involving a problematic separation between a self and others that belong together. Cetin et al. have explained that alienation expresses that the individual has a decreased adaptation to the social, cultural, and natural environment, loses her/his control over the environment, and becomes isolated by getting gradually helpless.

Dimple and her community of expatriates experience alienation in a country whose ways they cannot understand. Before Dimpled had ever set foot in America, she had friends remark that even though it’s a place to have a lot of fun, one must endure being a foreigner forever.

Before going to America Dimple has been invited in a farewell party sponsored by her friend, Dixie, in that party one of the guests has apprise that, “You may think of it as immigration, my dear…but what you are is a resident alien” (pg.46). When Dimple arrived in New York, she has been informed by Meena Sen that, she feels as an outsider because it was tough to understand American humors and the American language. Earlier, Dimple felt that she was now free from all the clutches of Indian traditions, and she was not obliged to follow the role of a traditional Indian wife. But gradually she feels alienated as it becomes difficult for her to learn American ways and living standards, language becomes one of the obstacles for her to interact with the people around her, and thus she becomes frustrated with not knowing English. When Amit got a job, the couple shifted to an apartment, where she feels alienated, as most of the time she has to be alone in the apartment. She has to spend her time watching television, soap operas, and murder mysteries. Meanwhile, she indulges in an affair with a white man named Milt, with whom she feels safe and protected. Once, after returning from a function with Milt, Dimple feels, “the inhuman maze of New York became as safe and simple as Ballygunge” (pg. 196). When they were together at her apartment, he promised Dimple to protect her, but as he left, she again felt lonelierthan ever.

Conclusion

In Wife, Bharati Mukherjee presents diaspora not as a simple story of migration and opportunity, but as a deeply unsettling psychological rupture. Through Dimple Dasgupta’s experiences, the novel exposes the emotional dislocation, cultural alienation, and identity fragmentation faced by immigrants caught between inherited traditions and an unfamiliar host culture. Dimple’s inability to reconcile her expectations of marriage, freedom, and selfhood with the realities of diasporic life reveals how migration can intensify inner conflicts rather than resolve them. The American dream, instead of offering liberation, becomes a site of isolation and despair. Ultimately, Wife suggests that diaspora, when marked by silence, patriarchal constraints, and cultural dissonance, can erode the self. Mukherjee thus critiques the romanticized notion of migration and highlights the urgent need for emotional anchoring and self-definition within the diasporic experience.

References

Primary Sources

Novel

Mukherjee, Bharti. Wife, Houghton Mifflin Press, New York. 1975. Print

Secondary Sources

Chua, C.L. Passage from India: Migrating to America in the Fiction of V.S.Naipaul and Bharati Mukherjee. Reworlding – The Literature of the Indian Diaspora. Ed. Emmanuel S. Nelson. Westport: Greenwood Press, 1992. Print.
Himandri, Lahiri. Diaspora Theory and Transnationalism. Orient Black Swan. 2019. Print.

Alam, Fakrul. Migration and Settlement in North America in Bharati Mukherjee’s Fiction Asian American Writing: Vol 2. Fiction.Ed. Somdatta Mandel. New Delhi: Prestige Books. Print
Asnani, Shyam, and Rajpal Deepika. Identity Crises in The Nowhere Man and Wife: Quest for Identity in Indian English Writing Part I: Fiction. Ed. Shyam M. Asnani and Deepika Rajpal. New Delhi. Baheri Publication. 1992. Print.
Clifford, James. Diasporas: Cultural Anthropology, vol. 9, no. 3, 1994, pp. 302-338. Print

E-Sources

Bhabha, Homi K. The Location of Culture. Kindle ed. Stephen Fay & Liam Haydon, 2017.

Amrith, Sunil S. Migration and Diaspora in Modern Asia. Kindle ed. Cambridge University Press, 2011.

Agnew, Vijay. Diaspora, Memory, and Identity. Kindle ed. University of Toronto Press, 2005.

Glissant, Édouard. Poetics of Relation. Translated by Betsy Wing, University of Michigan Press, 1997. Kindle ed.

Clifford, James. Routes: Travel and Translation in the Late Twentieth Century. Kindle ed., Harvard University Press, 1997.
Rushdie, Salman. Imaginary Homelands: Essays and Criticism. Kindle ed., Granta, 1991.

Webliography

Theses

Thakur, Shikha. “Human Migration and Uprooted Identities: A Post-Colonial Reading of Selected Works of Adib Khan and Monica Ali,” Phagwara. 2022.
Chandrasekharan, M. “Immigrant experience, multiculturalism and the foreignness of self in the works of Bharati Mukherjee”. Tirunelveli. 2016.
J. Zamuel Karbhari. “Immigration, cross-cultural encounter, and diasporic elements in the works of Bharati Mukherjee”. Tirunelveli. 2015.
Patil. Y.B. “Identity Crises in the Novels of Bharati Mukherjee”. Shimoga. 2008.
Yadav. S.K. “Cultural Clash and Identity Crises in the Works of Monica Ali and Bharati Mukherjee: A Comparative Study. Gwalior. 2021.

Work Motivation of University Lecturers: A Narrative Review and Policy-Oriented Synthesis

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Hiếu, P. T. (2026). Work Motivation of University Lecturers: A Narrative Review and Policy-Oriented Synthesis. International Journal of Research, 13(1), 494–507. https://doi.org/10.26643/ijr/2026/24

Phí Thị Hiếu

Associate Professor, Thai Nguyen University of Education, Thai Nguyen, Vietnam

Abstract

This article presents a narrative review of selected literature on work motivation among university lecturers, aiming to synthesize key theoretical perspectives and recurring empirical themes. Drawing on established motivational frameworks, particularly self-determination theory and two-factor theory, the review examines how intrinsic and extrinsic factors interact to influence lecturers’ engagement, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment.

The reviewed literature suggests that intrinsic motivation is frequently identified as an important factor in sustaining lecturers’ long-term engagement and professional dedication. These intrinsic factors are strongly supported by autonomy, perceived competence, collegial relationships, and opportunities for meaningful teaching and research. At the same time, extrinsic conditions, including salary, workload, promotion systems, and employment stability, function as essential foundational factors that shape lecturers’ overall job satisfaction and retention, even if they do not directly generate intrinsic motivation.

The review further highlights the importance of organizational culture, leadership practices, and governance structures in shaping motivational experiences. Several studies suggest that managerialist and performance-driven environments may, in some contexts, be associated with reduced perceptions of autonomy and intrinsic motivation among lecturers. In addition, contemporary higher education reforms emphasizing accountability and performance metrics are shown to have mixed motivational effects, depending on how they are implemented and perceived by academic staff. Overall, the review underscores that lecturers’ work motivation is a multidimensional and context-dependent phenomenon with significant implications for teaching quality, research productivity, and the sustainability of higher education systems. The reviewed literature points to the potential value of higher education policies that take lecturers’ psychological needs into account when designing governance and evaluation mechanisms.

Keywords

Work motivation, academic motivation, university lecturers, higher education

Introduction

Work motivation of university lecturers has been widely recognized as a critical factor influencing the quality of higher education, institutional effectiveness, and the sustainable development of academic systems worldwide. University lecturers play a central role not only in teaching and research but also in curriculum development, academic governance, and community engagement. As higher education systems face increasing pressures related to globalization, digital transformation, accountability, and performance-based evaluation, understanding the factors that motivate lecturers to perform effectively has become an important concern for researchers, educational leaders, and policymakers.

In the context of higher education, work motivation refers to the internal and external forces that initiate, direct, and sustain lecturers’ professional behaviors, including teaching commitment, research productivity, innovation, and engagement with institutional goals. Motivated lecturers are more likely to demonstrate higher levels of job satisfaction, instructional quality, and professional dedication, which in turn positively affect student learning outcomes and institutional reputation. Conversely, low levels of work motivation among academic staff may lead to reduced teaching effectiveness, diminished research output, burnout, and higher turnover intentions.

The literature on work motivation of university lecturers draws on established motivational theories such as Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, Herzberg’s two-factor theory, self-determination theory, and expectancy–value theory. These theoretical frameworks have been used to explain how intrinsic factors (e.g., passion for teaching, academic autonomy, professional growth) and extrinsic factors (e.g., salary, promotion opportunities, working conditions, leadership support) interact to shape lecturers’ motivational orientations. In academic settings, intrinsic motivation is often emphasized due to the intellectual and autonomous nature of academic work, yet extrinsic conditions remain crucial for sustaining long-term commitment and performance.

A growing body of empirical studies across different national contexts has explored how lecturers’ work motivation may be influenced by a combination of individual, organizational, and contextual factors. These include institutional policies, workload distribution, research support, evaluation systems, leadership styles, collegial relationships, and opportunities for professional development. In recent years, changes in higher education governance—such as increased performance measurement, publication pressure, and competition for research funding—have significantly reshaped lecturers’ motivational experiences. While some lecturers may feel motivated by clear performance incentives and recognition, others may experience increased stress and reduced autonomy.

In developing and transitional higher education contexts, including Vietnam and other Southeast Asian countries, research has highlighted additional challenges related to limited resources, heavy teaching loads, and disparities in career advancement opportunities. These contextual factors may intensify the importance of supportive leadership, fair evaluation systems, and meaningful professional development in sustaining lecturers’ motivation. However, despite a growing body of research, existing findings remain fragmented, and systematic syntheses focusing specifically on university lecturers’ work motivation are still limited.

Therefore, a comprehensive literature review on the work motivation of university lecturers is necessary to consolidate existing evidence, identify dominant research themes, and clarify theoretical and empirical trends in this field. By synthesizing prior studies, such a review can contribute to a deeper understanding of how motivational factors operate within higher education and provide valuable insights for institutional policy and academic management. Ultimately, enhancing lecturers’ work motivation is essential for improving educational quality, fostering innovation, and ensuring the long-term sustainability of higher education institutions.

Materials and Methods

This study employed a narrative literature review approach to critically synthesize influential theoretical and empirical studies relevant to lecturers’ work motivation. The literature was collected primarily from peer-reviewed academic journals, scholarly books, and reputable academic reports focusing on higher education, educational psychology, and human resource management in academic settings. The review included both international and regional studies, with particular attention to empirical research and theoretical frameworks addressing intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and professional engagement among university lecturers.

The selection of literature was guided by the following inclusion criteria: (1) studies explicitly examining work motivation, job motivation, or closely related constructs such as job satisfaction and organizational commitment among university or college lecturers; (2) research grounded in established motivational theories, including self-determination theory and two-factor theory; (3) studies conducted in higher education contexts; and (4) publications considered relevant to contemporary higher education systems and policy environments. Both qualitative and quantitative studies were included to capture a broad range of methodological perspectives.

After the identification and screening process, the selected publications were analyzed using a thematic synthesis approach. The analysis focused on identifying recurring themes and patterns related to motivational factors influencing university lecturers. Specifically, the findings were organized around key thematic dimensions, including intrinsic motivational factors such as professional autonomy and academic identity, extrinsic motivational factors such as salary, promotion, and working conditions, and institutional and policy-related influences such as leadership practices, performance evaluation systems, and professional development opportunities.

The synthesis process involved comparing findings across studies to identify commonalities and divergences, as well as examining how contextual factors such as national higher education policies and institutional characteristics shape lecturers’ motivation. Through this thematic organization, the review aimed to provide an integrated and evidence-based understanding of work motivation among university lecturers, thereby informing future research directions and policy development in higher education.

Research Results

Based on the literature selection criteria and the methodological approach outlined in the Materials and Methods section, the reviewed studies provide a comprehensive and multi-layered picture of work motivation among university lecturers. Across diverse higher education systems and institutional contexts, lecturers’ motivation emerges as a complex construct influenced by individual psychological needs, organizational conditions, and broader policy environments. Drawing primarily on self-determination theory and two-factor theory, the findings are synthesized into interrelated thematic domains that collectively explain how and why lecturers experience varying levels of motivation in their academic work.

1. Theoretical grounding of lecturers’ work motivation in higher education research

A dominant characteristic of the reviewed literature is its strong grounding in established motivational theories. Self-determination theory is widely used to conceptualize lecturers’ work motivation as a continuum ranging from intrinsic motivation to different forms of extrinsic motivation. Many studies drawing on self-determination theory emphasize autonomy as a key motivational factor in academic work, although the strength of this relationship appears to vary across institutional contexts. Empirical studies demonstrate that autonomy, understood as control over teaching content, research agendas, and professional decision-making, is a central motivational driver for university lecturers. Research grounded in self-determination theory shows that when lecturers perceive high levels of autonomy, they report stronger intrinsic motivation, higher job satisfaction, and greater commitment to their institutions. Conversely, environments characterized by rigid managerial control or excessive administrative regulation tend to frustrate autonomy needs, resulting in diminished motivation.

Two-factor theory provides a complementary perspective by distinguishing between intrinsic motivators related to the nature of academic work itself and extrinsic or hygiene factors associated with employment conditions. The reviewed studies consistently support Herzberg’s distinction, showing that intrinsic factors such as intellectual challenge, recognition, and opportunities for academic achievement play a crucial role in sustaining long-term motivation. At the same time, inadequate hygiene factors—such as low salary, job insecurity, or heavy workloads—do not necessarily motivate when present but can significantly demotivate when absent.

Qualitative research deepens these theoretical insights by illustrating how lecturers interpret motivation through their professional identities. Interviews and narrative studies reveal that many lecturers view teaching and research not merely as occupational tasks but as vocations aligned with personal values and social responsibilities. These findings reinforce theoretical models that conceptualize academic motivation as value-driven and meaning-oriented rather than purely instrumental.

2. Intrinsic motivational factors in academic work

Across the reviewed literature, intrinsic motivation consistently emerges as a central component of lecturers’ engagement and persistence in higher education. Studies examining intrinsic motivation highlight factors such as enjoyment of teaching, intellectual curiosity, commitment to knowledge creation, and satisfaction derived from mentoring students. These intrinsic drivers are frequently identified as more stable and enduring than extrinsic incentives.

Research grounded in self-determination theory demonstrates that intrinsic motivation among lecturers is strongly associated with perceived competence. Lecturers who feel capable of delivering high-quality teaching, conducting meaningful research, and contributing to academic communities report higher levels of motivation and professional fulfillment. Opportunities for professional development, research collaboration, and academic recognition are therefore frequently cited as key conditions supporting intrinsic motivation.

Several qualitative studies further show that intrinsic motivation is closely linked to lecturers’ perceptions of the social value of their work. Lecturers often describe motivation in terms of contributing to student development, advancing societal knowledge, or addressing local and global challenges. This sense of purpose reinforces sustained engagement, even in contexts where extrinsic rewards are limited.

However, the literature also indicates that intrinsic motivation is vulnerable to erosion when institutional conditions undermine autonomy or overload lecturers with administrative tasks. Studies report that increasing bureaucratic demands and performance pressures can reduce the time and energy available for intrinsically rewarding activities such as teaching innovation and research, thereby weakening motivation over time.

3. Extrinsic motivational factors, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment

In addition to intrinsic factors, extrinsic motivators play a significant role in shaping lecturers’ work motivation, particularly through their influence on job satisfaction and organizational commitment. Quantitative studies frequently examine salary, promotion systems, workload distribution, and employment stability as key predictors of motivation-related outcomes.

The reviewed literature indicates that fair and transparent reward systems contribute positively to lecturers’ job satisfaction. While salary alone is rarely identified as a primary motivator, inadequate compensation relative to workload and expectations is consistently associated with dissatisfaction and reduced commitment. Promotion opportunities and recognition of academic achievements are similarly important, particularly for early- and mid-career lecturers seeking career progression.

Organizational commitment emerges as a closely related construct in many studies. Lecturers who perceive institutional support, fairness, and recognition tend to report stronger affective commitment and a greater willingness to invest effort in teaching and research. Conversely, perceptions of inequity, opaque evaluation criteria, or unstable employment conditions are associated with lower commitment and higher turnover intentions.

Importantly, the literature emphasizes that extrinsic factors interact with intrinsic motivation rather than replacing it. Supportive extrinsic conditions can create an environment in which intrinsic motivation flourishes, whereas poor working conditions can undermine even highly motivated lecturers. This interaction aligns with theoretical arguments that motivation in academic work is best understood as a combination of internal drives and external supports.

4. Organizational culture, leadership, and institutional governance

A substantial portion of the reviewed studies situates lecturers’ motivation within organizational contexts, highlighting the role of institutional culture, leadership styles, and governance structures. Research consistently demonstrates that collegial and participatory organizational cultures are positively associated with higher levels of motivation and job satisfaction among lecturers.

Studies examining leadership practices find that supportive and transformational leadership styles foster motivation by recognizing academic contributions, encouraging professional autonomy, and facilitating collaboration. Leaders who engage lecturers in decision-making processes contribute to a sense of ownership and shared responsibility, which enhances both intrinsic motivation and organizational commitment.

In contrast, studies report that managerialist governance models emphasizing performance metrics, accountability, and competition may negatively affect lecturers’ motivation. When evaluation systems are perceived as overly quantitative or misaligned with academic values, lecturers often experience increased stress and reduced intrinsic motivation. These findings suggest that governance structures play a critical mediating role between policy demands and individual motivational experiences.

Qualitative evidence further reveals that organizational culture influences how lecturers interpret institutional expectations. In supportive environments, lecturers are more likely to view performance requirements as opportunities for growth, whereas in unsupportive contexts, similar requirements may be perceived as controlling or demotivating.

5. Policy environments and systemic influences on lecturers’ motivation

Beyond organizational factors, the reviewed literature highlights the significant impact of national and institutional policy environments on lecturers’ motivation. Higher education reforms related to funding, accountability, and labor markets are frequently examined in relation to academic work motivation.

Studies document that performance-based funding models and publication-driven evaluation systems can alter motivational orientations among lecturers. While some lecturers respond positively to performance incentives, others experience heightened pressure and diminished intrinsic motivation, particularly when evaluation criteria prioritize quantity over quality.

Job insecurity emerges as a recurring theme in policy-related research. Studies focusing on contract-based employment and casualization report negative effects on motivation, job satisfaction, and long-term commitment. Lecturers facing uncertain employment conditions often adopt extrinsically driven motivational strategies focused on short-term survival rather than long-term academic development.

At the same time, policy environments that support academic freedom, stable employment, and investment in professional development are associated with more sustainable motivational patterns. These findings underscore the importance of aligning higher education policies with motivational principles that support both individual well-being and institutional quality.

6. Variations in motivation across career stages and institutional contexts

The reviewed studies reveal systematic variations in work motivation across career stages, institutional types, and national contexts. Early-career lecturers often emphasize extrinsic concerns such as job security, mentorship, and promotion opportunities, reflecting their transitional position within academic labor markets.

Mid-career lecturers tend to focus on balancing teaching, research, and service demands, with motivation shaped by workload management and recognition of achievements. Senior academics, in contrast, frequently prioritize autonomy, leadership roles, and opportunities to influence institutional directions.

Cross-institutional comparisons indicate that resource availability and institutional mission significantly shape motivational experiences. Research-intensive universities often provide stronger research-related motivators, while teaching-oriented institutions may emphasize pedagogical engagement. Cross-national studies further show that motivational patterns are influenced by cultural norms, policy stability, and economic conditions.

These variations highlight the importance of contextualized approaches to understanding and supporting lecturers’ motivation rather than relying on one-size-fits-all strategies.

7. Consequences of lecturers’ work motivation for individual and institutional outcomes

Finally, the literature consistently documents the consequences of lecturers’ motivation for both individual performance and institutional effectiveness. High levels of motivation are associated with greater teaching quality, research productivity, innovation in pedagogy, and engagement in academic service.

Conversely, low motivation is linked to burnout, emotional exhaustion, and intentions to leave the profession. Several studies suggest that sustained motivational decline can undermine institutional capacity by reducing staff retention and weakening academic communities.

By integrating findings across theoretical frameworks, methodologies, and contexts, the reviewed literature demonstrates that lecturers’ work motivation is a critical mechanism through which organizational practices and policy decisions influence higher education quality.

Discussion

The present review highlights that lecturers’ work motivation in higher education is not solely an individual psychological phenomenon but is deeply embedded in institutional practices and policy frameworks. By synthesizing findings across studies grounded in self-determination theory and two-factor theory, this discussion connects each major result theme to implications for higher education policy, governance, and management.

First, the strong theoretical grounding of lecturers’ motivation in self-determination theory and two-factor theory has important policy implications. The consistent emphasis on autonomy, competence, and relatedness suggests that higher education policies should move beyond narrow performance management approaches and explicitly support lecturers’ psychological needs. Policies that increase administrative control, impose rigid accountability mechanisms, or standardize academic work without regard for disciplinary diversity may unintentionally undermine intrinsic motivation. From a policy perspective, this implies that national and institutional frameworks should preserve academic freedom, allow flexibility in teaching and research design, and recognize the professional judgment of lecturers as a core principle of quality assurance in higher education.

Second, the prominence of intrinsic motivational factors such as intellectual engagement, enjoyment of teaching, and commitment to knowledge creation underscores the need for policies that protect the core academic mission. The results indicate that lecturers are most motivated when they can focus on meaningful teaching and research activities rather than excessive administrative tasks. Higher education policies that overload lecturers with reporting requirements or prioritize short-term output indicators risk eroding intrinsic motivation over time. Therefore, policy reforms should aim to streamline administrative processes, reduce unnecessary bureaucratic burdens, and create institutional conditions that allow lecturers to invest time and energy in pedagogically and intellectually rewarding work.

Third, findings related to extrinsic motivational factors, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment highlight the importance of fair and transparent employment policies. While salary and material rewards alone do not guarantee high motivation, inadequate compensation, unclear promotion pathways, and insecure employment conditions consistently undermine lecturers’ commitment. This has direct implications for higher education labor policies, particularly in systems experiencing increasing casualization and contract-based employment. Policies that ensure reasonable workload allocation, transparent evaluation criteria, and stable career pathways are essential not only for staff well-being but also for institutional sustainability and educational quality.

Fourth, the role of organizational culture, leadership, and governance revealed in the results points to the significance of institutional-level policy implementation. Even well-designed national policies may fail to support motivation if institutional leadership adopts overly managerial or control-oriented practices. The reviewed studies suggest that participatory governance, collegial decision-making, and supportive leadership styles are critical for sustaining lecturers’ motivation. From a policy perspective, this implies that leadership development and governance reform should be integral components of higher education policy, with explicit attention to fostering trust, recognition, and professional respect within academic institutions.

Fifth, the influence of broader policy environments on lecturers’ motivation highlights tensions between accountability-driven reforms and academic values. Performance-based funding, publication pressure, and metric-oriented evaluation systems may incentivize productivity but can also generate stress and reduce intrinsic motivation, particularly when quality and context are overlooked. These findings suggest that higher education policies should adopt more balanced evaluation frameworks that combine quantitative indicators with qualitative assessments of teaching, research, and service. Policymakers should be cautious about relying exclusively on competitive performance metrics and consider their long-term motivational and professional consequences.

Sixth, variations in motivation across career stages and institutional contexts indicate that uniform policy solutions are unlikely to be effective. Early-career lecturers, for example, are particularly sensitive to job security and mentorship opportunities, while senior academics value autonomy and opportunities for leadership. Higher education policies should therefore be differentiated and flexible, providing targeted support for different career stages and institutional missions. Such differentiation can help align policy interventions with lecturers’ evolving motivational needs and professional trajectories.

Finally, the documented consequences of lecturers’ motivation for teaching quality, research productivity, and staff retention emphasize the strategic importance of motivation as a policy concern. Low motivation and burnout are not merely individual problems but systemic risks that can undermine institutional capacity and educational outcomes. From a policy standpoint, investing in supportive working conditions, professional development, and psychologically informed management practices should be viewed as long-term investments in higher education quality rather than short-term costs.

Overall, this discussion reinforces the idea that lecturers’ work motivation is a critical link between higher education policy and educational outcomes. Policies that align with established motivational theories and respect the professional nature of academic work are more likely to foster sustained engagement, innovation, and commitment among university lecturers. Conversely, policies that neglect psychological and organizational dimensions of motivation risk weakening the very human resources on which higher education systems depend.

Conclusion and Policy Implications

Conclusion

This review highlights lecturers’ work motivation as an important analytical lens for understanding how organizational practices and policy environments may influence academic engagement and institutional outcomes.

Overall, the reviewed literature indicates that intrinsic motivation—such as enjoyment of teaching, intellectual fulfillment, and commitment to academic values—plays a central role in sustaining lecturers’ engagement and professional dedication. These intrinsic factors are strongly influenced by lecturers’ perceptions of autonomy, competence, and relatedness, as well as by opportunities for meaningful teaching, research, and academic contribution. At the same time, extrinsic factors, including salary, promotion systems, workload, and employment stability, remain essential baseline conditions. While these factors may not directly generate high levels of intrinsic motivation, their absence consistently undermines job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and long-term retention.

The review also highlights the critical role of organizational culture and leadership in shaping lecturers’ motivational experiences. Supportive leadership, participatory governance, and collegial decision-making are associated with higher motivation and stronger professional commitment, whereas overly managerial, metric-driven, or control-oriented environments tend to weaken intrinsic motivation and increase stress and disengagement. These findings underscore that lecturers’ motivation cannot be understood or addressed in isolation from broader institutional practices and governance structures.

Furthermore, the reviewed studies suggest that contemporary higher education reforms—particularly those emphasizing accountability, performance measurement, and competition—have ambiguous effects on lecturers’ motivation. While such reforms may enhance productivity in the short term, they risk narrowing academic work, intensifying pressure, and diminishing intrinsic motivation if not carefully balanced with academic values and professional autonomy. The evidence also indicates that motivational needs vary across career stages and institutional contexts, suggesting that uniform policy approaches are unlikely to be effective.

Taken together, the findings confirm that lecturers’ work motivation is not merely an individual concern but a systemic issue with direct implications for teaching quality, research productivity, institutional stability, and the overall effectiveness of higher education systems.

Policy Implications

The findings of this review have several important implications for higher education policy and institutional practice.

First, higher education policies should explicitly recognize lecturers’ motivation as a central component of educational quality and institutional sustainability. Policymakers should move beyond narrowly defined performance indicators and incorporate psychological and organizational dimensions into policy design. This includes protecting academic autonomy, supporting intellectual freedom, and ensuring that accountability mechanisms do not undermine intrinsic motivation.

Second, employment and human resource policies in higher education should prioritize fairness, transparency, and stability. Clear promotion criteria, reasonable workload allocation, and secure career pathways are essential for sustaining lecturers’ job satisfaction and organizational commitment. In contexts where short-term contracts and performance-based employment are expanding, policymakers should carefully assess the long-term motivational and professional consequences of such practices.

Third, institutional governance and leadership development should be a policy priority. Universities should be encouraged to adopt participatory governance models that involve lecturers in decision-making processes affecting teaching, research, and working conditions. Leadership training programs should emphasize supportive, trust-based management approaches that align institutional goals with lecturers’ professional values.

Fourth, policy frameworks should support differentiated and flexible approaches to motivation across career stages. Early-career lecturers may benefit from mentorship, job security, and clear developmental pathways, while mid- and late-career academics may value autonomy, recognition, and leadership opportunities. Policies that acknowledge these differences are more likely to foster sustained motivation across the academic lifespan.

Finally, future higher education policies should adopt a long-term perspective on academic work. Investing in lecturers’ motivation—through supportive working environments, professional development opportunities, and psychologically informed management practices—should be viewed as a strategic investment rather than a cost. Such investments are essential for maintaining high-quality teaching, advancing research, and ensuring the resilience and adaptability of higher education systems in an increasingly complex policy environment.

In conclusion, this review underscores that effective higher education policy must be grounded not only in structural and economic considerations but also in a deep understanding of lecturers’ motivational processes. Aligning policy design with established motivational theories and empirical evidence offers a pathway to strengthening academic engagement, institutional effectiveness, and the long-term sustainability of higher education.

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2. Bennett, A. A., Beehr, T. A., & Lepisto, L. R. (2017). A longitudinal study of work after retirement: Examining predictors of bridge employment, continued employment, and retirement satisfaction. Work, Aging and Retirement, 3(1), 16–31. https://doi.org/10.1093/workar/waw019

3. Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). The “what” and “why” of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psychological Inquiry, 11(4), 227–268. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327965PLI1104_01

4. Deci, E. L., Olafsen, A. H., & Ryan, R. M. (2017). Self-determination theory in work organizations: The state of a science. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 4, 19–43. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-032516-113108

5. Franco-Santos, M., Lucianetti, L., & Bourne, M. (2012). Contemporary performance measurement systems: A review of their consequences and a framework for research. Management Accounting Research, 23(2), 79–119. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mar.2012.04.001

6. Huyghe, A., & Knockaert, M. (2015). The influence of organizational culture and climate on entrepreneurial orientation among research scientists. Journal of Technology Transfer, 40(1), 138–160. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10961-013-9323-3

7. Kinman, G., & Wray, S. (2018). Work-related wellbeing in UK higher education: A benchmark study. Higher Education, 77(2), 357–375. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-018-0268-7

8. Nguyễn, T. H., & Trần, V. Q. (2023). Động lực làm việc của giảng viên đại học trong bối cảnh đổi mới giáo dục đại học ở Việt Nam. Tạp chí Giáo dục, 23(21), 12–17.

9. OECD. (2021). Building a high-quality teaching profession: Lessons from around the world. OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264444161-en

10. Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2020). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation from a self-determination theory perspective: Definitions, theory, practices, and future directions. Routledge.

11. Shin, J. C., & Jung, J. (2014). Academics job satisfaction and job stress across countries in the changing academic environments. Higher Education, 67(5), 603–620. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-013-9668-y

12. Teelken, C. (2012). Compliance or pragmatism: How do academics deal with managerialism in higher education? A comparative study in three countries. Studies in Higher Education, 37(3), 271–290. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2010.511171

13. Tremblay, M. A., Blanchard, C. M., Taylor, S., Pelletier, L. G., & Villeneuve, M. (2009). Work extrinsic and intrinsic motivation scale: Its value for organizational psychology research. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 41(4), 213–226. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015167

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16. Winter, R., Taylor, T., & Sarros, J. (2000). Trouble at mill: Quality of academic worklife issues within a comprehensive Australian university. Studies in Higher Education, 25(3), 279–294. https://doi.org/10.1080/713696156

The influence of body geometry on the composition of visual-corrective tattooing

Roman Zao (Zakharchenko)
Artist, tattoo artist, researcher in visual culture
Judge of international tattoo conventions
Author of scholarly and research publications in tattoo art and body art
United States
EMAIL: Roman.Zao.ink@gmail.com
ORCID: 0009-0003-5561-6339

UDC 7.036:391.91

Publication Date: 14 January 2026
Keywords: visual-corrective tattooing, body geometry, composition, body art, anatomy, visual perception, spatial correction, practice-based research

In contemporary tattoo practice, the visual-corrective function of imagery has become increasingly significant. Within this context, tattooing is considered not only as a decorative or symbolic element, but also as a tool for visual transformation of bodily form. Compositional decisions in tattoo art can enhance, soften, or reinterpret the geometry of the human body, making bodily structure a key factor in artistic choice.

Body geometry comprises a set of proportions, directions, curvatures, rhythms, and visual accents shaped by the anatomical structure of a specific body. Visual perception of the human figure is based not on objective anatomical parameters, but on their optical interpretation. In this context, tattooing may function as a visual-corrective instrument, working with the perception of form, direction, and balance.

Visual-corrective tattooing involves a conscious approach to line, scale, compositional direction, and rhythmic structure. Artistic decisions are developed with consideration of the body’s vertical, horizontal, and diagonal axes, as well as zones of visual tension and relaxation. Composition may reinforce verticality, soften abrupt transitions of form, balance asymmetry, or deliberately accentuate particular bodily features.

Practice-based analysis demonstrates that line is one of the key instruments of visual correction. Vertically oriented elements visually elongate the form; diagonal lines introduce dynamics and a sense of movement; horizontal structures may stabilize composition, yet if applied incorrectly, they can visually weigh down the figure. Thus, the directional choice of line within tattoo composition directly affects the optical perception of body geometry.

Scale is another significant factor. Large-scale compositions enable redistribution of visual emphasis and the formation of a new bodily rhythm, whereas fragmented solutions operate locally, correcting specific areas. Visual-corrective tattooing cannot be universal in application; its effectiveness depends on precise alignment between composition and the individual bodily structure.

Equally important is the interaction between tattoo imagery and the body’s natural curves and curvature. Placement that ignores curvilinear surfaces results in proportional distortion and diminished visual coherence. Conversely, integrating composition into bodily curvature achieves organic fusion, in which the tattoo is perceived as a continuation of the body rather than an applied surface element.

To systematize visual-corrective factors and their influence on compositional decision-making, the following analytical table is presented.

Table 1. Body Geometry Influence on Visual-Corrective Tattoo Composition

Body geometry factor	Visual perception issue	Corrective compositional approach	Expected visual effect
Vertical imbalance	Compressed silhouette	Vertical line dominance	Elongated body perception
Asymmetry	Visual instability	Directional flow alignment	Balanced visual structure
Excess curvature	Distorted proportions	Adaptive curvature mapping	Harmonized form perception
Volume concentration	Visual heaviness	Scale redistribution	Visual lightness
Irregular surface	Fragmented perception	Modular composition	Visual coherence

For more precise analysis of visual-corrective tattooing, the following system of notational markers is applied within the study.

Notation system (used in analytical observation)
V-axis — dominant vertical orientation of composition
H-axis — dominant horizontal orientation
D-axis — diagonal compositional direction
C-curve — curvature alignment with body surface
S-scale — relative scale of tattoo composition
F-flow — directional visual flow of elements

This notation system allows for documentation and comparison of compositional solutions across different cases, revealing correlations between body geometry and the visual effect of tattooing.

Analysis of accumulated practical and research material indicates that visual-corrective tattooing constitutes a complex form of spatial design in which artistic decision-making extends beyond imagery itself. In this context, the tattoo artist functions not only as a creator of visual form, but also as an interpreter of bodily structure, working with perception and optical transformation.

Thus, the influence of body geometry on the composition of visual-corrective tattooing is systemic in nature. Conscious integration of anatomical and geometric factors enables tattooing to be understood as an instrument of visual body modeling situated at the intersection of art, anatomy, and visual culture. Further research in this field opens pathways for deeper understanding of tattoo art as a form of spatial and perceptual artistic expression.

References

DeMello, M. (2014). Inked: Tattoos and Body Art around the World. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO.
Featherstone, M. (2010). Body, image and affect in consumer culture. Body & Society, 16(1), 193–221.
Pitts-Taylor, V. (2016). The Brain’s Body: Neuroscience and Corporeal Politics. Durham: Duke University Press.
Sweetman, P. (2004). Anchoring the (postmodern) self? Body modification, fashion and identity. Body & Society, 10(2–3), 51–76.
Jones, C. A. (2011). Body Art/Performing the Subject. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
Sanders, C. R., & Vail, D. A. (2008). Customizing the Body: The Art and Culture of Tattooing. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
Braidotti, R. (2013). The Posthuman. Cambridge: Polity Press.
Pitts, V. (2003). In the Flesh: The Cultural Politics of Body Modification. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

The anatomy of the human body as a factor in artistic decision-making in tattoo art

Roman Zao (Zakharchenko)
Independent artist-researcher in visual culture and tattoo art
Master of Fine Arts (Graphic Design), Far Eastern Federal University
Judge of international tattoo conventions
Author of scholarly and research publications in tattoo art and visual culture
United States
EMAIL: Roman.Zao.ink@gmail.com
ORCID: 0009-0003-5561-6339

UDC 7.036:391.91

Publication Date: 14 January 2026

Keywords: tattoo art, human anatomy, corporeality, visual culture, composition, body art, artistic decision-making, practice-based research

Tattoo art represents a distinct form of contemporary artistic practice in which the image is inseparable from the human body and cannot be examined outside its anatomical, spatial, and dynamic characteristics. Unlike traditional visual arts oriented toward a flat surface or a static volume, tattooing exists within the context of a living, constantly changing corporeal structure. This condition determines the central role of human anatomy in shaping artistic decision-making in tattoo art.

Contemporary research in body studies, visual studies, and body art emphasizes that the human body is not a neutral carrier of imagery. On the contrary, it functions as an active medium that influences composition, scale, rhythm, and the visual perception of an artistic image. Within the framework of this study, anatomy is considered a structuring factor of artistic decision-making rather than a secondary limitation of the creative process.

In tattoo art, the body constitutes a three-dimensional, dynamic form characterized by individual geometry, plasticity, and kinematics. Muscle masses, joint areas, natural curves, and transitional forms create a complex relief that inevitably interacts with the image. Artistic decision-making in tattooing emerges through a dialogue between the author’s concept and the anatomical features of a specific body. As a result, the same image transferred onto different bodies acquires distinct visual and semantic qualities.

Analysis of practical material and existing research demonstrates that neglecting anatomical factors leads to a loss of artistic integrity in tattoo imagery. Images created without regard for bodily geometry lose expressiveness in motion, deform with changes in body position, and enter into visual conflict with natural bodily lines. Conversely, integrating anatomical considerations into artistic decision-making enables the creation of images that maintain coherence and expressiveness both in static and dynamic states.

Of particular importance in tattoo art is work with areas of bodily mobility. Joints, shoulder and hip regions, and the spinal area require specific compositional approaches, as images in these zones are inevitably involved in movement. In such cases, artistic decisions are constructed with consideration not only of form but also of potential bodily kinetics. This brings tattoo art closer to principles of kinetic and performative art, in which movement constitutes an integral component of the artistic image.

Anatomy also directly affects the scale and rhythmic structure of composition. Large muscular surfaces allow for expanded forms and complex compositional structures, whereas anatomically complex areas demand more modular and fragmented solutions. In this context, the artistic thinking of the tattoo artist involves spatial modeling comparable to approaches used in sculpture and architecture.

For a clearer representation of the influence of anatomical factors on artistic decision-making in tattoo art, a comparative analytical overview is presented below.

Table 1. Influence of Human Anatomy on Artistic Decision-Making in Tattoo Art

Anatomical factor	Artistic implication	Compositional strategy	Visual outcome
Muscle volume and relief	Distortion or enhancement of form	Alignment with muscle flow	Increased visual coherence
Joint mobility	Image deformation during movement	Dynamic or segmented composition	Preserved readability in motion
Body curvature	Altered perspective	Adaptive scaling and curvature mapping	Natural visual integration
Skin tension zones	Line instability	Controlled line direction	Structural stability of image
Individual body proportions	Scale imbalance	Personalized compositional layout	Harmonized body–image relationship

As the analysis demonstrates, artistic decision-making in tattoo art is formed through a complex consideration of anatomical factors. Body anatomy not only influences the technical execution of imagery but also becomes an active participant in the artistic process, shaping the visual logic and expressive capacity of the tattoo image.

Viewing anatomy as an artistic factor allows for a reconsideration of authorship in tattoo art. Artistic decisions do not arise from the transfer of a preexisting image onto the body but rather from the interaction between the author’s concept and the corporeal reality of a specific individual. In this sense, the body functions as a co-author of the artistic image, fundamentally distinguishing tattooing from most traditional forms of visual art.

Thus, human anatomy constitutes a foundational factor in artistic decision-making in tattoo art. Recognizing the body as an active artistic medium enables tattooing to be understood as a complex interdisciplinary practice situated at the intersection of art, anatomy, visual culture, and corporeality. Further investigation of this interaction is essential for a deeper understanding of tattoo art as a form of contemporary artistic expression.

References

Pitts, V. (2003). In the Flesh: The Cultural Politics of Body Modification. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Featherstone, M. (2010). Body, image and affect in consumer culture. Body & Society, 16(1), 193–221.
DeMello, M. (2014). Inked: Tattoos and Body Art around the World. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO.
Sanders, C. R., & Vail, D. A. (2008). Customizing the Body: The Art and Culture of Tattooing. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
Sweetman, P. (2004). Anchoring the (postmodern) self? Body modification, fashion and identity. Body & Society, 10(2–3), 51–76.
Irwin, K. (2001/2003). Legitimating the first tattoo: Moral passage through informal interaction. Symbolic Interaction, 24(1), 49–73.
Jones, C. A. (2011). Body Art/Performing the Subject. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
MacCormack, P. (2008). The Anatomy of Disgust. New York: Continuum.
Braidotti, R. (2013). The Posthuman. Cambridge: Polity Press.
Pitts-Taylor, V. (2016). The Brain’s Body: Neuroscience and Corporeal Politics. Durham: Duke University Press.

Call for Papers – 2026

📢 Call for Papers – 2026

International Journal of Research (IJR)

📧 Submit at: ijr@ijrjournal.com
🌐 Journal Website: https://www.ijrjournal.com

The International Journal of Research (IJR) invites original and high-quality research papers for publication in its 2026 issues. IJR is a peer-reviewed, open-access international journal committed to promoting multidisciplinary research and making scholarly knowledge accessible to researchers, academicians, professionals, and students across the globe.

🔍 About the Journal

The International Journal of Research (IJR) is a monthly, peer-reviewed academic journal that provides an inclusive platform for publishing original research articles, review papers, case studies, conceptual papers, and short communications. The journal follows a double-blind peer review process to ensure academic rigor, originality, and quality.

IJR strongly supports open-access publishing, allowing published articles to be freely accessible worldwide without subscription barriers.

📚 Scope of the Journal

IJR is multidisciplinary in nature and welcomes submissions from a wide range of academic and professional fields, including but not limited to:

Engineering and Technology
Architecture and Planning
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Life Sciences and Agriculture
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Interdisciplinary and applied research papers are highly encouraged.

✍️ Types of Papers Accepted

Original Research Articles
Review Papers
Case Studies
Conceptual and Theoretical Papers
Short Research Communications

All submissions must be original, unpublished, and not under consideration elsewhere.

💰 Publication Fee (APC)

To support affordable and inclusive academic publishing:

✅ Open Access Publication Fee: Only USD 10
✅ No submission fee
✅ No hidden charges

This minimal APC makes IJR one of the most affordable peer-reviewed open-access journals, especially beneficial for students, early-career researchers, and scholars from developing countries.

🧪 Peer Review & Ethics

Double-blind peer review
Plagiarism check before acceptance
Ethical publishing standards followed strictly
Constructive reviewer feedback provided

IJR aims for a fast yet rigorous review process without compromising publication quality.

📅 Important Dates

Submission Open: Ongoing (for 2026 issues)
Review Time: Short and efficient
Publication: Monthly issues throughout 2026

Early submissions are encouraged for priority review and publication.

📤 How to Submit

Authors are requested to send their manuscripts via email:

📧 ijr@ijrjournal.com

Include:

Manuscript (MS Word format)
Author details and affiliations
Declaration of originality

Detailed author guidelines are available on the journal website:
🌐 https://www.ijrjournal.com

🌍 Why Publish with IJR?

✔ Peer-reviewed international journal
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📌 Submit your research and be part of the 2026 scholarly community of IJR.

For queries, feel free to contact: ijr@ijrjournal.com

We look forward to your valuable contributions!

Call for Papers- International Journal of Research (IJR)

📢 Call for Papers

International Journal of Research (IJR)

The International Journal of Research (IJR) invites original and high-quality research papers for publication in its upcoming issues. IJR is a peer-reviewed, open-access international journal that provides a global platform for researchers, academicians, professionals, and students to disseminate their scholarly work across a wide range of disciplines.

🌐 Journal Website: https://ijrjournal.com
📧 Paper Submission Email: ijr@ijrjournal.com
💲 Article Processing Charge (APC): Just USD 10 (One-time, after acceptance)

About the Journal

The International Journal of Research (IJR) is committed to promoting accessible, affordable, and ethical scholarly publishing. As an open-access journal, IJR ensures that all published articles are freely available to readers worldwide, thereby enhancing visibility, citation potential, and academic impact.

The journal follows a rigorous peer-review process to maintain academic quality while ensuring a fast and transparent review timeline, making it especially suitable for early-career researchers and scholars from developing regions.

Scope of the Journal

IJR is multidisciplinary in nature and welcomes research contributions from (but not limited to) the following areas:

Social Sciences and Humanities
Education and Pedagogy
Management, Commerce, and Economics
Science and Technology
Engineering and Applied Sciences
Architecture, Planning, and Design
Environmental Studies and Sustainability
Law, Public Policy, and Governance
Health, Psychology, and Allied Sciences
Interdisciplinary and Emerging Research Areas

Both theoretical and empirical studies are encouraged.

Types of Papers Accepted

The journal accepts the following categories of manuscripts:

Original Research Articles
Review Papers
Case Studies
Conceptual Papers
Short Communications
Book Reviews

All submissions must be original, unpublished, and not under consideration by any other journal.

Why Publish with IJR?

✔ Open Access publication
✔ Very low APC – only USD 10
✔ International editorial and reviewer base
✔ Fast peer-review and publication process
✔ DOI assignment for published articles
✔ Global visibility and readership
✔ Author-friendly submission process

IJR strongly supports inclusive academic publishing, making research publication affordable without compromising scholarly standards.

Submission Guidelines

Authors are requested to submit their manuscripts in MS Word format to:
📧 ijr@ijrjournal.com

The manuscript should include:

Title and author details
Abstract and keywords
Main text with proper references
Declaration of originality

Detailed author guidelines are available on the journal website:
🌐 https://ijrjournal.com

Important Dates

📌 Submission: Open (Rolling submissions accepted)
📌 Review Process: Fast and peer-reviewed
📌 Publication: Immediately after acceptance and APC payment

Invitation to Authors

The editorial board of IJR warmly invites researchers, faculty members, PhD scholars, postgraduate students, and independent researchers to submit their valuable work and become part of a growing international research community.

📨 Submit your paper today to:
ijr@ijrjournal.com

🔗 Visit the journal: https://ijrjournal.com

Citation

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Abstract

Introduction

Research Results

1. Theoretical grounding of lecturers’ work motivation in higher education research

2. Intrinsic motivational factors in academic work

3. Extrinsic motivational factors, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment

4. Organizational culture, leadership, and institutional governance

5. Policy environments and systemic influences on lecturers’ motivation

6. Variations in motivation across career stages and institutional contexts

7. Consequences of lecturers’ work motivation for individual and institutional outcomes

Discussion

Conclusion and Policy Implications

Conclusion

Policy Implications

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UDC 7.036:391.91

References

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References

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📢 Call for Papers – 2026

International Journal of Research (IJR)

🔍 About the Journal

📚 Scope of the Journal

✍️ Types of Papers Accepted

💰 Publication Fee (APC)

🧪 Peer Review & Ethics

📅 Important Dates

📤 How to Submit

🌍 Why Publish with IJR?

📌 Submit your research and be part of the 2026 scholarly community of IJR.

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Public

📢 Call for Papers

International Journal of Research (IJR)

About the Journal

Scope of the Journal

Types of Papers Accepted

Why Publish with IJR?

Submission Guidelines

Important Dates

Invitation to Authors

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