Tag: women

Indian Women’s Historical Role in 21st Century

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Prof. Dr. Yogesh Jagannath Korde (Associate Professor, Dept.of History)

Uttamrao Patil Arts and Science College, Dahiwel, Tal. Sakri, Dist. Dhule.

Email: kordeyj10@gmail.com Mob. 7588735543 / 9423906366

Introduction:

In Indian culture, women have been considered symbols of respect, honor, and maternal power. From the Vedic period to the modern era, women have been given an important place in the formation of family, society, and culture. However, looking at the actual socio-political reality, women have often been given a secondary position. Although women are respected in the religious and cultural spheres, their participation in the social, economic, and especially political spheres has remained limited, which is a significant contradiction facing Indian democracy.

The contribution of women to the Indian freedom struggle is invaluable and inspiring. Many women like Rani Lakshmibai of Jhansi, Kasturba Gandhi, Sarojini Naidu, Annie Besant, and Vijayalakshmi Pandit actively participated in the freedom movement. They not only participated in movements and satyagrahas but also played a crucial role in the dissemination of national ideology, organization building, and leadership. However, in the post-independence period, especially in parliamentary politics, the representation of women has not increased as expected. A review of Indian politics over the approximately seven decades since independence shows that political power and decision-making processes are still primarily male-dominated. With a few notable exceptions, most women leaders in politics are connected to a family political background. Many women have risen to prominence due to the political legacy of their fathers, husbands, or other influential male leaders in their families. This raises questions about the independent leadership capabilities of women.

 Although reservations have been provided for women in local self-governing bodies, in practice, concepts like ‘Sarpanch’s husband’ and ‘Councillor’s husband’ are prevalent in many places. This makes women’s political participation merely formal, and men continue to dominate the actual decision-making process. This situation is alarming from the perspective of gender equality in Indian democracy. Men and women are considered two equal wheels of the chariot of society. To achieve the all-round development of the nation, it is essential to provide equal opportunities, equal rights, and equal responsibilities to both these components. However, even today, women do not receive political representation proportionate to their population. Therefore, the subject of ‘women and politics’ becomes a crucial research topic, not only socially but also politically, constitutionally, and in relation to democratic values. Against this backdrop, this research attempts to study the position, participation, contribution, and current status of women in Indian politics. The main objective of this study is to underscore the importance of women’s political participation in making Indian democracy more inclusive, egalitarian, and robust.

Research Goal:

The main objective of this research is to conduct an in-depth and critical study of the status, participation, leadership opportunities, and role of women in the decision-making process within Indian politics.  By analyzing the contributions of Indian women to the political field since independence, the opportunities they have received, and the patriarchal mindset that still exists, this research aims to clarify the current state of women’s political empowerment.

Research Objectives:

1) To review the historical contributions of women in Indian politics and analyze their participation from the freedom movement to the present day.

2) To study the representation of women in Parliament, state legislatures, the cabinet, and top constitutional positions (President, Prime Minister, Chief Minister, etc.).

3) To examine the influence of family political legacy and patriarchal power structures on women’s entry into and progress in politics.

4) To review the work and leadership qualities of prominent women political leaders in Maharashtra and India.

Research Methodology:

Historical Method: The historical method has been used to trace the journey, contributions, and changing roles of women in Indian politics from the pre-independence era to the present day.

Data Collection Tools:

For this research, data has been collected based on primary and secondary sources. Primary sources: Constitutional provisions, parliamentary proceedings, and government reports. Secondary sources: Books on political science and sociology, research papers, journals and magazines, newspapers, articles, and reliable websites.

Importance of the Subject:

Equal participation of men and women is crucial for the robustness of the Indian democratic system.  Despite women constituting nearly half of the Indian population, their participation in the political decision-making process is disproportionately low. Therefore, the subject of “Women and Politics” is not merely limited to academic study but is of paramount importance from the perspective of social, political, and democratic values. Men and women are the two inseparable wheels of the chariot of society, and if one wheel is neglected, the nation’s journey becomes unbalanced. Increased active participation of women in politics can lead to greater sensitivity in policy-making, giving more priority to social justice, education, health, women and child welfare, environment, and grassroots issues. This helps in making democracy more inclusive, representative, and effective.  The contributions of women in the freedom struggle, as well as the leadership demonstrated by women like Indira Gandhi, Pratibha Patil, Jayalalithaa, Mamata Banerjee, and Mayawati in high positions after independence, clearly show that women’s capabilities are in no way inferior to those of men. Yet, the fact that women are still given a secondary role in Indian politics is a matter of concern. Studying this inconsistency and investigating the underlying social, cultural, and political reasons is essential. Although the reservation system in local self-governing bodies has increased women’s participation, in many places, the indirect dominance of men in actual power is still evident. Therefore, this research underscores the need for not just quantitative representation, but also meaningful and independent political empowerment of women. The main objective of this research is to present the current situation of women in Indian politics from a realistic perspective, to highlight the inequalities based on data, and to stimulate positive policy discussions for increasing women’s political participation in the future.  Therefore, this research proves useful in creating social awareness and encouraging policymakers, scholars, and political parties to introspect.

Overall, women’s participation in politics is not merely a matter of women’s rights, but a fundamental basis for the quality of democracy, national progress, and social balance. Hence, the topic of women and politics is of paramount importance and remains highly relevant and necessary in the context of contemporary Indian society.

Despite women’s valuable contributions at the political, social, and national levels from the freedom movement to modern times, their participation in decision-making processes appears to be limited. The reality that women’s representation is extremely low at all levels of the highest positions in Indian democracy—President, Prime Minister, Vice President, Deputy Prime Minister, Speaker of the Lok Sabha, Chief Minister—cannot be denied. With a few notable exceptions, it is observed that the majority of women leaders have emerged based on their family’s political background. This highlights the patriarchal mindset and structural obstacles in Indian politics.

Although reservations have been provided for women in local self-governing bodies, in reality, women’s representation remains formal in many places, and their independent participation in decision-making is limited. Social customs, lack of education, economic dependence, and lack of political training are important reasons behind this.

However, women leaders like Indira Gandhi, Pratibha Patil, Jayalalithaa, Mamata Banerjee, Mayawati, Nirmala Sitharaman, and Sushma Swaraj have proven through their efficiency, leadership qualities, and decisive roles that Indian women can capably handle the highest responsibilities. Their work has helped dispel misconceptions about women’s leadership abilities. Overall, this research clearly shows that despite women’s undeniable contribution to Indian politics, they do not receive representation proportionate to their population. If we want to improve the quality of democracy and achieve the all-round development of the nation, it is essential to give women equal participation in the decision-making process, rather than limiting them merely to reservations. Providing women with political education, leadership training, and independent opportunities will make Indian politics more balanced, sensitive, and inclusive. Therefore, considering women and men as two equal wheels of the chariot of society, implementing concrete policy measures for the political empowerment of women is the need of the hour. Only then will it be possible to build a truly egalitarian and robust democracy.

References:

1) Diwan, Mohan; Devdhar, Jayant; Diwani, Vivek (2004), Politics of States in India.

Nagpur: Vidya Prakashan,

2) Government of Maharashtra (2017), Maharashtra Yearbook. Produced by Directorate General of Information and Public Relations, Mumbai–32,

3) Palshikar, Suhas; Birmal, Nitin, Politics of Maharashtra: Local Context. Pune: Pratima Prakashan,

4) Shinde, Sahadev; Chogule, Sahadev Patheya (Part–3). Kolhapur: Diksha Publication,

5) Mehendale, Vishwas, Yashwantrao Chavan to Prithviraj Chavan. Anubandh Prakashan,

6) Patil, Amritrao, Khandesh Lok Sabha. Jalgaon: Prashant Publication,

7) Women and Political Issues Jaipur: ABD Publication,

Myth and Folklore in Naga-Mandala by Girish Karnad

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Vijay Tulshiram Jadhav

Department of English

Mahatma Gandhi Vidya Mandir, Karamveer Bhausaheb Hiray Arts, Science and Commerce College, Nimgaon, Tal–Malegaon, Dist.–Nashik

Email: vjadhav8390@gmail.com

Abstract

Girish Karnad is a major figure in modern Indian English theatre, known for his effective use of Indian myths, history, and folklore to examine contemporary social issues. Rather than merely retelling traditional stories, Karnad reshapes them to address problems related to marriage, gender relations, and individual identity. His play Naga-Mandala (1988), which is based on two Kannada folktales, is a clear example of this creative method.

This paper examines how myth and folklore function as important narrative devices in Naga-Mandala. Through symbols such as the serpent (Naga), magic roots, the anthill, and the Raat-Rani flower, Karnad brings attention to the suppressed emotional and sexual experiences of women within a patriarchal social system. These symbolic elements expose the emotional distance, moral weakness, and hypocrisy that often exist within male-dominated institutions, especially marriage. The contrast between the socially respected but emotionally indifferent husband and the caring mythical lover highlights the failure of patriarchal masculinity to provide emotional fulfilment.

The paper argues that Naga-Mandala uses folklore as a means of feminist expression by giving space to women’s inner experiences and desires. At the same time, it also reveals the limitations of traditional belief systems, as women’s acceptance depends on social and ritual approval. By combining oral folk traditions with modern theatrical form, Karnad shows that myth continues to be a meaningful and effective medium in contemporary Indian English drama.

Keywords: Girish Karnad, myth, folklore, patriarchy.

Introduction

After India’s independence, Indian English drama gradually moved away from Western dramatic models and began to draw inspiration from indigenous cultural sources. Playwrights started using myths, history, and folklore to express social tensions, psychological conflicts, and postcolonial concerns. Among these playwrights, Girish Karnad holds an important place because of his ability to reinterpret traditional stories in a modern and critical manner.

Karnad does not simply retell myths; he questions them. His plays examine the power structures and social values hidden within traditional narratives. Naga-Mandala (1988) is a strong example of this approach. The play is based on oral folktales that are usually told by women within domestic spaces. By transforming these stories into a modern play, Karnad explores issues of patriarchy, marriage, and female desire. Unlike classical myths that focus on male heroes, the folktales used in Naga-Mandala arise from marginal voices, especially those of women, and therefore challenge dominant cultural traditions.

Research Objectives and Methodology

Research Objectives

The objectives of this paper are:

  • To examine how myth and folklore operate as narrative tools in Naga-Mandala.
  • To study the symbolic meaning of elements such as the serpent, magic roots, anthill, and the Raat-Rani flower.
  • To explore how Karnad uses women-centred folktales to question patriarchal marriage systems.
  • To establish Naga-Mandala as a feminist reinterpretation of folklore in modern Indian English drama.

Methodology

This study follows a qualitative method of textual analysis. It makes use of:

  • Myth criticism, especially Northrop Frye’s ideas about archetypes,
  • Feminist literary criticism focusing on gender, power, and sexuality, and
  • Folklore studies, particularly the oral traditions discussed by A. K. Ramanujan.

The primary text for analysis is Naga-Mandala. Secondary sources include critical writings on Karnad, Indian theatre, mythology, and feminist theory.

Girish Karnad and the Use of Myth and Folklore

Girish Karnad’s plays regularly use myths, legends, and folktales to explore modern human problems. In Tughlaq, he presents the conflict between political idealism and failure. In Hayavadana, myth becomes a means to explore questions of identity and completeness. In Naga-Mandala, however, Karnad shifts his attention from classical myths to folktales that come from women’s oral traditions.

These folktales are often seen as simple or insignificant, but they express deep emotional truths about women’s lives. By presenting them on the modern stage, Karnad gives importance to voices that are usually ignored. Folklore thus becomes a medium through which suppressed experiences are expressed and social norms are questioned.

Literature Review

Many critics have discussed Karnad’s use of myth and folklore. Aparna Dharwadker explains that Karnad’s plays create a balance between tradition and modernity, using myth as a space for social and ideological debate rather than mere cultural revival. Meenakshi Mukherjee points out that Indian English writers often adapt traditional narratives to address contemporary social issues.

K. Ramanujan’s work on Indian folktales is particularly important for understanding Naga-Mandala. He observes that folktales often preserve women’s suppressed emotions and experiences, especially in relation to marriage and sexuality. While earlier studies recognize the role of folklore in Naga-Mandala, they pay limited attention to how women’s desire and agency are expressed through symbols. This paper attempts to focus on this aspect.

The Serpent (Naga) Myth and Patriarchal Masculinity

In Indian mythology, the serpent or Naga is commonly associated with fertility, renewal, and masculine power. Karnad reshapes this symbol to question traditional ideas of masculinity. The Naga, who takes the form of Appanna at night, shows affection, care, and sexual sensitivity—qualities missing in the real Appanna.

Appanna enjoys respect in society but lacks emotional depth. His cold behaviour towards Rani reveals the emptiness of patriarchal authority, which values control over emotional connection. The Naga’s presence brings emotional and physical fulfillment into Rani’s life, showing how patriarchal systems deny women genuine intimacy.

Magic Roots, Anthill, and Transformation

Magic roots are common in Indian myths and usually symbolize fertility and change. In Naga-Mandala, the blind woman Kurudavva gives Rani a magic root to awaken Appanna’s desire. When it fails, it exposes Appanna’s emotional weakness. Rani throws the root into an anthill, which leads to the awakening of the Naga.

The anthill acts as a symbol of birth and transformation. Rani’s accidental action leads to a major change in her life. This suggests that nature and folklore offer possibilities of change that rigid social rules do not allow.

Marriage and Patriarchy: A Critical Reading

Marriage in Naga-Mandala is shown not as a sacred relationship but as a social system that supports male dominance. Appanna’s good reputation in society hides his cruel behaviour at home. Rani’s silence in the beginning reflects how women often accept oppression as normal.

The Naga’s role challenges the belief that marriage alone ensures happiness. By presenting an alternative emotional relationship, Karnad exposes the emotional emptiness of patriarchal masculinity.

Folklore as Feminist Resistance

Rani does not openly rebel against her situation, yet folklore works as a silent force that empowers her. At the end of the play, her transformation into a goddess shows how myth validates women’s experiences even when logic and reality fail to do so.

At the same time, Karnad remains critical. Rani’s acceptance by society depends on a test of purity, showing that folklore can support patriarchal values as well. This double nature of folklore makes the play complex and realistic rather than idealistic

Conclusion

Naga-Mandala clearly shows Girish Karnad’s skill in using myth and folklore to examine social realities. By focusing on women’s oral narratives, the play highlights the emotional suffering caused by patriarchy and the neglect of women’s desires. Myth becomes both a means of resistance and a reflection of social contradictions.

Karnad neither blindly supports tradition nor completely rejects it. Instead, he questions its values and power structures. Through Naga-Mandala, he connects the past with the present and confirms the importance of myth in modern Indian theatre. The play establishes Karnad as a major voice in Indian English drama who successfully combines tradition with critical insight.

References

Karnad, Girish. Naga-Mandala: Play with a Cobra. Oxford University Press, 1990.

Dharwadker, Aparna. Theatres of Independence: Drama, Theory, and Urban Performance in India since 1947. Oxford University Press, 2005.

Mukherjee, Meenakshi. The Twice Born Fiction. Heinemann, 1971.

Ramanujan, A. K. Folktales from India. Pantheon Books, 1991.

Frye, Northrop. Anatomy of Criticism. Princeton University Press, 1957.

Beauvoir, Simone de. The Second Sex. Vintage, 1989.

Steps taken to ensure equal access to education for women

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The National Education Policy (NEP), 2020 focuses on ‘Equitable and Inclusive Education’ which reverberates the idea that no child should be left behind in terms of educational opportunity because of their background and socio-cultural identities. It has taken into account the concerns of the Socio-Economically Disadvantaged Groups (SEDGs) which includes female individuals. In addition, NEP prescribes to approach gender as a cross-cutting priority to achieve gender equality in education with the partnership of states and local community organizations. Further, NEP aims at bridging the social category gaps in access, participation, and learning outcomes, including providing greater access to women.

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Under Samagra Shiksha, an integrated scheme for school education, various interventions have been targeted for providing quality education to girls like free uniform and text-books to girls up to class VIII, appointment of additional teachers including women teacher, stipend to CWSN girls from class I to class XII, separate toilets for girls, teachers sensitization programmes to promote girls participation, gender-sensitive teaching-learning materials including text books etc. In addition, to reduce gender gaps at all levels of school education, Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalayas, which are residential schools from class VI to XII for girls belonging to disadvantaged groups such as SC, ST, OBC, Minority and Below Poverty Line (BPL), are sanctioned in Educationally Backward Blocks.

To promote higher education among the students across the nation including women, Ministry of Education (MoE) has taken various measures, such as fee reductions, establishment of more institutes, scholarships, priority access to national level scholarships to aid students with poor financial backgrounds to pursue their education. Further, MoE offers various scholarship schemes for providing financial assistance to support women’s higher education. The details of these scholarship schemes may be accessed at https://www.education.gov.in/parl_ques.

With a view to improve female enrolment in the Undergraduate Programmes in Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs) and National Institutes of Technology (NITs), supernumerary seats were created which increased the female enrolment from less than 10% to more than 20%.

Apart from this, University Grants Commission (UGC) is implementing the scheme of “Development of Women’s Studies in Indian Universities and Colleges”. This scheme provides funds for setting up Women Studies Centers (WSCs) in universities and colleges, focusing on teaching, research, curriculum development, training and outreach activities. The objectives of the scheme are to provide financial support in advancing Women’s Studies through teaching, research and practical work.

Further, NEP recommends integrating skill education programmes into mainstream education in all education institutions in a phased manner. Under the Skill Education component of ‘Samagra Shiksha’, financial assistance is provided to States/UTs for giving exposure to Skill Education to students of Grades VI to VIII and introduction of Skill courses from Grades IX to XII, which are aligned with National Skills Qualifications Framework (NSQF). Employability Skill module has been included in the curriculum of Job Rolls which includes Communication Skills, Self-Management Skills, Information and Communication Technology Skills, Entrepreneurship Skills, and Green Skills.

IIT-Madras has undertaken “Vidya Shakti” scheme which aims at enhancing conceptual and foundational learning skills of children from rural areas to enhance enrolment (including women) in STEM branches in Higher Educational Institutions (HEIs).

The Department of Science and Technology (DST) offers fellowships to promote research in basic and applied sciences among women through programs under Women in Science and Engineering- Knowledge Involvement & Research Advancement through Nurturing (WISE-KIRAN) and Science and Engineering Research Board- Promoting Opportunities for Women in Exploratory Research (SERB-POWER) Fellowship scheme to identify and reward outstanding women researchers and innovators working in various Science & Technology program in Indian academic institutions and R&D laboratories.

The Department of Biotechnology runs a special program ‘The Biotechnology Career Advancement and Re- orientation Programme (BioCARe)’ with a vision to promote and support women in science.

Department of School Education and Literacy (DoSEL), Ministry of Education has developed Guidelines on School Safety and Security of children studying in Government, Government-aided and Private Schools. These safety guidelines envisage constitution of anti-bullying committees, parent teacher associations, school management committees, safety walk and complaint boxes etc., as preventive measures for ensuring safety and security of children in schools. Further, these guidelines have provisions to conduct awareness and sensitization program on various provisions including POCSO Act for girls in schools, preparation and dissemination of e-modules on sexual abuse and violence, parenting, nutrition, safety of girl child, etc., and integration of prevention of violence against young children in routine health delivery.