Trauma and the Pursuit of Equality and Empowerment of Women: A Comparative Analysis of Texts by Margaret Atwood, Kiran Desai, and Arundhati Roy

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Write about your approach to budgeting.

Citation

Qureshi, T., & Javed, I. (2026). Trauma and the Pursuit of Equality and Empowerment of Women: A Comparative Analysis of Texts by Margaret Atwood, Kiran Desai, and Arundhati Roy. International Journal of Research, 13(2), 135–145. https://doi.org/10.26643/ijr/2026/38

Tanzah Qureshi Dr. Indira Javed

Research Scholar, tanzahq02@gmail.com Professor

BU, Bhopal SNGGPG College Bhopal

Abstract-

This paper focuses on various cultural, social and political nuances that help to subjugate the women and the impact this has on the quest for equality. The women writers though shy away from being called the feminist still focus on the issues faced by women, their silent endurance to the discrimination and cultural subjugation which results in various problems faced by them. The female characters in the respective novels face their trails and are triumphant by resolving their psychological or sociological issues. The women writers by talking about these problems have brought them to the centre stage and have thus created a dialogue for gender equality. This analysis delves into Margaret Atwood, Kiran Desai, and Arundhati Roy’s intricate connection between trauma and the quest for empowerment of women by examining the specific manifestations of subjugation within their respective narratives.

Keywords– Trauma, Women empowerment, Gender equality, Alienation, Estrangeness Effect

Objectives

To understand the perspectives of gender from the view point of Margaret Atwood, Arundhati Roy and Kiran Desai,

To explain the effect of gender and patriarchy on women psyche,

Methadology

The research methodology of this research paper is qualitative in design. Researcher has used both primary and secondary material to prove the objectives. Textbooks, critical material such as Research Papers, Journals and viewpoints of experts have been utilized. This is descriptive, explanatory, analytical and comparative study.

Introduction

Trauma acts as a major barrier to women’s equality, rooted in systemic patriarchal structures, gender-based violence, and transgenerational cycles of abuse. It induces fear, anxiety, and diminished self-confidence, hindering autonomy and economic empowerment. Overcoming this requires trauma-informed approaches, safe spaces, and active engagement of men to dismantle inequality. Addressing trauma is not just an individual, therapeutic need but a necessary step for societal progress in achieving gender equality and empowering women to fully participate in all aspects of life.

Review of Literature and Discussion

“Through her vivid portrayals of women’s struggles and triumphs, Roy critiques the patriarchal systems that perpetuate gender inequality, while also celebrating the resilience and agency of her female protagonists” (Raman and Kumar 2021). This quote suggests that Roy in extreme goes against the gender restrictions and patriarchal norms. She is a feminist and womanist who thinks for women and talks about their empowerment in society, family and state.

Trauma manifests in many things, including the oppressive weight of patriarchal norms, the suppression of individual voices, and the psychological impact of societal expectations. These authors critically examine the systemic pressures which inflict deep-seated wounds upon women, and are manifested as internal conflicts and external struggles for autonomy by women. In Margaret Atwood’s works, female protagonists frequently navigate environments marked by male violence and exploitation, employing psychological defenses to process their suffering before embarking on a transformative journey towards self-reclamation. Specifically, in The Handmaid’s Tale, Atwood shows the extent of identity loss that the handmaids are stripped of their names. “My name isn’t Offred, I have another name, which nobody uses now because it’s forbidden” (Handmaid’s Tale 3).Atwood explores the intricate relationship between individual memory and societal control, demonstrating how the protagonist Offred utilizes personal recollections to maintain her sense of self amidst Gilead’s systematic attempts to erase her identity. This struggle for self-preservation through memory and resistance against oppressive systems is a recurring motif in Atwood’s works, often highlighting the specifically female nature of these struggles, such as issues surrounding reproductive rights and societal objectification (Banurekha and Abhinya). Atwood’s narratives consistently feature female protagonists who, despite their individual circumstances, actively resist victimhood by finding unique ways to assert their agency and challenge the patriarchal structures that seek to diminish them (Banurekha and Abhinya) ( Jaisy). We see Offred being subjected to gender-based oppression, violence, and objectification. Yet, she subtly defies these constraints through her passive rebellious acts like trying to maintain her autonomy by preserving the memories of her family. Furthermore,in Surfacing, Atwood intricately weaves the themes of environmental degradation and gendered oppression, portraying them as co-dependent systems of domination, where women’s bodies and the natural world become parallel sites of control and commodification ( Muthuswamy and Venkateshkumar). Atwood’s narratives delve into the fragmented psyche of her female characters , often caused by the female subjguation that they face, they have to reconnect with their past to make themselves whole again or to fight the demons of their past and overcome them. This fragmentation often stems from the deceptive patriarchal ideologies that diminish women’s autonomy and the sense of self. Offred, for instance, reclaims her fragmented self through storytelling and her monologues, critiquing the Gileadean propaganda and asserting her individuality. Her internal monologues serve as a critical tool for mental survival, allowing her to resist the imposed subjugation and maintain a semblance of her former identity

The profound psychological impact of such systemic subjugation necessitates a rigorous examination of the coping mechanisms and resistance strategies employed by these protagonists. The narrative often functions as a critical medium for these women to articulate their experiences and reclaim themselves within the oppressive structures.

Kiran Desai in her novel, ‘The Inheritance of Loss’ shows how trauma and displacement profoundly affect the identities and futures of its female characters, illustrating their arduous journeys toward self-discovery amidst postcolonial anxieties. Her protagonists grapple with both personal and collective traumas, revealing how gendered experiences intertwine with broader socio-political dislocations to shape their inner lives and external realities. “Could fulfillment ever be felt as deeply as loss?” (Inheritance of Loss 3)

This poignant question encapsulates the existential dilemmas faced by Desai’s characters, who are often caught between cultural expectations and personal aspirations. In her Novel, characters like Nimi, the judge’s wife went through abuse. “He beat her with a brass vase. She was never the same again”(Inheritance of Loss 186).

This line highlights the impact that abuse has on women and the subsequent changes that come with it. Nimi was beautiful and rich, Jemubhai, took advantage of the dowry money and yet he did not even treat his wife as a human being. Once he hurled her face in the toilet. whenever he met her, she had gone through phases of abuses and his ultimate decision to never see her brings her even more misery. She was neglected and abused. This systemic mistreatment, including marital violence and abandonment, leaves indelible psychological scars, illustrating how patriarchal structures inflict lasting damage on women’s sense of self-worth and agency. Such portrayals underscore the pervasive nature of gender inequality, where women are often confined to subordinate roles and subjected to various forms of exploitation, including psychological, economic, and sexual abuse. These profound and multifaceted traumas necessitate resilient coping mechanisms, which often manifest as internal resistance and a determined pursuit of self-redefinition against oppressive societal norms (Devraju) ( Sharma and Chouhan). The female characters in Desai’s works frequently navigate the complexities of cultural hybridity and identity crises, often reflecting the broader post-colonial struggles for self-definition in a globalized world (Tennyson) .

Desai through Sai shows the generational gendered changes. The changes are albiet subtle but Desai has shown these tranformations. Sai, though more educated and modern, still grapples with gendered expectations. Her romance with Gyan exposes the fragility of her autonomy in a society where women’s choices are often undermined. Her experiences highlight the subtle yet persistent ways in which patriarchal norms continue to influence even seemingly liberated women, forcing them to negotiate their desires within established societal frameworks (Desai). Her attempts to assert independence are frequently met with resistance, underscoring the enduring societal pressures that circumscribe female agency even in contemporary contexts.

Arundhati Roy also exposes the Indian society’s fragility when Ammu falls in love with Baba. This transgression of caste and social boundaries leads to tragic consequences, illustrating how societal rigidity and patriarchal control restrict women’s emotional and physical freedom, ultimately shaping their destiny. Roy’s novel The God of Small Things further underscores how societal prejudices and patriarchal systems contribute to the trauma experienced by women, often through the lens of forbidden love and its devastating repercussions on female protagonists. The tragic narratives of Ammu and other female characters reveal how the intersection of gender, class, and caste often subjects women to systemic oppression, leading to profound personal and intergenerational trauma. Her relationship with Velutha, an Untouchable, challenges the deeply entrenched caste system, highlighting the intersection of gender and caste as sites of resistance (Chacko 2000 and Nair 2002).

“She’s a woman. She’s not allowed to decide what she wants” (The God of Small Things 45). This statement profoundly encapsulates the pervasive subjugation experienced by women within rigidly hierarchical societal constructs, wherein patriarchal norms systematically curtail individual agency.

Rahel navigates a different path. She modern, independent well eduacted but still bears the scars of this societal conditioning, manifesting in her struggles with relationships and a pervasive sense of displacement. She does get married to a man but she struggles with emotional intimacy. She recognizes that Larry loves her, and she accepts the void that exists in her marriage.

“He couldn’t understand her. She couldn’t explain. They didn’t agree on things” (The God of Small Things 20). Their inability to bridge this communicative chasm underscores the profound alienation that can arise even within intimate partnerships when fundamental understandings of identity and desire diverge, a consequence often exacerbated by the entrenched societal pressures impacting female autonomy.

In The God of Small Things, the female characters, including Mammachi, Baby Kochamma, Ammu, and Rahel, despite their intellect and affluence, are unable to achieve their full potential due to a system of oppression rooted in gender. She understands the profound impact of her mother’s ostracization on her own capacity for connection, highlighting the intergenerational trauma inflicted by societal strictures. This intergenerational trauma, exacerbated by societal judgments and restrictive norms, manifests as a perpetual struggle against systemic oppression, impeding the women’s achieving their full potential and well-being (ALI).

Specifically, the analysis delves into how these authors utilize distinct narrative techniques to portray the psychological impact of trauma, often linking individual experiences of distress to broader socio-political injustices (Abubakar, 2017). Moreover, this section explores how the authors’ representational choices, particularly concerning gender and sexuality, contribute to a nuanced understanding of trauma within marginalized communities, thereby offering fresh insights into the intricate interplay of power and vulnerability (Ranga & Prasad, 2025). For instance, Atwood’s *Surfacing* explores the protagonist’s journey of individuation, directly linking her psychological recovery from past traumatic experiences to an introspective exploration of her unconscious mind (González Hernández, 2015) (Heidarizadeh, 2015). Desai, on the other hand, through characters like Bim, explores the enduring nature of trauma within familial structures, highlighting how intergenerational patterns of abuse and societal expectations shape feminine identity within traditional contexts (Kumar, 2024). Roy further complicates this by depicting characters, such as Rahel, who navigate complex socio-political landscapes where caste, gender, and historical legacies profoundly impact their identity and choices, underscoring the pervasive influence of societal and familial pressures (Kumar, 2024). This analytical framework further extends to examining how these authors, through their distinct literary styles, dismantle hegemonic narratives concerning gender and sexuality, advocating for more inclusive and equitable societal visions (Ranga & Prasad, 2025). Through their narratives, these authors collectively illuminate the intricate connections between personal suffering and systemic inequalities, advocating for a deeper understanding of how trauma permeates individual and collective consciousness (Heidarizadeh, 2015).

Discussion

The discussion section will elaborate on the implications of these findings, drawing connections between the narrative techniques and thematic concerns identified in the results section to broader theoretical frameworks concerning trauma studies, postcolonial literature, and feminist theory. Specifically, it will explore how Atwood, Desai, and Roy contribute to an understanding of trauma not merely as an individual psychological phenomenon, but as a deeply embedded socio-political construct shaped by historical oppressions and power imbalances.

And how these traumatic experiences, specifically of women, pave the way for a more nuanced approach where women realize that their sufferings wouldn’t end until and unless they change themselves. They take charge, and they resolve their traumas. This profound understanding is clearly shown in the generational changes that women see. Rahel and Ammu’s situation is different but the inherent trauma remains the same This cyclical nature of trauma across generations underscores the need for profound societal transformation rather than individual adaptation, suggesting that collective action is essential for true liberation from oppressive structures. Moreover, the enduring effects of Partition, as depicted in various literary works, highlight how historical events continue to shape the traumatic experiences of women, emphasizing the need for a comprehensive understanding of their lived realities.This literary analysis delves into the psychological underpinnings of female protagonists, revealing how characters like Mariam and Rahel internalize their mothers’ trauma, perpetuating cycles of self-perception influenced by gendered oppression and cultural exclusion (Işık, 2025). This intergenerational transference of trauma not only molds their individual identities but also reflects broader societal narratives where women’s worth is often defined by their roles within patriarchal structures (Kumar, 2024).

Furthermore, the psychological exploration of these characters often reveals a fractured self, necessitating an internal journey toward self-knowledge and integration, much like Jungian individuation, where protagonists reconcile conscious and unconscious elements to achieve wholeness (González Hernández, 2015) (Banurekaa & Abinaya, n.d.).

Result and Findings

This section presents the findings from the textual analysis, highlighting recurrent thematic patterns and narrative strategies employed by Atwood, Desai, and Roy in depicting trauma and the struggle for equality. A critical examination of these literary works reveals how deeply ingrained societal structures exacerbate personal suffering, simultaneously illuminating the resilience and agency of characters striving for liberation.

Anita Desai has focused on the psychological nuances of her characters, delving into their inner lives and frustrations within a changing societal landscape. Her protagonists often grapple with neurotic conditions arising from an inability to adapt to harsh realities, leading to psychological disturbances whether they react aggressively or compromise with their situations

Atwood’s female charcters often grapple with deeply personal traumas such as abuse, imprisonment, and objectification, which underscore the broader societal pressures faced by women.

Conversely, Kiran Desai’s protagonists frequently navigate the trauma of displacement and cultural alienation, revealing the profound psychosocial impact of globalization and postcolonial identities on individuals. In contrast,

Arundhati Roy’s literary contributions explore the pervasive trauma inflicted by systemic injustices, including caste discrimination and environmental degradation, demonstrating how deeply rooted societal structures perpetuate cycles of suffering and inequality.

Conclusion

These narratives, through their poignant portrayal of female suffering and resilience, highlight the critical need for gender equality as a means to alleviate the deep-seated trauma inflicted by patriarchal structure. Roy intricately weaves the stories of three generations of women—Baby Kochamma, Mammachi, Ammu, and Rahel—to highlight the difficult situation of women in post-colonial nations, demonstrating how their social positions were profoundly affected by the legacies of imperialism and the British colonizers’ oppressive humanitarian missions. This intergenerational trauma, exacerbated by societal judgments and restrictive norms, manifests as a perpetual struggle against systemic oppression, impeding the women’s achieving their full potential and well-being.

The women writers by highlighting the generational changes in the autonomy of women show the changes that have occurred over time and the need for continued advocacy to achieve full gender equity.

Atwood, Desai, and Roy, bring trauma and gender equality to the forefront of their narratives, using literature as a powerful space to explore the collective loved experience of women under the oppressive systems of patriarchy. Their works emphasise that trauma is not just a personal or psychological issue but also a reflection of broader social, cultural and political forces that affect women. By portraying trauma as a product of patriarchy and postcolonial structures, these authors challenge the traditional approaches and call for a more inclusive understanding of healing. Their narratives emphasize that true empowerment requires both personal recovery as well as dismantling the systems that perpetuate harm. These authors use fiction to amplify women’s voices, confront systems that perpetuate harm and envision a future where healing is tied to equality and liberation. They bring trauma to a center stage as a feminist and political issue making a strong case of empowerment of women through narrative and structural change.

References

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Chacko, M. Caste and Gender in Arundhati Roy’s The God of Small Things. Economic and Political Weekly, Issue 35 volume 42, 2000. PP, 3745-3750.

Desai, Kiran. The Inheritance of Loss. Penguin, India. 2006.

Devaraju, Vanitha. The Theme of Loss and Grief in Shashi Deshpande’s Small Remedies. Smart Moves Journal Ijellh, Vol. 6, no. 10, Oct. 2018.

González Hernández, Ma Lourdes. The Mapping of the Self. 2015.

Heidarizadeh, Negin. “The Significant Role of Trauma in Literature and Psychoanalysis.” Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences, vol. 192, June 2015, p. 788.

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Mutuswamy, Priyadarsini, and Venkateshkumar. “Roots of Ruin: Ecofeminist Echoes of Environmental and Gendered Subjugation in Margaret Atwood’s Dystopias.” International Journal For Multidisciplinary Research, vol. 7, no. 3, June2025.

Raman, P. and Kumar. The Language of Rebellion: A Study of Arundhati Roy’s Narrative Techniques. International Journal of Literature, Volume 22, Issue 3, 2021. PP, 395-410.

Ranga, R., and Pushkala Prasad. “The Politics of Representing Gender and Sexuality in Arundhati Roy’s Selected Books.” World Journal of English Language, vol. 16, no. 1, Sept. 2025, p. 305.

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Analysing the Perception of Violence in Walker’s Short Story Collection In Love and Trouble: Stories of Black Women

Daily writing prompt

Have you ever unintentionally broken the law?

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Dr. Ireshadsaheb Usmansaheb Shaikh

U. P. Arts and Science College, Dahiwel, Dhule (M.S.) Dec. 2025

ireshad.shaikh11@gmail.com

Abstract: Alice Walker is a renowned African American novelist, poet, short-story writer, and social activist.She became known worldwide with the publication of her seminal work, The Colour Purple. She is regarded as a radical black feminist author. She propagated her theory of womanism in her stories. Violence is a recurring theme in her stories. Walker’s narratives demonstrate the hardships, tribulations, and dilemmas faced by African American immigrants in the United States. Alice Walker’s short story collections explore the theme of violence, particularly as it relates to women of color during the era of chattel slavery in the United States. Women of colour have historically been subjected to violence by both white and black men. While violence against black women is dehumanising, their resistance offers the possibility of a new identity. Walker exposes the traumatic lives of black women resisting oppression and violence in her short story collections in various forms, such as physical, mental, self-inflicted, and societal violence.

Keywords: Violence, Oppression, Resistance, Resilience, Mammies, Emotional abuse, Sexual harassment.

Alice Walker is a versatile and globally recognised American author, best known for her Pulitzer Prize-winning novel The Color Purple (1982). She is regarded as a radical feminist writer and is known for formulating Womanism, also known as Black Feminism. Walker believed that the feminist movement was primarily owned by white women, leaving little room for women of colour, as white feminists often failed to acknowledge or relate to the experiences of Black women. Along with other Black feminist critics, she helped develop a feminist theory that includes the issues and problems of women of colour. For Black feminists, race and class are as vital as gender is for white feminists. Racial and gender discrimination have equally contributed to the dehumanisation of women of colour, prompting efforts to dismantle racist structures.

A recurring theme in Alice Walker’s short story collection In Love and Trouble: Stories of Black Women(1973) is the testament of the exercise of verbal and physical violence against women of colour in the public and domestic spheres. She lays bare the truth of crafting an image of a Black woman as subhuman, unworthy of empathy, asexual, servile, angry, and bestial. Despite being labelled as inhuman, these women persist in asserting their voices and expressing pride in their cultural heritage. Walker’s narratives demonstrate the hardships, tribulations, and dilemmas faced by African American immigrants in the United States. Through these experiences, Walker’s Black female characters endure racism and ultimately gain the strength to challenge and dismantle oppressive patriarchal structures within American society.

Alice Walker’s short story collections explore the theme of violence, particularly as it relates to women of colour during the era of chattel slavery in the United States. Enslaved women were often subjected to dehumanising stereotypes, being labelled as breeders, mammies, jezebels, hoochie mamas, and sapphires. In her stories, Walker delineates these negative perceptions. Representations of Black women in art, literature, and popular culture have frequently depicted them as strong, masculine, bulky, boisterous, and angry, which has contributed to the notion that they could endure or were susceptible to violence. In the story ‘Everyday Use,’ a mother describes herself as,

“a large, big-boned woman with rough, man-working hands……. I can kill and clean a hog as mercilessly as a man. My fat keeps me hot in zero weather. I can work outside all day, breaking ice to get water for washing; I can eat pork liver cooked over the open fire minutes after it comes steaming from the hog. One winter I knocked a bull calf straight in the brain between the eyes with a sledgehammer and had the meat hung up to chill before nightfall.” (Walker 46)

A prominent example of colonial and racial exploitation in European history is the case of Sarah Baartman, who was paraded and exhibited half-naked in street shows in London and Paris around 1811. Crowds were invited to observe her body, described as large, uncommon, and erotic, and she was labelled the ‘Hottentot Venus’. After her death, her body parts were preserved in jars and displayed in a museum. This violence was perpetuated by the dissemination of negative images of black women. Baartman’s narrative documents abuse, violence, sexual harassment, and rape. The construction of a false narrative about women of colour was intended to coerce them into inhumane and degrading conditions, thereby normalising violence against them and discouraging resistance. Women of colour have historically been subjected to violence by both white and black men. While violence against black women is dehumanising, their resistance offers the possibility of a new identity. In “Her Sweet Gerome”, the black female protagonist is described as a “big awkward woman, with big bones and hard rubbery flesh” (Walker 26) and endures domestic violence. Her husband physically abuses her and fails to recognise her as an equal partner. She gives him all her money and attempts to conceal the visible marks of abuse with makeup. She married him for his perceived gentlemanly behaviour towards other women and initially felt proud to be his wife, but his actions ultimately contradict this image. Although he is a civil rights activist, he beats her “black and blue” (Walker 27), yet the community continues to regard him as a gentleman.

Walker exposes the harshness of black men even as they fight for their own rights, highlighting the violation of the protagonist’s rights. He never treats her as a wife; when she seeks affection, he responds with violence. He also inherits her father’s money. Despite enduring his violent and abusive behaviour and spending all her resources, she becomes distraught upon discovering his affairs with other women. In her search for the truth, she realises his obsession with the Civil Rights Movement and the black revolution. In a moment of heartbreak, she destroys his books with a knife and sets fire to the bedroom. “Overwhelming with pain,” she hides her face behind her slightly burned hands and “screamed and screamed” (Walker 34).

“The Child Who Favored Daughter” depicts the severe abuse, crime, and violence experienced by women of colour at the hands of both white masters and black men. The narrative centres on the suffering of three women. The story begins with a black man described as “father, judge and giver of life” (Walker 35) who has a daughter named Daughter. In his youth, his sister, also named Daughter, fell in love with his white master, who treated them inhumanely. She is described as “like honey, tawny, wild and sweet,” and her brother cared for her deeply. Despite his pleas, she left with the white man. She later returned, accompanied by another woman’s husband, appearing hysterical and profoundly changed. She had lost her long hair, “her teeth wobbled in her gums when she ate,” and no longer recognised anyone. She sang continuously and was “tied on the bed as she was at the mercy of everyone.” To keep her silent at night, her father beat her with a belt. Eventually, she was found dead on the compound spikes.

The narrative describes a man who, overwhelmed by his emotions, violently abuses his wife, ultimately causing her death and leaving behind a daughter. This daughter, depicted metaphorically as a flower, mirrors her mother’s fate by falling in love with a white man. Upon discovering this, the father subjects her to prolonged physical abuse, as described: “he beats her for a long time with a harness from the stable, and where the buckles hit, there is a welling of blood that comes to be level with the tawny skin, the spill over and falls” (Walker 43). The violence continues the following morning, culminating in further brutality: “he sees her blouse, wet and slippery from the rain, has slipped completely off her shoulders and her high young breast is bare.” In a frenzied state, he “gathers their fullness in his fingers……. he is suddenly burning with unnamable desire……draws the girl away from him pulling off his own arm and with quick slashes of his knife leaves two bleeding craters the size of grapefruits on her bare bronze chest and flings……to the yelping dogs” (Walker 43). Walker poignantly narrates the girl’s traumatic experience, drawing a comparison to flowers and emphasizing her defiance: “flowers pledge no allegiance to the banners of any man” (Walker 44). The story explores the pervasive violence faced by women of colour, particularly within familial and romantic relationships. Walker’s narratives detail the profound suffering of black women as they navigate relationships with fathers, brothers, husbands, and lovers, striving to survive and find meaning within oppressive circumstances.

“The Welcome Table” exposes the racist and violent actions of white individuals toward a poor, elderly Black woman in the American South. The protagonist attempts to pray at a church, but, due to her age and mental state, she does not realise it is a church designated exclusively for white congregants. Convinced that her devotion to Jesus Christ will protect her, she enters, only to be forcibly removed by members of the congregation. She experiences humiliation and injury and is found dead beside the road the following day. The narrative highlights her deprivation of human rights and the community’s indifference to her suffering and the injustice she endures. Similarly, “Flowers” depicts the realities of violence, lynching, and segregation during the Civil Rights Movement. White individuals would often fabricate accusations of rape against Black men to justify lynching, which served as a tool to degrade and dehumanise Black communities. The story follows Myop, a young girl who discovers the body of a lynched Black man, leading to her loss of innocence as she confronts the brutal realities of racial violence. Her stories are poignant and address themes of physical violence, beatings, fear, threats, the threat of rape, lynching, and death.

The story “The Revenge of Hannah Kemmhuff” explores the theme of physical violence. Here, the protagonist, Hannah, is physically abused by her husband, leading to a dramatic and violent confrontation. “Really, Doesn’t Crime Pay?” is another powerful story in Walker’s collection that deals with emotional abuse. The protagonist, Roselily, is trapped in an oppressive marriage with a man who emotionally manipulates and controls her, while another man in her life destroys her creativity by stealing her manuscript of stories. Stories like “Roselily”, “Everyday Use”, “The Welcome Table”, “Strong Horse Tea”, and “The Diary of an African Nun” demonstrate the societal violence, through systemic racism and sexism, confronted by women of colour, making them prone to violence and oppression. Stories like “Entertaining God’ and “We Drank Wine in France” reveal the theme of self-inflicted violence. Walker’s female characters struggle with internalised oppression, leading to self-destructive behaviours.Walker’s stories expose dark realities of the experiences of women of colour, filled with violence and subordination. Her stories attest to the resistance and resilience of women of colour.

Reference:

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Accessed January 6, 2025.

Myth and Folklore in Naga-Mandala by Girish Karnad

Daily writing prompt

Who are your favorite people to be around?

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Vijay Tulshiram Jadhav

Department of English

Mahatma Gandhi Vidya Mandir, Karamveer Bhausaheb Hiray Arts, Science and Commerce College, Nimgaon, Tal–Malegaon, Dist.–Nashik

Email: vjadhav8390@gmail.com

Abstract

Girish Karnad is a major figure in modern Indian English theatre, known for his effective use of Indian myths, history, and folklore to examine contemporary social issues. Rather than merely retelling traditional stories, Karnad reshapes them to address problems related to marriage, gender relations, and individual identity. His play Naga-Mandala (1988), which is based on two Kannada folktales, is a clear example of this creative method.

This paper examines how myth and folklore function as important narrative devices in Naga-Mandala. Through symbols such as the serpent (Naga), magic roots, the anthill, and the Raat-Rani flower, Karnad brings attention to the suppressed emotional and sexual experiences of women within a patriarchal social system. These symbolic elements expose the emotional distance, moral weakness, and hypocrisy that often exist within male-dominated institutions, especially marriage. The contrast between the socially respected but emotionally indifferent husband and the caring mythical lover highlights the failure of patriarchal masculinity to provide emotional fulfilment.

The paper argues that Naga-Mandala uses folklore as a means of feminist expression by giving space to women’s inner experiences and desires. At the same time, it also reveals the limitations of traditional belief systems, as women’s acceptance depends on social and ritual approval. By combining oral folk traditions with modern theatrical form, Karnad shows that myth continues to be a meaningful and effective medium in contemporary Indian English drama.

Keywords: Girish Karnad, myth, folklore, patriarchy.

Introduction

After India’s independence, Indian English drama gradually moved away from Western dramatic models and began to draw inspiration from indigenous cultural sources. Playwrights started using myths, history, and folklore to express social tensions, psychological conflicts, and postcolonial concerns. Among these playwrights, Girish Karnad holds an important place because of his ability to reinterpret traditional stories in a modern and critical manner.

Karnad does not simply retell myths; he questions them. His plays examine the power structures and social values hidden within traditional narratives. Naga-Mandala (1988) is a strong example of this approach. The play is based on oral folktales that are usually told by women within domestic spaces. By transforming these stories into a modern play, Karnad explores issues of patriarchy, marriage, and female desire. Unlike classical myths that focus on male heroes, the folktales used in Naga-Mandala arise from marginal voices, especially those of women, and therefore challenge dominant cultural traditions.

Research Objectives and Methodology

Research Objectives

The objectives of this paper are:

To examine how myth and folklore operate as narrative tools in Naga-Mandala.
To study the symbolic meaning of elements such as the serpent, magic roots, anthill, and the Raat-Rani flower.
To explore how Karnad uses women-centred folktales to question patriarchal marriage systems.
To establish Naga-Mandala as a feminist reinterpretation of folklore in modern Indian English drama.

Methodology

This study follows a qualitative method of textual analysis. It makes use of:

Myth criticism, especially Northrop Frye’s ideas about archetypes,
Feminist literary criticism focusing on gender, power, and sexuality, and
Folklore studies, particularly the oral traditions discussed by A. K. Ramanujan.

The primary text for analysis is Naga-Mandala. Secondary sources include critical writings on Karnad, Indian theatre, mythology, and feminist theory.

Girish Karnad and the Use of Myth and Folklore

Girish Karnad’s plays regularly use myths, legends, and folktales to explore modern human problems. In Tughlaq, he presents the conflict between political idealism and failure. In Hayavadana, myth becomes a means to explore questions of identity and completeness. In Naga-Mandala, however, Karnad shifts his attention from classical myths to folktales that come from women’s oral traditions.

These folktales are often seen as simple or insignificant, but they express deep emotional truths about women’s lives. By presenting them on the modern stage, Karnad gives importance to voices that are usually ignored. Folklore thus becomes a medium through which suppressed experiences are expressed and social norms are questioned.

Literature Review

Many critics have discussed Karnad’s use of myth and folklore. Aparna Dharwadker explains that Karnad’s plays create a balance between tradition and modernity, using myth as a space for social and ideological debate rather than mere cultural revival. Meenakshi Mukherjee points out that Indian English writers often adapt traditional narratives to address contemporary social issues.

K. Ramanujan’s work on Indian folktales is particularly important for understanding Naga-Mandala. He observes that folktales often preserve women’s suppressed emotions and experiences, especially in relation to marriage and sexuality. While earlier studies recognize the role of folklore in Naga-Mandala, they pay limited attention to how women’s desire and agency are expressed through symbols. This paper attempts to focus on this aspect.

The Serpent (Naga) Myth and Patriarchal Masculinity

In Indian mythology, the serpent or Naga is commonly associated with fertility, renewal, and masculine power. Karnad reshapes this symbol to question traditional ideas of masculinity. The Naga, who takes the form of Appanna at night, shows affection, care, and sexual sensitivity—qualities missing in the real Appanna.

Appanna enjoys respect in society but lacks emotional depth. His cold behaviour towards Rani reveals the emptiness of patriarchal authority, which values control over emotional connection. The Naga’s presence brings emotional and physical fulfillment into Rani’s life, showing how patriarchal systems deny women genuine intimacy.

Magic Roots, Anthill, and Transformation

Magic roots are common in Indian myths and usually symbolize fertility and change. In Naga-Mandala, the blind woman Kurudavva gives Rani a magic root to awaken Appanna’s desire. When it fails, it exposes Appanna’s emotional weakness. Rani throws the root into an anthill, which leads to the awakening of the Naga.

The anthill acts as a symbol of birth and transformation. Rani’s accidental action leads to a major change in her life. This suggests that nature and folklore offer possibilities of change that rigid social rules do not allow.

Marriage and Patriarchy: A Critical Reading

Marriage in Naga-Mandala is shown not as a sacred relationship but as a social system that supports male dominance. Appanna’s good reputation in society hides his cruel behaviour at home. Rani’s silence in the beginning reflects how women often accept oppression as normal.

The Naga’s role challenges the belief that marriage alone ensures happiness. By presenting an alternative emotional relationship, Karnad exposes the emotional emptiness of patriarchal masculinity.

Folklore as Feminist Resistance

Rani does not openly rebel against her situation, yet folklore works as a silent force that empowers her. At the end of the play, her transformation into a goddess shows how myth validates women’s experiences even when logic and reality fail to do so.

At the same time, Karnad remains critical. Rani’s acceptance by society depends on a test of purity, showing that folklore can support patriarchal values as well. This double nature of folklore makes the play complex and realistic rather than idealistic

Conclusion

Naga-Mandala clearly shows Girish Karnad’s skill in using myth and folklore to examine social realities. By focusing on women’s oral narratives, the play highlights the emotional suffering caused by patriarchy and the neglect of women’s desires. Myth becomes both a means of resistance and a reflection of social contradictions.

Karnad neither blindly supports tradition nor completely rejects it. Instead, he questions its values and power structures. Through Naga-Mandala, he connects the past with the present and confirms the importance of myth in modern Indian theatre. The play establishes Karnad as a major voice in Indian English drama who successfully combines tradition with critical insight.

References

Karnad, Girish. Naga-Mandala: Play with a Cobra. Oxford University Press, 1990.

Dharwadker, Aparna. Theatres of Independence: Drama, Theory, and Urban Performance in India since 1947. Oxford University Press, 2005.

Mukherjee, Meenakshi. The Twice Born Fiction. Heinemann, 1971.

Ramanujan, A. K. Folktales from India. Pantheon Books, 1991.

Frye, Northrop. Anatomy of Criticism. Princeton University Press, 1957.

Beauvoir, Simone de. The Second Sex. Vintage, 1989.

Diasporic Consciousness in Bharati Mukherjee’s Wife

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Are you patriotic? What does being patriotic mean to you?

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Dr. Dinesh P. Patil and Miss. Shiba Akhtar Khan

Appasaheb R. B. Garud Arts, Commerce, and Science College, Shendurni. Tal. Jamner.

Email ID: dinesh.p.patil@gmail.com, shibakhan0290@gmail.com

Abstract

This research paper explores diasporic consciousness through Bharati Mukherjee’s novel Wife, which follows Dimple Dasgupta, a young Indian woman navigating the complex realities of immigration in the United States. It discusses how migration heightens issues of identity crisis, cultural displacement, alienation, and gendered oppression. The novel depicts the emotional and cultural confusions faced by immigrants, balancing inherited traditions with assimilation pressures in a foreign land. The analysis shows Mukherjee’s portrayal of diasporic consciousness as a fragmented state characterized by alienation, identity struggles, and cultural disturbance. Dimple’s attempt to reconcile her expectations of marriage, self-identity, and freedom with patriarchal constraints and racial marginalization reveals gendered aspects of the diaspora. The paper argues that Mukherjee depicts diasporic consciousness as a traumatic, dissonant process rather than a seamless cultural blend. Ultimately, the novel highlights the psychological pain of migration and questions the idealized notion of the American Dream for immigrant women.

Keywords:Immigration, Hyphenated Identity, Cultural Displacement, Expatriation, Alienation, Identity Crises.

Introduction

The term for the sense of alienation, nostalgia, and displacement among immigrants is diaspora, derived from the Latin word ‘diasperian’, meaning dispersion. Originally, it refers to the dispersion of Jews outside Israel. The Jews were forced to leave Jerusalem, their homeland, and thus they scattered across the world. This exodus led to the loss of their identity. Sunil Amrith, in his critical work, Migration and Diaspora in South Asia, explains that the term diaspora is “the dispersion or spread of any people from their original homeland” (pg. 57). James Clifford, in his work, Routes: Travel and Translation in the Late Twentieth Century, uses the phrase, “dwellings in displacement” (pg. 310). Since dwelling is a key aspect of defining diaspora, the ideas of home and homemaking are essential in diasporic spaces.

Today, the term now encompasses ideas beyond its initial links to hostility, tragedy, alienation, loss, exile, and the aspiration to return. It also signifies a shared homeland—whether through voluntary or forced migration—and involves feelings of estrangement and marginalization within the host country. Vijay Agnew, a Social Science professor, describes diaspora in his book _Diaspora, Memory, and Identitynot just as the dispersal of people from a particular place but also as involving “the collective memory and trauma involved in such dispersion” (p. 193).

Even though the term ‘Diaspora’ has evolved in meaning over time, it still retains certain characteristics such as rootlessness, homelessness, alienation, and love for the homeland. Salman Rushdie, in his critical work, Imaginary Homeland, shares his personal experience as an expatriate, stating that:

“Exiles or emigrants or expatriates are haunted by some sense of loss, some urge to reclaim, to look back, even at the risk of being mutated into pillars of salt. If we do look back, we must also do so in the knowledge – which gives rise to profound uncertainties – that our physical alienation from India almost inevitably means that we will not be capable of reclaiming precisely the thing that was lost; that we will in short, create fictions, not actual cities or villages, but invisible ones, imaginary homelands, Indias of the mind” (pg.10).

In simple terms, when people leave their homes, they often feel lonely and are surprised by how much they miss the comfort of a real home. Connecting with a new culture can be naturally difficult. Differences in cultural and religious backgrounds often make it hard for individuals to find their identity. During the process of settling into a new environment, many diasporic communities experience psychological trauma. Even after adjusting, these communities often face discrimination, alienation, and identity struggles. Common themes in diasporic literature include feelings of displacement, loneliness, societal alienation, and longing.

P. Malikarjuna Rao states that “the lives of immigrants do not follow straight lines or smooth paths, as they are compelled to confront centuries of history within their lifetime, thereby having to endure the experiences of multiple lives and roles.”

Homi K. Bhabha, in his book The Location of Culture, explores the idea of hyphenated identity. He affirms that “I am both a mixture of my home country and host country”. Through this critical work, Bhabha has discussed the concept of hybridity, which emerges when individuals from different cultural backgrounds come into contact. Bhabha emphasized that diaspora communities often inhabit a space of cultural interaction and negotiation, leading to hybrid identities that challenge fixed notions of belonging. He highlights the idea of ‘Third Space’, where new cultural meanings and identities are formed. Moreover, several other diasporic writers have penned down the plight of diasporic communities who suffered a lot to create their identity and adjust to their newfound world.

Diasporic Consciousness

Immigration

Immigration is frequently regarded as the best option for a better life, despite the challenges and difficulties that come with it. For most Asian immigrants, the United States was a “paradise on earth.” C.L. Chua states that “Discovery of the American passage was a dream of fame and failure of egregious identity and material wealth”. (pg. 54). This land of golden opportunities lent a Midas touch for people entering this ‘Promised Land’. In the New Standard Encyclopaedia, the United States is referred to as “a Melting Pot” and “a nation of nations” (pg. 41). All immigrants must, however, go through the process of becoming adopted, Americanized, and integrated into the country’s social and economic structure.

Dimple’s joy is beyond words when Amit reveals that they will be moving to the United States. She gets ready nicely and realizes that everything she needs for a new life is there. Over the phone, Dimple informs her closest friend, Dixie, that she will not be taking any of her old saris with her to America. Relics from Dimple’s past are something she does not want to keep around. Dimple finds being a mother to be a burden. In self-induced abortion, Dimple appears to use abortion as a means of venting her wrath against the Basu family while also assuming control over her body, signifying her mastery over it. She dislikes being directed by her husband and being subject to Basus’ authority. Dimple is excited to move to a place where she won’t have to deal with the demands of domesticity, where she won’t have to live under Basu’s rule or domestication, and where she can be herself.

Dimple might look for ways to escape the role that her community assigns to a wife in America. Her goal is to investigate ways to deviate from the pattern created for middle-class Indian women. She makes friends with Ina Mullick, who she believes broke the traditional expectations of an Indian bride and embraced American culture.

Identity Crisis

Dimple had dreamed since she was a young girl that marriage would give her all the luxuries in the world, but she is now unhappy and disgusted with the circumstances she has found herself in after getting married. To be considered a proper wife by societal standards, she first had to give up her name and then change her way of life. Because of her dark complexion and Bengali name, Dimple finds Amit’s mother, Mrs. Basu, and his older sister, Mrs. Ghosh, repulsive at their first meeting. Mrs. Basu then changes Dimple’s name to Nandini because she doesn’t like it. Dimple was hesitant but did not oppose, and she couldn’t say anything because she wanted to build a strong relationship with her mother-in-law.

Earlier, Dimple was so excited to go to America and start a new journey. Still, after moving to America, it became tough for her to establish her own identity there. Fakrul Alam states that, ‘It is quite obvious, then, that Dimple has come to America, ready to be transformed and willing to seek out an identity that would take her away from her South Asian Community or connect with mainstream American society’ (pg.41). Dimple is helplessly caught in her quest for a female identity as an immigrant. She wants to be like Ina Mullick, who has made her own identity as ‘more American than Americans’. Dimple is so fascinated by Ina and her American ways. But it was tough for her to fully become an American because of the language barrier. She was also unable to operate the elevators. To gain a new American identity, she indulges in an affair with an American, Milt.

Hyphenated Identity

When Dimple goes to the party in Manhattan, she meets various immigrants from all over the world. They show her different ways that being Indian and being American are connected. She hears about Ina Mullick, a Bengali wife whose careless husband allowed her to become “more American than the Americans” (pg. 10). Bharati Mukherjee illustrates the influence of American ways through the character of Ina Mullick, who represents assimilation. Ina has accepted American ways and attitudes, adapting to American culture, food, clothing, and language.

Cultural Displacement.

Cultural displacement refers to the feeling of dislocation that people experience when their cultural identity is challenged or undermined, especially due to migration, globalization, or societal changes. Shyam M. Asani, in his critical work ‘Identity Crises in The Nowhere Man and Wife,’ states that ‘Dimple is entrapped in a dilemma of tensions between American culture society and the traditional constraints surrounding an Indian wife, between a feminist desire to be assertive and independent and the Indian need to be submissive and self-effacing’ (pg. 42). Because she partially accepts both American and Indian cultures, she becomes frustrated and develops neurosis, which leads her to commit destructive acts such as sin, murder, or suicide. The root of her mental disorder is that she was uprooted from her family and homeland. Amit wants Dimple to be a good Bengali wife who takes care of her home and husband and learns how to live in America without becoming too Americanized, which makes her all the more frustrated.

Expatriation

Expatriation is the process of leaving one’s home country to live in another, often for a long time or permanently. It happens for many reasons, such as work, education, personal relationships, or a desire for a different lifestyle. Expatriation is common in developed countries. Christine Gomez, in her work, ‘The Ongoing Quest of Bharati Mukherjee from Expatriation to Immigration,’ provides a clear definition of the term expatriation.

“Expatriation is a complex state of mind and emotion, which includes wistful longing for the past, often symbolized by the ancestral home, the pain of exile and homelessness, the struggle to maintain the difference between oneself and the new, unfriendly surroundings, an assumption of moral and cultural superiority over the host country and a refusal to accept the identity forced one by the environment. The expatriate builds a cocoon around herself/himself as a refuge from the cultural dilemmas and the experienced hostility or unfriendliness in the new country. (pg. 72)

Through the characters of Jyoti and Meena Sen, Bharati Mukherjee illustrates expatriation. Because America is a land of opportunities, the couple travelled to America to earn money. For Jyoti, America was solely a place of wealth. He aimed to make a lot of money, then return to his hometown and build a home, which would have cost him about five lakhs, and thus become the ‘Maharaj of Lower Circular Road’ (pg.9).

When Dimple and Amit arrived in America, they were received by the Sen family. Dimple was very excited to explore America and embark on a new journey, and thus she is very eager to see the Sen’s house. As they reached their house, Dimple was very astonished to see it, which was a typical Indian house. It is exactly like a common Indian house in Calcutta.Jyoti’s American house is very Indian-like, with no chairs in the room, but only a mat and a rug are served to guests. Jyoti’s house makes Amit comfortable because he feels no difference between his house in Calcutta and Jyoti’s house. This indicates that the Sen couple is living abroad in America and aspires to return home once they have saved enough money.

Alienation

Accordingto the Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy, the concept of alienation identifies a distinct kind of psychological or social ill, namely, one involving a problematic separation between a self and others that belong together. Cetin et al. have explained that alienation expresses that the individual has a decreased adaptation to the social, cultural, and natural environment, loses her/his control over the environment, and becomes isolated by getting gradually helpless.

Dimple and her community of expatriates experience alienation in a country whose ways they cannot understand. Before Dimpled had ever set foot in America, she had friends remark that even though it’s a place to have a lot of fun, one must endure being a foreigner forever.

Before going to America Dimple has been invited in a farewell party sponsored by her friend, Dixie, in that party one of the guests has apprise that, “You may think of it as immigration, my dear…but what you are is a resident alien” (pg.46). When Dimple arrived in New York, she has been informed by Meena Sen that, she feels as an outsider because it was tough to understand American humors and the American language. Earlier, Dimple felt that she was now free from all the clutches of Indian traditions, and she was not obliged to follow the role of a traditional Indian wife. But gradually she feels alienated as it becomes difficult for her to learn American ways and living standards, language becomes one of the obstacles for her to interact with the people around her, and thus she becomes frustrated with not knowing English. When Amit got a job, the couple shifted to an apartment, where she feels alienated, as most of the time she has to be alone in the apartment. She has to spend her time watching television, soap operas, and murder mysteries. Meanwhile, she indulges in an affair with a white man named Milt, with whom she feels safe and protected. Once, after returning from a function with Milt, Dimple feels, “the inhuman maze of New York became as safe and simple as Ballygunge” (pg. 196). When they were together at her apartment, he promised Dimple to protect her, but as he left, she again felt lonelierthan ever.

Conclusion

In Wife, Bharati Mukherjee presents diaspora not as a simple story of migration and opportunity, but as a deeply unsettling psychological rupture. Through Dimple Dasgupta’s experiences, the novel exposes the emotional dislocation, cultural alienation, and identity fragmentation faced by immigrants caught between inherited traditions and an unfamiliar host culture. Dimple’s inability to reconcile her expectations of marriage, freedom, and selfhood with the realities of diasporic life reveals how migration can intensify inner conflicts rather than resolve them. The American dream, instead of offering liberation, becomes a site of isolation and despair. Ultimately, Wife suggests that diaspora, when marked by silence, patriarchal constraints, and cultural dissonance, can erode the self. Mukherjee thus critiques the romanticized notion of migration and highlights the urgent need for emotional anchoring and self-definition within the diasporic experience.

References

Primary Sources

Novel

Mukherjee, Bharti. Wife, Houghton Mifflin Press, New York. 1975. Print

Secondary Sources

Chua, C.L. Passage from India: Migrating to America in the Fiction of V.S.Naipaul and Bharati Mukherjee. Reworlding – The Literature of the Indian Diaspora. Ed. Emmanuel S. Nelson. Westport: Greenwood Press, 1992. Print.
Himandri, Lahiri. Diaspora Theory and Transnationalism. Orient Black Swan. 2019. Print.

Alam, Fakrul. Migration and Settlement in North America in Bharati Mukherjee’s Fiction Asian American Writing: Vol 2. Fiction.Ed. Somdatta Mandel. New Delhi: Prestige Books. Print
Asnani, Shyam, and Rajpal Deepika. Identity Crises in The Nowhere Man and Wife: Quest for Identity in Indian English Writing Part I: Fiction. Ed. Shyam M. Asnani and Deepika Rajpal. New Delhi. Baheri Publication. 1992. Print.
Clifford, James. Diasporas: Cultural Anthropology, vol. 9, no. 3, 1994, pp. 302-338. Print

E-Sources

Bhabha, Homi K. The Location of Culture. Kindle ed. Stephen Fay & Liam Haydon, 2017.

Amrith, Sunil S. Migration and Diaspora in Modern Asia. Kindle ed. Cambridge University Press, 2011.

Agnew, Vijay. Diaspora, Memory, and Identity. Kindle ed. University of Toronto Press, 2005.

Glissant, Édouard. Poetics of Relation. Translated by Betsy Wing, University of Michigan Press, 1997. Kindle ed.

Clifford, James. Routes: Travel and Translation in the Late Twentieth Century. Kindle ed., Harvard University Press, 1997.
Rushdie, Salman. Imaginary Homelands: Essays and Criticism. Kindle ed., Granta, 1991.

Webliography

Theses

Thakur, Shikha. “Human Migration and Uprooted Identities: A Post-Colonial Reading of Selected Works of Adib Khan and Monica Ali,” Phagwara. 2022.
Chandrasekharan, M. “Immigrant experience, multiculturalism and the foreignness of self in the works of Bharati Mukherjee”. Tirunelveli. 2016.
J. Zamuel Karbhari. “Immigration, cross-cultural encounter, and diasporic elements in the works of Bharati Mukherjee”. Tirunelveli. 2015.
Patil. Y.B. “Identity Crises in the Novels of Bharati Mukherjee”. Shimoga. 2008.
Yadav. S.K. “Cultural Clash and Identity Crises in the Works of Monica Ali and Bharati Mukherjee: A Comparative Study. Gwalior. 2021.

Work Motivation of University Lecturers: A Narrative Review and Policy-Oriented Synthesis

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What books do you want to read?

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Hiếu, P. T. (2026). Work Motivation of University Lecturers: A Narrative Review and Policy-Oriented Synthesis. International Journal of Research, 13(1), 494–507. https://doi.org/10.26643/ijr/2026/24

Phí Thị Hiếu

Associate Professor, Thai Nguyen University of Education, Thai Nguyen, Vietnam

Abstract

This article presents a narrative review of selected literature on work motivation among university lecturers, aiming to synthesize key theoretical perspectives and recurring empirical themes. Drawing on established motivational frameworks, particularly self-determination theory and two-factor theory, the review examines how intrinsic and extrinsic factors interact to influence lecturers’ engagement, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment.

The reviewed literature suggests that intrinsic motivation is frequently identified as an important factor in sustaining lecturers’ long-term engagement and professional dedication. These intrinsic factors are strongly supported by autonomy, perceived competence, collegial relationships, and opportunities for meaningful teaching and research. At the same time, extrinsic conditions, including salary, workload, promotion systems, and employment stability, function as essential foundational factors that shape lecturers’ overall job satisfaction and retention, even if they do not directly generate intrinsic motivation.

The review further highlights the importance of organizational culture, leadership practices, and governance structures in shaping motivational experiences. Several studies suggest that managerialist and performance-driven environments may, in some contexts, be associated with reduced perceptions of autonomy and intrinsic motivation among lecturers. In addition, contemporary higher education reforms emphasizing accountability and performance metrics are shown to have mixed motivational effects, depending on how they are implemented and perceived by academic staff. Overall, the review underscores that lecturers’ work motivation is a multidimensional and context-dependent phenomenon with significant implications for teaching quality, research productivity, and the sustainability of higher education systems. The reviewed literature points to the potential value of higher education policies that take lecturers’ psychological needs into account when designing governance and evaluation mechanisms.

Keywords

Work motivation, academic motivation, university lecturers, higher education

Introduction

Work motivation of university lecturers has been widely recognized as a critical factor influencing the quality of higher education, institutional effectiveness, and the sustainable development of academic systems worldwide. University lecturers play a central role not only in teaching and research but also in curriculum development, academic governance, and community engagement. As higher education systems face increasing pressures related to globalization, digital transformation, accountability, and performance-based evaluation, understanding the factors that motivate lecturers to perform effectively has become an important concern for researchers, educational leaders, and policymakers.

In the context of higher education, work motivation refers to the internal and external forces that initiate, direct, and sustain lecturers’ professional behaviors, including teaching commitment, research productivity, innovation, and engagement with institutional goals. Motivated lecturers are more likely to demonstrate higher levels of job satisfaction, instructional quality, and professional dedication, which in turn positively affect student learning outcomes and institutional reputation. Conversely, low levels of work motivation among academic staff may lead to reduced teaching effectiveness, diminished research output, burnout, and higher turnover intentions.

The literature on work motivation of university lecturers draws on established motivational theories such as Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, Herzberg’s two-factor theory, self-determination theory, and expectancy–value theory. These theoretical frameworks have been used to explain how intrinsic factors (e.g., passion for teaching, academic autonomy, professional growth) and extrinsic factors (e.g., salary, promotion opportunities, working conditions, leadership support) interact to shape lecturers’ motivational orientations. In academic settings, intrinsic motivation is often emphasized due to the intellectual and autonomous nature of academic work, yet extrinsic conditions remain crucial for sustaining long-term commitment and performance.

A growing body of empirical studies across different national contexts has explored how lecturers’ work motivation may be influenced by a combination of individual, organizational, and contextual factors. These include institutional policies, workload distribution, research support, evaluation systems, leadership styles, collegial relationships, and opportunities for professional development. In recent years, changes in higher education governance—such as increased performance measurement, publication pressure, and competition for research funding—have significantly reshaped lecturers’ motivational experiences. While some lecturers may feel motivated by clear performance incentives and recognition, others may experience increased stress and reduced autonomy.

In developing and transitional higher education contexts, including Vietnam and other Southeast Asian countries, research has highlighted additional challenges related to limited resources, heavy teaching loads, and disparities in career advancement opportunities. These contextual factors may intensify the importance of supportive leadership, fair evaluation systems, and meaningful professional development in sustaining lecturers’ motivation. However, despite a growing body of research, existing findings remain fragmented, and systematic syntheses focusing specifically on university lecturers’ work motivation are still limited.

Therefore, a comprehensive literature review on the work motivation of university lecturers is necessary to consolidate existing evidence, identify dominant research themes, and clarify theoretical and empirical trends in this field. By synthesizing prior studies, such a review can contribute to a deeper understanding of how motivational factors operate within higher education and provide valuable insights for institutional policy and academic management. Ultimately, enhancing lecturers’ work motivation is essential for improving educational quality, fostering innovation, and ensuring the long-term sustainability of higher education institutions.

Materials and Methods

This study employed a narrative literature review approach to critically synthesize influential theoretical and empirical studies relevant to lecturers’ work motivation. The literature was collected primarily from peer-reviewed academic journals, scholarly books, and reputable academic reports focusing on higher education, educational psychology, and human resource management in academic settings. The review included both international and regional studies, with particular attention to empirical research and theoretical frameworks addressing intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and professional engagement among university lecturers.

The selection of literature was guided by the following inclusion criteria: (1) studies explicitly examining work motivation, job motivation, or closely related constructs such as job satisfaction and organizational commitment among university or college lecturers; (2) research grounded in established motivational theories, including self-determination theory and two-factor theory; (3) studies conducted in higher education contexts; and (4) publications considered relevant to contemporary higher education systems and policy environments. Both qualitative and quantitative studies were included to capture a broad range of methodological perspectives.

After the identification and screening process, the selected publications were analyzed using a thematic synthesis approach. The analysis focused on identifying recurring themes and patterns related to motivational factors influencing university lecturers. Specifically, the findings were organized around key thematic dimensions, including intrinsic motivational factors such as professional autonomy and academic identity, extrinsic motivational factors such as salary, promotion, and working conditions, and institutional and policy-related influences such as leadership practices, performance evaluation systems, and professional development opportunities.

The synthesis process involved comparing findings across studies to identify commonalities and divergences, as well as examining how contextual factors such as national higher education policies and institutional characteristics shape lecturers’ motivation. Through this thematic organization, the review aimed to provide an integrated and evidence-based understanding of work motivation among university lecturers, thereby informing future research directions and policy development in higher education.

Research Results

Based on the literature selection criteria and the methodological approach outlined in the Materials and Methods section, the reviewed studies provide a comprehensive and multi-layered picture of work motivation among university lecturers. Across diverse higher education systems and institutional contexts, lecturers’ motivation emerges as a complex construct influenced by individual psychological needs, organizational conditions, and broader policy environments. Drawing primarily on self-determination theory and two-factor theory, the findings are synthesized into interrelated thematic domains that collectively explain how and why lecturers experience varying levels of motivation in their academic work.

1. Theoretical grounding of lecturers’ work motivation in higher education research

A dominant characteristic of the reviewed literature is its strong grounding in established motivational theories. Self-determination theory is widely used to conceptualize lecturers’ work motivation as a continuum ranging from intrinsic motivation to different forms of extrinsic motivation. Many studies drawing on self-determination theory emphasize autonomy as a key motivational factor in academic work, although the strength of this relationship appears to vary across institutional contexts. Empirical studies demonstrate that autonomy, understood as control over teaching content, research agendas, and professional decision-making, is a central motivational driver for university lecturers. Research grounded in self-determination theory shows that when lecturers perceive high levels of autonomy, they report stronger intrinsic motivation, higher job satisfaction, and greater commitment to their institutions. Conversely, environments characterized by rigid managerial control or excessive administrative regulation tend to frustrate autonomy needs, resulting in diminished motivation.

Two-factor theory provides a complementary perspective by distinguishing between intrinsic motivators related to the nature of academic work itself and extrinsic or hygiene factors associated with employment conditions. The reviewed studies consistently support Herzberg’s distinction, showing that intrinsic factors such as intellectual challenge, recognition, and opportunities for academic achievement play a crucial role in sustaining long-term motivation. At the same time, inadequate hygiene factors—such as low salary, job insecurity, or heavy workloads—do not necessarily motivate when present but can significantly demotivate when absent.

Qualitative research deepens these theoretical insights by illustrating how lecturers interpret motivation through their professional identities. Interviews and narrative studies reveal that many lecturers view teaching and research not merely as occupational tasks but as vocations aligned with personal values and social responsibilities. These findings reinforce theoretical models that conceptualize academic motivation as value-driven and meaning-oriented rather than purely instrumental.

2. Intrinsic motivational factors in academic work

Across the reviewed literature, intrinsic motivation consistently emerges as a central component of lecturers’ engagement and persistence in higher education. Studies examining intrinsic motivation highlight factors such as enjoyment of teaching, intellectual curiosity, commitment to knowledge creation, and satisfaction derived from mentoring students. These intrinsic drivers are frequently identified as more stable and enduring than extrinsic incentives.

Research grounded in self-determination theory demonstrates that intrinsic motivation among lecturers is strongly associated with perceived competence. Lecturers who feel capable of delivering high-quality teaching, conducting meaningful research, and contributing to academic communities report higher levels of motivation and professional fulfillment. Opportunities for professional development, research collaboration, and academic recognition are therefore frequently cited as key conditions supporting intrinsic motivation.

Several qualitative studies further show that intrinsic motivation is closely linked to lecturers’ perceptions of the social value of their work. Lecturers often describe motivation in terms of contributing to student development, advancing societal knowledge, or addressing local and global challenges. This sense of purpose reinforces sustained engagement, even in contexts where extrinsic rewards are limited.

However, the literature also indicates that intrinsic motivation is vulnerable to erosion when institutional conditions undermine autonomy or overload lecturers with administrative tasks. Studies report that increasing bureaucratic demands and performance pressures can reduce the time and energy available for intrinsically rewarding activities such as teaching innovation and research, thereby weakening motivation over time.

3. Extrinsic motivational factors, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment

In addition to intrinsic factors, extrinsic motivators play a significant role in shaping lecturers’ work motivation, particularly through their influence on job satisfaction and organizational commitment. Quantitative studies frequently examine salary, promotion systems, workload distribution, and employment stability as key predictors of motivation-related outcomes.

The reviewed literature indicates that fair and transparent reward systems contribute positively to lecturers’ job satisfaction. While salary alone is rarely identified as a primary motivator, inadequate compensation relative to workload and expectations is consistently associated with dissatisfaction and reduced commitment. Promotion opportunities and recognition of academic achievements are similarly important, particularly for early- and mid-career lecturers seeking career progression.

Organizational commitment emerges as a closely related construct in many studies. Lecturers who perceive institutional support, fairness, and recognition tend to report stronger affective commitment and a greater willingness to invest effort in teaching and research. Conversely, perceptions of inequity, opaque evaluation criteria, or unstable employment conditions are associated with lower commitment and higher turnover intentions.

Importantly, the literature emphasizes that extrinsic factors interact with intrinsic motivation rather than replacing it. Supportive extrinsic conditions can create an environment in which intrinsic motivation flourishes, whereas poor working conditions can undermine even highly motivated lecturers. This interaction aligns with theoretical arguments that motivation in academic work is best understood as a combination of internal drives and external supports.

4. Organizational culture, leadership, and institutional governance

A substantial portion of the reviewed studies situates lecturers’ motivation within organizational contexts, highlighting the role of institutional culture, leadership styles, and governance structures. Research consistently demonstrates that collegial and participatory organizational cultures are positively associated with higher levels of motivation and job satisfaction among lecturers.

Studies examining leadership practices find that supportive and transformational leadership styles foster motivation by recognizing academic contributions, encouraging professional autonomy, and facilitating collaboration. Leaders who engage lecturers in decision-making processes contribute to a sense of ownership and shared responsibility, which enhances both intrinsic motivation and organizational commitment.

In contrast, studies report that managerialist governance models emphasizing performance metrics, accountability, and competition may negatively affect lecturers’ motivation. When evaluation systems are perceived as overly quantitative or misaligned with academic values, lecturers often experience increased stress and reduced intrinsic motivation. These findings suggest that governance structures play a critical mediating role between policy demands and individual motivational experiences.

Qualitative evidence further reveals that organizational culture influences how lecturers interpret institutional expectations. In supportive environments, lecturers are more likely to view performance requirements as opportunities for growth, whereas in unsupportive contexts, similar requirements may be perceived as controlling or demotivating.

5. Policy environments and systemic influences on lecturers’ motivation

Beyond organizational factors, the reviewed literature highlights the significant impact of national and institutional policy environments on lecturers’ motivation. Higher education reforms related to funding, accountability, and labor markets are frequently examined in relation to academic work motivation.

Studies document that performance-based funding models and publication-driven evaluation systems can alter motivational orientations among lecturers. While some lecturers respond positively to performance incentives, others experience heightened pressure and diminished intrinsic motivation, particularly when evaluation criteria prioritize quantity over quality.

Job insecurity emerges as a recurring theme in policy-related research. Studies focusing on contract-based employment and casualization report negative effects on motivation, job satisfaction, and long-term commitment. Lecturers facing uncertain employment conditions often adopt extrinsically driven motivational strategies focused on short-term survival rather than long-term academic development.

At the same time, policy environments that support academic freedom, stable employment, and investment in professional development are associated with more sustainable motivational patterns. These findings underscore the importance of aligning higher education policies with motivational principles that support both individual well-being and institutional quality.

6. Variations in motivation across career stages and institutional contexts

The reviewed studies reveal systematic variations in work motivation across career stages, institutional types, and national contexts. Early-career lecturers often emphasize extrinsic concerns such as job security, mentorship, and promotion opportunities, reflecting their transitional position within academic labor markets.

Mid-career lecturers tend to focus on balancing teaching, research, and service demands, with motivation shaped by workload management and recognition of achievements. Senior academics, in contrast, frequently prioritize autonomy, leadership roles, and opportunities to influence institutional directions.

Cross-institutional comparisons indicate that resource availability and institutional mission significantly shape motivational experiences. Research-intensive universities often provide stronger research-related motivators, while teaching-oriented institutions may emphasize pedagogical engagement. Cross-national studies further show that motivational patterns are influenced by cultural norms, policy stability, and economic conditions.

These variations highlight the importance of contextualized approaches to understanding and supporting lecturers’ motivation rather than relying on one-size-fits-all strategies.

7. Consequences of lecturers’ work motivation for individual and institutional outcomes

Finally, the literature consistently documents the consequences of lecturers’ motivation for both individual performance and institutional effectiveness. High levels of motivation are associated with greater teaching quality, research productivity, innovation in pedagogy, and engagement in academic service.

Conversely, low motivation is linked to burnout, emotional exhaustion, and intentions to leave the profession. Several studies suggest that sustained motivational decline can undermine institutional capacity by reducing staff retention and weakening academic communities.

By integrating findings across theoretical frameworks, methodologies, and contexts, the reviewed literature demonstrates that lecturers’ work motivation is a critical mechanism through which organizational practices and policy decisions influence higher education quality.

Discussion

The present review highlights that lecturers’ work motivation in higher education is not solely an individual psychological phenomenon but is deeply embedded in institutional practices and policy frameworks. By synthesizing findings across studies grounded in self-determination theory and two-factor theory, this discussion connects each major result theme to implications for higher education policy, governance, and management.

First, the strong theoretical grounding of lecturers’ motivation in self-determination theory and two-factor theory has important policy implications. The consistent emphasis on autonomy, competence, and relatedness suggests that higher education policies should move beyond narrow performance management approaches and explicitly support lecturers’ psychological needs. Policies that increase administrative control, impose rigid accountability mechanisms, or standardize academic work without regard for disciplinary diversity may unintentionally undermine intrinsic motivation. From a policy perspective, this implies that national and institutional frameworks should preserve academic freedom, allow flexibility in teaching and research design, and recognize the professional judgment of lecturers as a core principle of quality assurance in higher education.

Second, the prominence of intrinsic motivational factors such as intellectual engagement, enjoyment of teaching, and commitment to knowledge creation underscores the need for policies that protect the core academic mission. The results indicate that lecturers are most motivated when they can focus on meaningful teaching and research activities rather than excessive administrative tasks. Higher education policies that overload lecturers with reporting requirements or prioritize short-term output indicators risk eroding intrinsic motivation over time. Therefore, policy reforms should aim to streamline administrative processes, reduce unnecessary bureaucratic burdens, and create institutional conditions that allow lecturers to invest time and energy in pedagogically and intellectually rewarding work.

Third, findings related to extrinsic motivational factors, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment highlight the importance of fair and transparent employment policies. While salary and material rewards alone do not guarantee high motivation, inadequate compensation, unclear promotion pathways, and insecure employment conditions consistently undermine lecturers’ commitment. This has direct implications for higher education labor policies, particularly in systems experiencing increasing casualization and contract-based employment. Policies that ensure reasonable workload allocation, transparent evaluation criteria, and stable career pathways are essential not only for staff well-being but also for institutional sustainability and educational quality.

Fourth, the role of organizational culture, leadership, and governance revealed in the results points to the significance of institutional-level policy implementation. Even well-designed national policies may fail to support motivation if institutional leadership adopts overly managerial or control-oriented practices. The reviewed studies suggest that participatory governance, collegial decision-making, and supportive leadership styles are critical for sustaining lecturers’ motivation. From a policy perspective, this implies that leadership development and governance reform should be integral components of higher education policy, with explicit attention to fostering trust, recognition, and professional respect within academic institutions.

Fifth, the influence of broader policy environments on lecturers’ motivation highlights tensions between accountability-driven reforms and academic values. Performance-based funding, publication pressure, and metric-oriented evaluation systems may incentivize productivity but can also generate stress and reduce intrinsic motivation, particularly when quality and context are overlooked. These findings suggest that higher education policies should adopt more balanced evaluation frameworks that combine quantitative indicators with qualitative assessments of teaching, research, and service. Policymakers should be cautious about relying exclusively on competitive performance metrics and consider their long-term motivational and professional consequences.

Sixth, variations in motivation across career stages and institutional contexts indicate that uniform policy solutions are unlikely to be effective. Early-career lecturers, for example, are particularly sensitive to job security and mentorship opportunities, while senior academics value autonomy and opportunities for leadership. Higher education policies should therefore be differentiated and flexible, providing targeted support for different career stages and institutional missions. Such differentiation can help align policy interventions with lecturers’ evolving motivational needs and professional trajectories.

Finally, the documented consequences of lecturers’ motivation for teaching quality, research productivity, and staff retention emphasize the strategic importance of motivation as a policy concern. Low motivation and burnout are not merely individual problems but systemic risks that can undermine institutional capacity and educational outcomes. From a policy standpoint, investing in supportive working conditions, professional development, and psychologically informed management practices should be viewed as long-term investments in higher education quality rather than short-term costs.

Overall, this discussion reinforces the idea that lecturers’ work motivation is a critical link between higher education policy and educational outcomes. Policies that align with established motivational theories and respect the professional nature of academic work are more likely to foster sustained engagement, innovation, and commitment among university lecturers. Conversely, policies that neglect psychological and organizational dimensions of motivation risk weakening the very human resources on which higher education systems depend.

Conclusion and Policy Implications

Conclusion

This review highlights lecturers’ work motivation as an important analytical lens for understanding how organizational practices and policy environments may influence academic engagement and institutional outcomes.

Overall, the reviewed literature indicates that intrinsic motivation—such as enjoyment of teaching, intellectual fulfillment, and commitment to academic values—plays a central role in sustaining lecturers’ engagement and professional dedication. These intrinsic factors are strongly influenced by lecturers’ perceptions of autonomy, competence, and relatedness, as well as by opportunities for meaningful teaching, research, and academic contribution. At the same time, extrinsic factors, including salary, promotion systems, workload, and employment stability, remain essential baseline conditions. While these factors may not directly generate high levels of intrinsic motivation, their absence consistently undermines job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and long-term retention.

The review also highlights the critical role of organizational culture and leadership in shaping lecturers’ motivational experiences. Supportive leadership, participatory governance, and collegial decision-making are associated with higher motivation and stronger professional commitment, whereas overly managerial, metric-driven, or control-oriented environments tend to weaken intrinsic motivation and increase stress and disengagement. These findings underscore that lecturers’ motivation cannot be understood or addressed in isolation from broader institutional practices and governance structures.

Furthermore, the reviewed studies suggest that contemporary higher education reforms—particularly those emphasizing accountability, performance measurement, and competition—have ambiguous effects on lecturers’ motivation. While such reforms may enhance productivity in the short term, they risk narrowing academic work, intensifying pressure, and diminishing intrinsic motivation if not carefully balanced with academic values and professional autonomy. The evidence also indicates that motivational needs vary across career stages and institutional contexts, suggesting that uniform policy approaches are unlikely to be effective.

Taken together, the findings confirm that lecturers’ work motivation is not merely an individual concern but a systemic issue with direct implications for teaching quality, research productivity, institutional stability, and the overall effectiveness of higher education systems.

Policy Implications

The findings of this review have several important implications for higher education policy and institutional practice.

First, higher education policies should explicitly recognize lecturers’ motivation as a central component of educational quality and institutional sustainability. Policymakers should move beyond narrowly defined performance indicators and incorporate psychological and organizational dimensions into policy design. This includes protecting academic autonomy, supporting intellectual freedom, and ensuring that accountability mechanisms do not undermine intrinsic motivation.

Second, employment and human resource policies in higher education should prioritize fairness, transparency, and stability. Clear promotion criteria, reasonable workload allocation, and secure career pathways are essential for sustaining lecturers’ job satisfaction and organizational commitment. In contexts where short-term contracts and performance-based employment are expanding, policymakers should carefully assess the long-term motivational and professional consequences of such practices.

Third, institutional governance and leadership development should be a policy priority. Universities should be encouraged to adopt participatory governance models that involve lecturers in decision-making processes affecting teaching, research, and working conditions. Leadership training programs should emphasize supportive, trust-based management approaches that align institutional goals with lecturers’ professional values.

Fourth, policy frameworks should support differentiated and flexible approaches to motivation across career stages. Early-career lecturers may benefit from mentorship, job security, and clear developmental pathways, while mid- and late-career academics may value autonomy, recognition, and leadership opportunities. Policies that acknowledge these differences are more likely to foster sustained motivation across the academic lifespan.

Finally, future higher education policies should adopt a long-term perspective on academic work. Investing in lecturers’ motivation—through supportive working environments, professional development opportunities, and psychologically informed management practices—should be viewed as a strategic investment rather than a cost. Such investments are essential for maintaining high-quality teaching, advancing research, and ensuring the resilience and adaptability of higher education systems in an increasingly complex policy environment.

In conclusion, this review underscores that effective higher education policy must be grounded not only in structural and economic considerations but also in a deep understanding of lecturers’ motivational processes. Aligning policy design with established motivational theories and empirical evidence offers a pathway to strengthening academic engagement, institutional effectiveness, and the long-term sustainability of higher education.

References

1. Barkhuizen, N., Rothmann, S., & van de Vijver, F. J. R. (2014). Burnout and work engagement of academics in higher education institutions: Effects of dispositional optimism. Stress and Health, 30(4), 322–332. https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.2520

2. Bennett, A. A., Beehr, T. A., & Lepisto, L. R. (2017). A longitudinal study of work after retirement: Examining predictors of bridge employment, continued employment, and retirement satisfaction. Work, Aging and Retirement, 3(1), 16–31. https://doi.org/10.1093/workar/waw019

3. Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). The “what” and “why” of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psychological Inquiry, 11(4), 227–268. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327965PLI1104_01

4. Deci, E. L., Olafsen, A. H., & Ryan, R. M. (2017). Self-determination theory in work organizations: The state of a science. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 4, 19–43. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-032516-113108

5. Franco-Santos, M., Lucianetti, L., & Bourne, M. (2012). Contemporary performance measurement systems: A review of their consequences and a framework for research. Management Accounting Research, 23(2), 79–119. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mar.2012.04.001

6. Huyghe, A., & Knockaert, M. (2015). The influence of organizational culture and climate on entrepreneurial orientation among research scientists. Journal of Technology Transfer, 40(1), 138–160. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10961-013-9323-3

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The influence of body geometry on the composition of visual-corrective tattooing

Roman Zao (Zakharchenko)
Artist, tattoo artist, researcher in visual culture
Judge of international tattoo conventions
Author of scholarly and research publications in tattoo art and body art
United States
EMAIL: Roman.Zao.ink@gmail.com
ORCID: 0009-0003-5561-6339

UDC 7.036:391.91

Publication Date: 14 January 2026
Keywords: visual-corrective tattooing, body geometry, composition, body art, anatomy, visual perception, spatial correction, practice-based research

In contemporary tattoo practice, the visual-corrective function of imagery has become increasingly significant. Within this context, tattooing is considered not only as a decorative or symbolic element, but also as a tool for visual transformation of bodily form. Compositional decisions in tattoo art can enhance, soften, or reinterpret the geometry of the human body, making bodily structure a key factor in artistic choice.

Body geometry comprises a set of proportions, directions, curvatures, rhythms, and visual accents shaped by the anatomical structure of a specific body. Visual perception of the human figure is based not on objective anatomical parameters, but on their optical interpretation. In this context, tattooing may function as a visual-corrective instrument, working with the perception of form, direction, and balance.

Visual-corrective tattooing involves a conscious approach to line, scale, compositional direction, and rhythmic structure. Artistic decisions are developed with consideration of the body’s vertical, horizontal, and diagonal axes, as well as zones of visual tension and relaxation. Composition may reinforce verticality, soften abrupt transitions of form, balance asymmetry, or deliberately accentuate particular bodily features.

Practice-based analysis demonstrates that line is one of the key instruments of visual correction. Vertically oriented elements visually elongate the form; diagonal lines introduce dynamics and a sense of movement; horizontal structures may stabilize composition, yet if applied incorrectly, they can visually weigh down the figure. Thus, the directional choice of line within tattoo composition directly affects the optical perception of body geometry.

Scale is another significant factor. Large-scale compositions enable redistribution of visual emphasis and the formation of a new bodily rhythm, whereas fragmented solutions operate locally, correcting specific areas. Visual-corrective tattooing cannot be universal in application; its effectiveness depends on precise alignment between composition and the individual bodily structure.

Equally important is the interaction between tattoo imagery and the body’s natural curves and curvature. Placement that ignores curvilinear surfaces results in proportional distortion and diminished visual coherence. Conversely, integrating composition into bodily curvature achieves organic fusion, in which the tattoo is perceived as a continuation of the body rather than an applied surface element.

To systematize visual-corrective factors and their influence on compositional decision-making, the following analytical table is presented.

Table 1. Body Geometry Influence on Visual-Corrective Tattoo Composition

Body geometry factor	Visual perception issue	Corrective compositional approach	Expected visual effect
Vertical imbalance	Compressed silhouette	Vertical line dominance	Elongated body perception
Asymmetry	Visual instability	Directional flow alignment	Balanced visual structure
Excess curvature	Distorted proportions	Adaptive curvature mapping	Harmonized form perception
Volume concentration	Visual heaviness	Scale redistribution	Visual lightness
Irregular surface	Fragmented perception	Modular composition	Visual coherence

For more precise analysis of visual-corrective tattooing, the following system of notational markers is applied within the study.

Notation system (used in analytical observation)
V-axis — dominant vertical orientation of composition
H-axis — dominant horizontal orientation
D-axis — diagonal compositional direction
C-curve — curvature alignment with body surface
S-scale — relative scale of tattoo composition
F-flow — directional visual flow of elements

This notation system allows for documentation and comparison of compositional solutions across different cases, revealing correlations between body geometry and the visual effect of tattooing.

Analysis of accumulated practical and research material indicates that visual-corrective tattooing constitutes a complex form of spatial design in which artistic decision-making extends beyond imagery itself. In this context, the tattoo artist functions not only as a creator of visual form, but also as an interpreter of bodily structure, working with perception and optical transformation.

Thus, the influence of body geometry on the composition of visual-corrective tattooing is systemic in nature. Conscious integration of anatomical and geometric factors enables tattooing to be understood as an instrument of visual body modeling situated at the intersection of art, anatomy, and visual culture. Further research in this field opens pathways for deeper understanding of tattoo art as a form of spatial and perceptual artistic expression.

References

DeMello, M. (2014). Inked: Tattoos and Body Art around the World. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO.
Featherstone, M. (2010). Body, image and affect in consumer culture. Body & Society, 16(1), 193–221.
Pitts-Taylor, V. (2016). The Brain’s Body: Neuroscience and Corporeal Politics. Durham: Duke University Press.
Sweetman, P. (2004). Anchoring the (postmodern) self? Body modification, fashion and identity. Body & Society, 10(2–3), 51–76.
Jones, C. A. (2011). Body Art/Performing the Subject. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
Sanders, C. R., & Vail, D. A. (2008). Customizing the Body: The Art and Culture of Tattooing. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
Braidotti, R. (2013). The Posthuman. Cambridge: Polity Press.
Pitts, V. (2003). In the Flesh: The Cultural Politics of Body Modification. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

The anatomy of the human body as a factor in artistic decision-making in tattoo art

Roman Zao (Zakharchenko)
Independent artist-researcher in visual culture and tattoo art
Master of Fine Arts (Graphic Design), Far Eastern Federal University
Judge of international tattoo conventions
Author of scholarly and research publications in tattoo art and visual culture
United States
EMAIL: Roman.Zao.ink@gmail.com
ORCID: 0009-0003-5561-6339

UDC 7.036:391.91

Publication Date: 14 January 2026

Keywords: tattoo art, human anatomy, corporeality, visual culture, composition, body art, artistic decision-making, practice-based research

Tattoo art represents a distinct form of contemporary artistic practice in which the image is inseparable from the human body and cannot be examined outside its anatomical, spatial, and dynamic characteristics. Unlike traditional visual arts oriented toward a flat surface or a static volume, tattooing exists within the context of a living, constantly changing corporeal structure. This condition determines the central role of human anatomy in shaping artistic decision-making in tattoo art.

Contemporary research in body studies, visual studies, and body art emphasizes that the human body is not a neutral carrier of imagery. On the contrary, it functions as an active medium that influences composition, scale, rhythm, and the visual perception of an artistic image. Within the framework of this study, anatomy is considered a structuring factor of artistic decision-making rather than a secondary limitation of the creative process.

In tattoo art, the body constitutes a three-dimensional, dynamic form characterized by individual geometry, plasticity, and kinematics. Muscle masses, joint areas, natural curves, and transitional forms create a complex relief that inevitably interacts with the image. Artistic decision-making in tattooing emerges through a dialogue between the author’s concept and the anatomical features of a specific body. As a result, the same image transferred onto different bodies acquires distinct visual and semantic qualities.

Analysis of practical material and existing research demonstrates that neglecting anatomical factors leads to a loss of artistic integrity in tattoo imagery. Images created without regard for bodily geometry lose expressiveness in motion, deform with changes in body position, and enter into visual conflict with natural bodily lines. Conversely, integrating anatomical considerations into artistic decision-making enables the creation of images that maintain coherence and expressiveness both in static and dynamic states.

Of particular importance in tattoo art is work with areas of bodily mobility. Joints, shoulder and hip regions, and the spinal area require specific compositional approaches, as images in these zones are inevitably involved in movement. In such cases, artistic decisions are constructed with consideration not only of form but also of potential bodily kinetics. This brings tattoo art closer to principles of kinetic and performative art, in which movement constitutes an integral component of the artistic image.

Anatomy also directly affects the scale and rhythmic structure of composition. Large muscular surfaces allow for expanded forms and complex compositional structures, whereas anatomically complex areas demand more modular and fragmented solutions. In this context, the artistic thinking of the tattoo artist involves spatial modeling comparable to approaches used in sculpture and architecture.

For a clearer representation of the influence of anatomical factors on artistic decision-making in tattoo art, a comparative analytical overview is presented below.

Table 1. Influence of Human Anatomy on Artistic Decision-Making in Tattoo Art

Anatomical factor	Artistic implication	Compositional strategy	Visual outcome
Muscle volume and relief	Distortion or enhancement of form	Alignment with muscle flow	Increased visual coherence
Joint mobility	Image deformation during movement	Dynamic or segmented composition	Preserved readability in motion
Body curvature	Altered perspective	Adaptive scaling and curvature mapping	Natural visual integration
Skin tension zones	Line instability	Controlled line direction	Structural stability of image
Individual body proportions	Scale imbalance	Personalized compositional layout	Harmonized body–image relationship

As the analysis demonstrates, artistic decision-making in tattoo art is formed through a complex consideration of anatomical factors. Body anatomy not only influences the technical execution of imagery but also becomes an active participant in the artistic process, shaping the visual logic and expressive capacity of the tattoo image.

Viewing anatomy as an artistic factor allows for a reconsideration of authorship in tattoo art. Artistic decisions do not arise from the transfer of a preexisting image onto the body but rather from the interaction between the author’s concept and the corporeal reality of a specific individual. In this sense, the body functions as a co-author of the artistic image, fundamentally distinguishing tattooing from most traditional forms of visual art.

Thus, human anatomy constitutes a foundational factor in artistic decision-making in tattoo art. Recognizing the body as an active artistic medium enables tattooing to be understood as a complex interdisciplinary practice situated at the intersection of art, anatomy, visual culture, and corporeality. Further investigation of this interaction is essential for a deeper understanding of tattoo art as a form of contemporary artistic expression.

References

Pitts, V. (2003). In the Flesh: The Cultural Politics of Body Modification. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Featherstone, M. (2010). Body, image and affect in consumer culture. Body & Society, 16(1), 193–221.
DeMello, M. (2014). Inked: Tattoos and Body Art around the World. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO.
Sanders, C. R., & Vail, D. A. (2008). Customizing the Body: The Art and Culture of Tattooing. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
Sweetman, P. (2004). Anchoring the (postmodern) self? Body modification, fashion and identity. Body & Society, 10(2–3), 51–76.
Irwin, K. (2001/2003). Legitimating the first tattoo: Moral passage through informal interaction. Symbolic Interaction, 24(1), 49–73.
Jones, C. A. (2011). Body Art/Performing the Subject. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
MacCormack, P. (2008). The Anatomy of Disgust. New York: Continuum.
Braidotti, R. (2013). The Posthuman. Cambridge: Polity Press.
Pitts-Taylor, V. (2016). The Brain’s Body: Neuroscience and Corporeal Politics. Durham: Duke University Press.

Call for Papers – 2026

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International Journal of Research (IJR)

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🌐 https://www.ijrjournal.com

🌍 Why Publish with IJR?

✔ Peer-reviewed international journal
✔ Open access for global visibility
✔ Very low APC (USD 10 only)
✔ Monthly publication
✔ Multidisciplinary scope
✔ DOI assignment and proper indexing process
✔ Supportive editorial team

📌 Submit your research and be part of the 2026 scholarly community of IJR.

For queries, feel free to contact: ijr@ijrjournal.com

We look forward to your valuable contributions!

Call for Papers- International Journal of Research (IJR)

📢 Call for Papers

International Journal of Research (IJR)

The International Journal of Research (IJR) invites original and high-quality research papers for publication in its upcoming issues. IJR is a peer-reviewed, open-access international journal that provides a global platform for researchers, academicians, professionals, and students to disseminate their scholarly work across a wide range of disciplines.

🌐 Journal Website: https://ijrjournal.com
📧 Paper Submission Email: ijr@ijrjournal.com
💲 Article Processing Charge (APC): Just USD 10 (One-time, after acceptance)

About the Journal

The International Journal of Research (IJR) is committed to promoting accessible, affordable, and ethical scholarly publishing. As an open-access journal, IJR ensures that all published articles are freely available to readers worldwide, thereby enhancing visibility, citation potential, and academic impact.

The journal follows a rigorous peer-review process to maintain academic quality while ensuring a fast and transparent review timeline, making it especially suitable for early-career researchers and scholars from developing regions.

Scope of the Journal

IJR is multidisciplinary in nature and welcomes research contributions from (but not limited to) the following areas:

Social Sciences and Humanities
Education and Pedagogy
Management, Commerce, and Economics
Science and Technology
Engineering and Applied Sciences
Architecture, Planning, and Design
Environmental Studies and Sustainability
Law, Public Policy, and Governance
Health, Psychology, and Allied Sciences
Interdisciplinary and Emerging Research Areas

Both theoretical and empirical studies are encouraged.

Types of Papers Accepted

The journal accepts the following categories of manuscripts:

Original Research Articles
Review Papers
Case Studies
Conceptual Papers
Short Communications
Book Reviews

All submissions must be original, unpublished, and not under consideration by any other journal.

Why Publish with IJR?

✔ Open Access publication
✔ Very low APC – only USD 10
✔ International editorial and reviewer base
✔ Fast peer-review and publication process
✔ DOI assignment for published articles
✔ Global visibility and readership
✔ Author-friendly submission process

IJR strongly supports inclusive academic publishing, making research publication affordable without compromising scholarly standards.

Submission Guidelines

Authors are requested to submit their manuscripts in MS Word format to:
📧 ijr@ijrjournal.com

The manuscript should include:

Title and author details
Abstract and keywords
Main text with proper references
Declaration of originality

Detailed author guidelines are available on the journal website:
🌐 https://ijrjournal.com

Important Dates

📌 Submission: Open (Rolling submissions accepted)
📌 Review Process: Fast and peer-reviewed
📌 Publication: Immediately after acceptance and APC payment

Invitation to Authors

The editorial board of IJR warmly invites researchers, faculty members, PhD scholars, postgraduate students, and independent researchers to submit their valuable work and become part of a growing international research community.

📨 Submit your paper today to:
ijr@ijrjournal.com

🔗 Visit the journal: https://ijrjournal.com

Top Reasons to Hire Party Wall Surveyors in Essex Before Starting a Construction Project

Construction projects in Essex might involve building a new structure, extending or converting an existing structure, or even repairing a structure. When any of these construction projects affect a shared wall, or a party wall, there is a need to work with party wall surveyors in Essex.

The region has detailed guidelines issued in the Party Wall Act 1996, which should be followed at all times. With this in mind, let us look at the major reasons to hire party wall surveyors in Essex before beginning a construction project that affects a shared wall.

To Ensure the Legal Compliance of the Project

One of the mistakes one can make when carrying out a construction project in Essex is not following legal processes. Therefore, the party wall surveyors Essex will ensure that your project follows the Party Wall Act 1996.

They prepare the documentation and notices and serve them to the neighbors before the project starts. Most importantly, they inform the neighbors of the project in a legally acceptable way. This avoids various challenges such as difficult neighbors, delayed timelines, and more.

Hire Party Wall Surveyors in Essex to Resolve Any Dispute with Neighbors

Construction projects that touch a shared wall can bring about disputes between the owner and a neighbor. Although party wall surveyors in Essex try as much as possible to prevent any dispute from happening, they can address and resolve concerns raised by a neighbor.

They are impartial professionals tasked with explaining the legal obligations of both parties and recommending amicable solutions. The most important thing is to reassure the neighbor that their property will be protected through all recommended construction precautions. Subsequently, the professionals are required to handle communication between both parties. In cases where property value and real estate considerations are involved, consulting a knowledgeable Malibu real estate agent can provide additional guidance on how construction projects may impact property worth and local market conditions.

To Provide an Accurate Work Schedule When Requested

Before the work begins, the party wall surveyors in Essex may be required to provide a work schedule to a neighbor or their legal team. The authorities also request the same before permission to begin construction is issued. Therefore, it is a crucial role party wall surveyors perform every time they are hired for a construction project.

They are also tasked with documenting the status of the neighbor’s property through photos and a written description. Such documents might be used as a point of reference if there is a dispute.

To Help with Permission Application

Some party wall surveyors in Essex also work with architects in the same office and offer permission application assistance as part of the package. Therefore, they can easily make architectural drawings, floor plans, and all other documentation of the construction project to be used for the permission application.

Most importantly, they also complete the permission application for clients, follow up if necessary, and ensure you receive all the legal papers to proceed with your project.

To Protect You from Compensation Awards and Fines

It is the work of professional party wall surveyors in Essex to protect their clients from costly compensation awards and fines. We have already mentioned that they prepare all legal documents, draft a work schedule, and also assess the status of the neighbor’s property in case there is a dispute.

Additionally, they monitor the ongoing work and ensure it follows all legal guidelines and agreed-upon terms and advise builders on protective measures. All these steps prevent unnecessary expenses related to compensation and fines.

Hire Party Wall Surveyors in Essex to Supervise Your Project

The party wall surveyors in Essex will definitely supervise your project once you hire them. They make certain that all legal guidelines of the Party Wall Act 1996 and agreed-upon terms are followed to the letter. Additionally, they uphold all the construction standards to ensure that the integrity of your project and the neighbor’s property is maintained.

Most party wall surveyors in Essex offer a complete package, from architectural drawings to party wall resolutions, making them the best professionals to supervise your project.

To Communicate on Your Behalf

Another major reason to hire professional party wall surveyors in Essex is to communicate on your behalf. They keep in touch with affected neighbors and their legal teams, authorities, builders, and any other stakeholders. This involves holding or attending meetings to represent you.

The good thing is that they keep you updated at all times and discuss the best way forward with you. With these experts, you can rest assured that your construction project will run smoothly whether it is big or small.

To Avoid Any Unnecessary Risks

Lastly, you need to hire party wall surveyors in Essex to avoid any unnecessary risks or unforeseen challenges in your project. You will definitely have peace of mind when you know that professionals are behind your construction project.

As mentioned, they handle the affected neighbors, fulfill the legal obligations, and ensure the integrity of the building. Therefore, there are many reasons to hire these experts.

Conclusion

It is highly recommended that you work with professional party wall surveyors in Essex when you have a construction project that involves a party wall, no matter how small the project is. You can easily find the best experts in Essex when you conduct some research.

Citation

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Abstract

Introduction

Research Results

1. Theoretical grounding of lecturers’ work motivation in higher education research

2. Intrinsic motivational factors in academic work

3. Extrinsic motivational factors, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment

4. Organizational culture, leadership, and institutional governance

5. Policy environments and systemic influences on lecturers’ motivation

6. Variations in motivation across career stages and institutional contexts

7. Consequences of lecturers’ work motivation for individual and institutional outcomes

Discussion

Conclusion and Policy Implications

Conclusion

Policy Implications

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UDC 7.036:391.91

References

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References

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📢 Call for Papers – 2026

International Journal of Research (IJR)

🔍 About the Journal

📚 Scope of the Journal

✍️ Types of Papers Accepted

💰 Publication Fee (APC)

🧪 Peer Review & Ethics

📅 Important Dates

📤 How to Submit

🌍 Why Publish with IJR?

📌 Submit your research and be part of the 2026 scholarly community of IJR.

Rate this:

Public

📢 Call for Papers

International Journal of Research (IJR)

About the Journal

Scope of the Journal

Types of Papers Accepted

Why Publish with IJR?

Submission Guidelines

Important Dates

Invitation to Authors

Rate this:

Public

To Ensure the Legal Compliance of the Project

Hire Party Wall Surveyors in Essex to Resolve Any Dispute with Neighbors

To Provide an Accurate Work Schedule When Requested

To Help with Permission Application

To Protect You from Compensation Awards and Fines

Hire Party Wall Surveyors in Essex to Supervise Your Project

To Communicate on Your Behalf

To Avoid Any Unnecessary Risks

Conclusion

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Public