Effect of Entrepreneurship Education and Attitude on Entrepreneurial Intention Among Graduating Students of Polytechnics in Kano State, Nigeria

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How to Cite

Saleh, S. S., Abdu, R., & Suleiman, M. M. (2026). Effect of Entrepreneurship Education and Attitude on Entrepreneurial Intention Among Graduating Students of Polytechnics in Kano State, Nigeria. International Journal of Research, 13(1), 133–146. https://doi.org/10.26643/eduindex/ijr/2026/8

¹Safiyanu Sulaiman Saleh, ²Rabiu Abdu, & ³Muhammad Muhammad Suleiman

¹Department of Business Administration and Management,

¹School Social & Management Sciences

²Bursary Department

³Department of Computer Science, School of Science & Technology

^1,2,3Federal Polytechnic Kabo, Kano, Nigeria

ABSTRACT

This study explores the effects of Entrepreneurship Education (EE) and Entrepreneurial Attitude (EA) on Entrepreneurial Intention (EI) among Polytechnic’s in Kano State. Against the backdrop of Nigeria’s persistent youth unemployment and underemployment, the study seeks to determine whether exposure to entrepreneurship education and the development of a positive entrepreneurial mindset could influence students’ willingness to pursue self-employment. A thorough literature review and empirical evaluation established that entrepreneurship plays a vital role in economic transformation, especially in developing nations. Numerous studies reported a positive and significant link between EE, EA, and EI, some argue that the impact of EE is context-dependent and may be weakened by poor delivery or lack of practical engagement. The empirical literatures confirmed that EE tends to stimulate EI when it promotes self-efficacy, risk-taking, and innovation, and when coupled with a supportive entrepreneurial attitude. However, gaps remain in understanding these relationships in local contexts like Nigerian polytechnics. The study will adopt a quantitative research design and rely on data of the students obtained from the MIS Unit of Kano State Polytechnic, which recorded an HND graduating student population of 1,045 across 32 departments/programmes in various units/schools of the polytechnic Asample size of 285 will be selected using theKrejcie and Morgan (1970). Astratified random sampling technique will ensure that all departments are proportionately represented. Data analysis will be conducted using SPSS version 26, applying descriptive statistics, Pearson’s correlation, and multiple regression analysis. The results is expected to reveal a statistically significant and positive relationship between EE and EI, as well as between EA and EI.

Keywords: Entrepreneurship, Attitude, Intention, Education, Polytechnics

INTRODUCTION

Entrepreneurship plays a vital role in fostering economic transformation, inclusive growth, and national development across the globe (Johnson, Adeoye, & Chen, 2023; Ferreira, Silva, & Martins, 2022; Okafor, Ezenwa, & Oyetunji, 2021). This is especially true for developing countries like Nigeria, where challenges such as poverty and high unemployment remain critical (Emeka, Agho, & Udeh, 2023; Asuquo, 2024; Idowu, 2023; Aina & Oladipo, 2021). Despite its abundance of human and material resources, Nigeria has struggled to achieve widespread economic prosperity. Most citizens still live below the poverty line, surviving on less than a dollar per day even after over sixty years of independence (Yakubu, Hassan & Omeje, 2022), while unemployment figures continue to rise (Bello, Danjuma, & Suleiman, 2023). A country with a vibrant entrepreneurial base has the potential to become economically stable and prosperous (Nasir, Lukman, Adisa, & Olaniyan, 2023). For young people, unemployment remains a particularly severe issue often double or triple the national average (Popescu & Dinu, 2023).

Entrepreneurship is not accidental – it is an intentional decision shaped by personal, educational, and environmental factors. Numerous studies have shown that entrepreneurial intention (EI) is influenced by aspects such as education, social and family background, and exposure to entrepreneurial education (EE) (Okon & Bello, 2022). This disconnect has fueled academic interest in entrepreneurship as a practical and desirable career path for students. As a result, many studies have examined EI and its antecedents to understand entrepreneurial behavior more deeply (Silva, Pereira, & Oliveira, 2022). Research has shown that African youth are particularly entrepreneurial, demonstrating a readiness to innovate and take risks (Adeniyi, Rashid, & Gamede, 2024). Entrepreneurial intention remains a key indicator for understanding how and why individuals initiate and develop new business ventures (Patel, Sharma, & Bhatnagar, 2021).In line with this, Petrova, Kuznetsova, & Romanova (2023) emphasized the importance of exploring more psychological and environmental variables that influence EI.

Similarly, Nor, Idris, Fatah & Salim (2022) recommended larger sample sizes and broader institutional representation in EI research. Okeke, Nwankwo & Ubah (2023), who examined EI in Muslim-majority regions, advised future research to expand its geographic and cultural scope while also including new influencing variables. Likewise, Khan, Yusuf, Ali, Sharma & Adeel (2021) noted that limited empirical work has been done in developing countries to fully understand the link between EE and EI. Despite the growing significance of EI in policy and practice, few empirical studies have focused on this topic within the Nigerian context. It is against this backdrop, the present study aims to address several of these issues. Specifically, it will investigate the effects of entrepreneurial education and students’ attitudes on entrepreneurial intention among graduating students in Kano State polytechnic.

1.1 PROBLEMS STATEMENT

Despite Nigeria’s abundant human and material resources, the country continues to experience high levels of youth unemployment and poverty. Polytechnic graduates, in particular, face significant challenges in securing employment within their field of study. This disconnect between formal education and economic opportunities has sparked growing concern about the effectiveness of Nigeria’s higher education system in fostering entrepreneurship. While entrepreneurship education (EE) is increasingly recognized as a catalyst for equipping students with the mindset and skills necessary for self-employment, many Nigerian polytechnic still predominantly train students to become employees rather than entrepreneurs. Furthermore, although entrepreneurial intention (EI) is widely acknowledged as a precursor to actual entrepreneurial behavior, empirical studies examining the specific influence of EE and student attitudes on EI remain limited within the Nigerian context. The absence of localized evidence restricts policymakers, educators, and curriculum developers from making informed decisions to bridge the education-employment gap.

This study is crucial because it seeks to address the urgent challenge of youth unemployment in Nigeria by examining the role of entrepreneurial education and student attitudes in shaping entrepreneurial intentions. Previous research conducted in developed countries has demonstrated a positive relationship between EE and EI; however, such findings cannot be directly applied to Nigeria without context-specific investigation. Additionally, scholars have called for expanded research into the psychological and educational factors influencing EI, especially in developing countries. This study not only responds to that call but also contributes to filling a significant empirical gap by focusing on Kano State Polytechnic students at a critical transition point graduation. By identifying the variables that significantly impact EI, the findings of this study will inform educational policies, polytechnic curricula, and entrepreneurial development programs aimed at transforming graduates from job seekers to job creators. Ultimately, the study supports the national goal of promoting economic self-reliance and sustainable development through youth entrepreneurship.

1.2 Objectives of the Study

The primary objective of this study is to examine the effect of entrepreneurship education and students’ attitudes on entrepreneurial intention among HND graduating students of Kano State polytechnic. To achieve this main goal, the study seeks to:

Assess the impact of entrepreneurship education (EE) on the entrepreneurial intention (EI) of HND graduating students of Kano State Polytechnic.
Examine the influence of students’ attitudes towards entrepreneurship on their intention to become entrepreneurs.
Determine the combined effect of entrepreneurship education and attitude on entrepreneurial intention among Kano State Polytechnic HND graduates.

1.3 Hypotheses Development

Based on the above objectives, the study postulated the hypotheses: –

HO₁: There is no significant positive relationship between entrepreneurship education and entrepreneurial intention of HND graduating students of Kano State Polytechnic

HO₂: There is no significant positive relationship between students’ attitude and entrepreneurial intention of HND graduating students of Kano State Polytechnic

HO₃: There is no significant positive relationship between combination of EE & EA and EI of HND graduating students of Kano State Polytechnic

LITERATURE REVIEW/CONCEPTUAL DEFINITIONS

2.1 Entrepreneurial Intention

Entrepreneurial intention (EI) has emerged as a central concept in entrepreneurship research and is widely recognized as a strong predictor of planned, purposeful entrepreneurial behavior (Salim, Farouk & Nor, 2021; Adegbite, Yusuf & Lawani, 2023; Chukwuma, Bello & Hassan, 2022). EI reflects an individual’s conscious decision and commitment to start a new business or engage in entrepreneurial activities in the future. It signifies a deliberate mindset that precedes action, driven by the identification of opportunities and the perceived feasibility of launching a venture (Rahman, Tan & Othman, 2022). Furthermore, EI is often influenced by one’s ability to analyze the environment, assess market gaps, and creatively propose solutions through business ideas. This self-awareness and contextual understanding are what enable individuals, particularly students, to discover and refine entrepreneurial opportunities (Oyelola, Bakare & Adebayo, 2021). Supporting this, Martins, Lima, & Correia (2022) argue that EI represents a goal-oriented mindset, allowing individuals to align their personal and professional aspirations with the dynamic demands of entrepreneurship.

In summary, entrepreneurial intention is a multidimensional concept encompassing the desire, determination, and strategic planning to engage in entrepreneurial activities. It represents a foundational construct for understanding entrepreneurial behavior and is a critical area of interest for scholars, educators, and policymakers seeking to enhance entrepreneurship development, particularly among youth and polytechnic students.

2.2 Entrepreneurship Education and Entrepreneurial Intention

In recent years, there has been a noticeable increase in the institutionalization of entrepreneurship education (EE) within higher education curricula across disciplines. It is now common for students in fields such as the arts, engineering, and sciences to be exposed to formal entrepreneurship training at the Polytechnics level (Chinelo, Abbas & Wang, 2022). This shift reflects a growing consensus on the value of EE in broadening students’ skillsets, encouraging self-reliance, and equipping them with practical knowledge to navigate the uncertainties of post-graduation life (Ibrahim, Musa & Zhang, 2023). Numerous studies have confirmed that EE has a significant and positive impact on entrepreneurial intention (EI), which refers to an individual’s conscious decision to pursue entrepreneurship as a career path (Ayoade, Kwame, & Zhou, 2021). As such, many governments and educational institutions have integrated entrepreneurship into academic policy, not only to combat youth unemployment but also to stimulate innovation, productivity, and inclusive economic growth (Olowolaju, Shah, & Ridwan, 2023). EE serves as a strategic tool to ignite students’ interest in start-ups, wealth creation, and self-employment (Chen, Adebayo & Tan, 2021).

The integration of EE into polytechnic programs is intended to instill fundamental entrepreneurial competencies that guide students toward business ownership and sustainability. As noted by Abdulaziz, Fatai, Munirat, Ifeoma, & Raymond (2023), EE empowers students to acquire essential entrepreneurial knowledge—planning, decision-making, opportunity recognition, risk-taking which supports business creation and strategic management. Beyond technical knowledge, EE fosters creativity, responsibility, and an entrepreneurial mindset, transforming passive learners into active problem-solvers and future business leaders (Nwachukwu, Gomez & Xu, 2022). Empirical research continues to demonstrate a strong theoretical and practical link between EE and EI. Multiple studies have shown that students exposed to structured EE programs exhibit higher entrepreneurial intentions compared to their counterparts without such exposure (Okonjo, Felix, & Wang, 2024; Rahim, Ishola, & Le, 2023). Similarly, researchers such as Fatima, Bello, and Wahab (2022), and Noor, Idris, & Hassan (2021), have found that EE plays a crucial role in shaping students’ attitudes, confidence, and motivation toward entrepreneurship.

2.3 Entrepreneurial Attitude and Entrepreneurial Intention

Entrepreneurial education (EE) plays a significant role in shaping students’ entrepreneurial attitudes (EA), especially among those enrolled in business-related and economics programs (Okeke, Yusuf & Bello, 2021). Entrepreneurial attitude refers to an individual’s evaluative disposition – either positive or negative towards entrepreneurship, and it includes cognitive, emotional, and behavioral tendencies (Abdullahi, Musa & Li, 2022). When students develop favorable entrepreneurial attitudes, they are more likely to express interest in entrepreneurial ventures. In this context, attitude serves as a psychological framework that shapes how individuals perceive entrepreneurship and whether they are inclined to engage in it (Ogunyemi, Raji & Zhang, 2022). Attitude influences behavior, as it is linked to how one processes and reacts to information, events, or opportunities. This notion is echoed by Bello, Chukwudi, & Wang (2021), who suggest that entrepreneurial behavior is rooted in how an individual cognitively and emotionally responds to business opportunities and risks.

Scholars have emphasized that entrepreneurial action is an outcome of both attitude and intention. In essence, before entrepreneurship becomes an action, it begins as a mindset shaped by positive perceptions and internal motivation (Saidu, Ibrahim, & Chen, 2023). Therefore, cultivating positive attitudes is crucial in promoting entrepreneurial aspirations among students. Entrepreneurial attitude reflects how welcoming, enthusiastic, or critical students are toward the idea of starting a business. Pulido, Azubuike, & Zhou, (2024) define EA as a predisposition toward entrepreneurship based on self-perceptions of achievement, creativity, personal autonomy, and self-esteem. However, some scholars argue that the relationship is not always linear. For example, Ogundele, Taiwo, & Chen (2021) found that while EE improves EA, other factors such as perceived behavioral control and external support systems are also crucial in translating attitudes into intention. In a broader study, Liang, Adesina, & Wang (2024) noted that even when students have positive attitudes toward entrepreneurship, structural barriers such as lack of funding, mentorship, or market access can reduce their likelihood of acting on those intentions.

2.4 Review of Related Empirical Literature

The relationship between entrepreneurial attitude (EA) andentrepreneurial intention (EI) has attracted significant scholarly attention over the years, particularly due to its centrality in understanding entrepreneurial behavior. Empirical studies across different contexts and time periods consistently show that EA is a strong predictor of EI, though the strength and direction of this relationship may vary depending on cultural, educational, and institutional variables. A seminal work by Krueger, Reilly, & Carsrud (2000) using the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) laid the groundwork for understanding intention as a function of attitude, perceived behavioral control, and subjective norms. Their study confirmed that individuals with a positive disposition toward entrepreneurship are more likely to form intentions to start a business. Building on this, Liñán & Chen (2009) conducted a cross-cultural study and found that students with favorable attitudes toward entrepreneurship had higher EI scores across multiple countries, confirming the universality of the attitude-intention relationship. Similarly, Fayolle & Gailly (2015) examined European students and discovered that positive attitudes toward innovation, self-efficacy, and achievement were strongly correlated with entrepreneurial career aspirations.

Recent empirical studies between 2021 and 2024 continue to affirm these earlier findings while offering updated insights. For example, Adeoye, Ladan, & Jiang (2023) investigated Nigerian undergraduates and revealed that entrepreneurial attitude defined by indicators such as personal control, risk tolerance, and creativity significantly predicted students’ entrepreneurial intentions. The study emphasized that EA was not only influenced by personality traits but also shaped by exposure to entrepreneurship education. Okon, Bello, & Wang (2022) examined students in both Nigerian and Chinese polytechnics, and their comparative study revealed that entrepreneurial attitude mediated the impact of entrepreneurial education on EI. Their findings suggest that positive cognitive and emotional evaluations of entrepreneurship, developed through polytechnic curricula and role models, enhance students’ willingness to engage in start-up ventures. In Malaysia, Nasir, Okechukwu, & Fu (2021) conducted a structural equation modeling analysis among business students and found a direct, significant relationship between EA and EI. The study also found that entrepreneurial attitude was strengthened by factors such as internship experiences, student enterprise programs, and perceived entrepreneurial climate on campus. Additionally, Pulido, Azubuike, & Zhou (2024) carried out a longitudinal study in Nigeria that tracked students from their second year through graduation. The study showed that those who participated in project-based entrepreneurship modules developed stronger entrepreneurial attitudes and were three times more likely to express the intention to start their own businesses.

Other studies, such as those by Adamu, Olatunji, & Ye (2023), observed that EA plays a moderating role between entrepreneurship education and EI. While most students showed high levels of enthusiasm for entrepreneurship, the absence of practical application and institutional support led to a gap between intention and action. Similarly, Ogundele, Taiwo, & Chen (2021) reported that although positive entrepreneurial attitudes were prevalent among Nigerian polytechnic students, other factors such as fear of failure, lack of capital, and insufficient mentoring significantly weakened the effect on actual intention. A broader international perspective was presented by Liang, Adesina, & Wang (2024), who explored gender differences in EA and EI across three countries. Their findings indicated that while male students generally displayed higher entrepreneurial attitudes, female students’ EI was significantly influenced by social encouragement and community-based entrepreneurial programs.

Earlier works have also echoed these findings. For instance, Kusmintarti, Thoyib, Ashar, & Maskie (2014) identified that students with strong EA measured by achievement motivation and innovativeness were more inclined to start businesses. Pulka, Aminu, & Rikwentishe (2015) found similar results in a Nigerian context, where EA mediated the relationship between entrepreneurial education and EI. Studies such as Ismail (2015) andRuswanti (2015) emphasized the psychological dimensions of EA, arguing that how individuals emotionally and cognitively relate to entrepreneurship plays a major role in intention formation. Abun, Foronda, & Agoot (2018) found in the Philippines that EA significantly predicted the entrepreneurial intentions of polytechnic students, especially when paired with practical business experiences. Moreover, studies like those by Hassan, Norashikin, & Omar (2016) and Trang & Mintardjo (2018) also confirmed that EA not only predicts EI but can also be enhanced through entrepreneurship education, mentorship, and experiential learning opportunities.

The empirical literature spanning more than two decades strongly supports the assertion that entrepreneurial attitude is a key antecedent of entrepreneurial intention. While the strength of this relationship is generally positive and significant, the impact of attitude on intention can be enhanced or diminished depending on a range of contextual and moderating factors, including exposure to entrepreneurship education, access to resources, institutional support, and socio-cultural influences.

2.5 Research Model

Entrepreneurship Education (EE)

Entrepreneurial Intention (EI)

Entrepreneurial Attitude (EA)

Fig 1: Author’s Model, 2025

The research model investigates the influence of Entrepreneurship Education (EE) and Entrepreneurial Attitude (EA) on Entrepreneurial Intention (EI) among HND graduating polytechnic students in Kano State Polytechnic. It proposes that EE directly enhances students’ intentions to become entrepreneurs by equipping them with relevant knowledge, skills, and experiences. At the same time, EE is believed to shape students’ attitudes toward entrepreneurship, such as their confidence, motivation, and risk tolerance, which in turn influence their intention to start a business. Overall, the model is used to explore how exposure to entrepreneurship education and the development of a positive entrepreneurial mindset together drive students’ willingness to engage in entrepreneurial activities after graduation.

METHODOLOGY

This study will adopt a quantitative research design, aimed at assessing the effects of entrepreneurship educationandentrepreneurial attitudeonentrepreneurial intention among HND graduating students of Kano State Polytechnic. The design is non-experimental and analytical, utilizing structured data to evaluate relationships among variables. The target population will comprise all HND graduating students of 2025 from32 departments/programmes, with a total of 1,045 students as documented by the institution’s Management Information System (MIS) Unit. To determine the appropriate sample size, the Krejcie and Morgan (1970) table will be used, yielding a representative sample of 285 respondents. A stratified random sampling technique will be employed, with each department to be treated as a stratum.

4.0 RESULTS

4.1 Reliability

Education

Reliability Statistics
Cronbach’s Alpha	No. of Items
.835	8

Attitude

Reliability Statistics
Cronbach’s Alpha	No. of Items
.807	8

Intention

Reliability Statistics
Cronbach’s Alpha	No. of Items
.790	8

The interpretation of reliability using Cronbach’s Alpha was based on the rule of thumb provided by (Sekaran & Bougie, 2010), who suggest that the Cronbach Alpha should be at least .70 or more. From the above analysis, the composite reliability coefficients of the latent constructs ranged from .790 to .835, with each exceeding the minimum acceptable level of .70, suggesting adequate internal consistency reliability of the measures used in this study (Hair, Ringle, & Sarstedt, 2011).

4.2 Regression

Model Summary^b
Model	R			R Square			Adjusted R Square			Std. Error of the Estimate			Change Statistics
													R Square Change			F Change		df1		df2		Sig. F Change
1	.580^a			.336			.331			4.01613			.336			68.775		2		272		.000
a. Predictors: (Constant), ATTITUDE, EDUCATION
b. Dependent Variable: INTENTION
ANOVA^a
Model					Sum of Squares				df		Mean Square			F			Sig.
1		Regression			2218.584				2		1109.292			68.775			.000^b
		Residual			4387.176				272		16.129
		Total			6605.760				274
a. Dependent Variable: INTENTION
b. Predictors: (Constant), ATTITUDE, EDUCATION
Coefficients^a
Model						Unstandardized Coefficients						Standardized Coefficients			T				Sig.		Collinearity Statistics
						B		Std. Error				Beta									Tolerance		VIF
1			(Constant)			12.761		1.540							8.286				.000
			Education			.139		.060				.153			2.306				.022		.555		1.803
			Attitude			.448		.064				.466			7.025				.000		.555		1.803
a. Dependent Variable: INTENTION

The results suggest that both Entrepreneurial Education and Entrepreneurial Attitude significantly predict Entrepreneurial Intention among graduating students of Kano State Polytechnic. The regression model confirms that both variables (EE & EA) individually and jointly contribute significantly to predicting EI. These findings support prior studies and reinforced the importance of integrating entrepreneurship education across all departments to foster self-employment mindsets in students.

4.3 Correlations
		EDUCATION	ATTITUDE	INTENTION
EDUCATION	Pearson Correlation	1
	Sig. (2-tailed)
	N	275
ATTITUDE	Pearson Correlation	.667^**	1
	Sig. (2-tailed)	.000
	N	275	275
INTENTION	Pearson Correlation	.464^**	.568^**	1
	Sig. (2-tailed)	.000	.000
	N	275	275	275
**Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

The results suggest that both Entrepreneurial Education and Entrepreneurial Attitude significantly predict Entrepreneurial Intention among graduating students of Kano State Polytechnic. The positive correlations indicate that higher exposure to entrepreneurship education and a favorable attitude toward entrepreneurship are associated with stronger intentions to engage in entrepreneurial ventures.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, entrepreneurship education plays a pivotal role in shaping students’ entrepreneurial mindset, skills, and intentions. While there is strong evidence supporting its positive influence on EI, the effectiveness of EE is highly dependent on content quality, pedagogical approach, and contextual relevance. Thus, there is a continuing need to strengthen EE curricula in polytechnics, tailor them to local entrepreneurial ecosystems, and embed experiential learning elements to foster genuine entrepreneurial intentions among students. This growing body of evidence has prompted scholars and educators to view EE as a foundation for building entrepreneurial ecosystems within academic institutions. Entrepreneurial attitude is a critical psychological construct that significantly influences entrepreneurial intention. Fostering positive entrepreneurial attitudes through education, experiential learning, and supportive ecosystems is essential to nurturing a generation of proactive, innovation-driven graduates.

RECOMMENDATIONS

Based on the findings above, the following recommendations were developed –

Curriculum redesign – this is to ensure transition from more of theoretical lectures to practical based learning such as business simulations, business incubation, and venture creations after practical, where students earn credit for launching actual startups
Attitude shaping – since attitude is a major predictor, teachers should focus on social persuasion to shape the students’ psychological attitude
Dream building – invite young successful alumni entrepreneurs to speak to students. This will boost their ambition and reduce fear of failure and makes them feel that it is a feasible career
Encourage arts, science and engineering students to take entrepreneurship modules together. Innovation often happens at the intersection of diverse skill sets
Policy makers to encourage startup development by giving grants instead of loans.
Government to intensify “ease of doing business” to facilitate development of business ideas to reality
Future researches to focus more in ways of translating academic research into practice.

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The Diversity and Abundance of Soil Microorganisms within Three Snail Farm Locations

How to Cite in APA 7:

Odiaka, E. E. (2026). The Diversity and Abundance of Soil Microorganisms within Three Snail Farm Locations. International Journal of Research, 13(1), 123–132. https://doi.org/10.26643/eduindex/ijr/2026/7

Emmanuel E. Odiaka

^*Corresponding author email ID: emmanuele.odiaka@gmail.com

ORCID: https://orchid.org/0009-0008-0637-531X

ABSTRACT

The study was undertaken to determine the diversity and abudance of soil microorganism within three snail farm locations designated a location L1, L2 and L3. Bacterial and Fungal isolates were identified by their cultural and morphological characteristics using established characters and the counts were determined using standard spread plate technique. Snail species reared on the farm were the giant African land snail. A total of 12 species of bacteria and 10 species of fungi were recorded at the three locations within the farm. The bacteria species were widely distributed. The highest number of bacteria was recorded in location L1 while the highest number of fungi species were recorded in L1 and L2. Bacillus was the most dominant bacteria species with the highest Relative Abundance recorded during the study while Aspergillus was the most dominant fungi species. Bacteria and fungi were typical of an environment with specie richness.

Keywords: Fungi, Soil, Microorganism, Survival, Bacteria

INTRODUCTION

Bacteria make up the most abundant organism in the soil. Soil fungi may occur as free-living mycorrhizal association with plant roots. High concentration of microrganisms can occur from animal husbandry operations and this can result in health hazards due to the presence of pathogens (Obasohan et al, 2010).

Climate and its effect on soil have an associated effect on snail farming. The effect of heat resulting in high soil temperature could lead to reduced feed intake, reduced body weight, poor hatchability and fertility (Afolabi, 2013). Snail farm soil is generally a favorable habitat for the proliferation of microorganisms with micro colonies developing around soil particles. The objectives of the study are to determine the microbial dynamics of the snail farm soil interms of their diversity and abundance.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The Study Site

The study area is situated in Federal University of Akure south gate in Ondo state of Nigeria. Ondo state lies on latitude 05.⁰41^’N and longitude 06 ^.32^’E. The area lies within the tropical rainforest belt. The dry season usually occurs between October and March while the raining season starts from April to October.

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

Samples of the snail farm top soil were collected from three locations and their replicates in the farm. The samples were labelled according to the site of collection as E1, E2, E3. F1, F2, F3 and G1, G2, G3. The samples collected were top soils (8.5 cm dept) using an auger 8.5 cm diameter. The soil samples were introduced into plastic containers for laboratory analysis.

Soil parameters determined were soil PH, soil organic matter content, soil temperature and soil microbial load. The soil samples were transported in polyethylene bags to the laboratory for analysis.

The soil samples from the 3 locations were analyzed for bacteria and fungi population using standard spread-plate dilution method by Seely and Vandemark (1981). For bacteria isolation, incubation was done for 5days, a nutrient agar containing 0.015% (w/v) nystatin (to inhibit fungi growth) was used. While potatoe dextrose agar to which 0.05% (w/v) chloramphenicol was used for fungal isolation and incubation for 7 days.

Sterilization techniques

The polyethylene bags were cold-sterilized in uv-radiation box for at least 12 h (usually overnight), while glassware was treated in the hot-air oven at 160⁰ C for 2 h. Growth media and diluents (distilled water) were autoclaved at 121⁰ C for 15 min.

Determination of the total microbial load/total viable count of the sample using standard plate count method

Microbiological analyses

The soil sample was mixed, and a suspension of 1 g (dry weight equivalent) in 10 ml of sterile water was prepared. One ml of the soil suspension was then diluted serially (ten-fold) and used in the estimation of aerobic heterotrophic bacterial and fungal populations by standard spread-plate dilution method described by Seeley and VanDemark (1981), in triplicate. Nutrient agar containing 0.015%(w/v) nystatin (to inhibit fungi growth) was used for bacteria isolation and incubation was at 35oC for five days. Potato dextrose agar to which 0.05% (w/v) chloramphenicol has been added (to inhibit bacteria growth) was used for fungal isolation, and incubation was at ambient temperature for seven days.

Identification of Isolates

Identification of isolates for the experiment was based on cultural, microscopic and biochemical characteristics with reference to Bergey,s manual on determinative bacteriology (1989) for bacteria and Fawole and Osho (2001) for fungi characterization and identification.

Soil PH

Soil PH was determined according to the procedure described by Ujowundu, et al (2011)

Statistical Analysis

All data collected were analysed statistically using one–way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) using SPSS 15.0. The significance difference among mean was determined by the use of Duncan,s Multiple Range Test (Duncan, 1995)

The statistical model is as follows:

Where yij = overall observation of the effect of the bambara nut offal (A) and enzyme (B) on the ith and jth individual

μ = population mean

Ti = effect of bambara nut offal level on the ith individual

Bj = effect on the jth individual

= random error

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

RESULTS

In Table 1, the highest number of bacteria was recorded in location L1 (41). Sizeable number of bacteria species were recorded in the three locations with the location L3(Control) having the lowest number. Bacillus was the most abundant species and the least abundant specie was Alcaligens.

Table 1: Bacteria abundance recorded in the three locations n x 10³ (CFU/g)

BACTERIA L1 L2 L3 TOTAL
BACTERIA L1 L2 L3 TOTAL
Pseudomonas 5 3 17 25
Xantomonas 2 2 2 6
Bacillus 9 9 4 28
Proteus 4 3 – 7
Chromobacterium 4 2 1 7
Staphylococcus 5 2 4 11
Vibrio 1 2 – 3
Clostridium 2 2 2 6
Erwinia 1 2 1 4
Klebsiela 2 3 – 5
Alcaligens 2 – – 2
Clavibacter 1 2 2 5
Total 41 35 33 109

Number of species 12 11 8 12

Table 2 show Pseudomonas as the specie with the highest relative abundance during the study. Bacillus are the second most abundant species recorded. Alcaligens have the lowest relative abundance.

Table 2: Relative abundance of some bacteria species found in the snail farm

BACTERIA L1 L2 L3 MEAN
BACTERIA L1 L2 L3 MEAN
Pseudomonas 12.19 8.57 51.51 24.09
Xantomonas 4.87 5.71 6.06 5.55
Bacillus 21.95 25.71 12.12 19.93
Proteus 9.75 8.57 – 6.10
Chromobacterium 9.75 5.71 3.03 6.16
Staphylococcus 12.19 5.71 12.12 10.00
Vibrio 2.43 5.71 – 2.71
Clostridium 4.87 5.71 6.06 5.55
Erwinia 2.43 5.71 3.03 3.72
Klebsiela 4.87 8.57 – 4.48
Alcaligens 4.87 – – 1.62
Clavibacter 2.43 5.71 6.06 4.73

Table 3 shows Shannon-Wiener and Margalef indices. The indices measure specie richness of a community independent of sample size. Bacteria species richness was most significant at location L1 and less significant at location L3. Location L1 has the highest number of bacteria species indicating highest species diversity. This means that location L1 has greater biological stability while location L3 has less biological stability.

Table 3: Species Diversity value of the bacteria species found in the snail farm

Diversity Indices L1 L2 L3(Control)

Taxas 12 11 8

Individuals 41 35 33

Dominance-D 0.3308 0.3306 0.3303

Shannon- H 1.993 1.991 1.843

Simpson 1-D 0.6695 0.6694 0.6697

Evenness e.H/S 0.864 0.868 0.886

Margalef 1.936 1.721 1.597

A total of twelve (12) distinct strains of bacteria were recorded from location L1 with Bacillus genera being the most dominant. The least genera were Vibrio, Erwinia and Clavibacter. In location L2 eleven (11) genera were recorded, Bacillus was the dominant genera. The total bacteria cultural types in location L3 were ten (8) genera. The genus Pseudomonas in location L3 was the most dominant(51.51), while Alcaligens, Klebsiela, Vibrio and proteus were not present. The total number of bacteria cultural types recorded were statistically significant (P<0.05) i.e., between Location L1 vs Location L2, Location L1 vs Location L3 and Location L2 vs Location L3.

In Table 4, Aspergillus has the highest abundance while the fungi specie with the lowest abundance was Trichoderma. This also did not exist in location L1 and L2 while fusarium was not recorded in location L3. A total of 126 individuals belonging to 10 genera were recorded in the study.

Table 4: Abundance of some fungi of the snail farm locations n x 10³ (CFU/g)

Fungi L1 L2 L3 Total

Dichobotrys	7	8	– 15
Botrytis	4	3	4 11
Gonatobotrys	5	3	4 12
Fusarium	4	3	– 7
Trychoderma	2	–	1 2
Giotricum	2	2	1 5
Aspergillus	12	11	13 36
Phythopthora	6	10	8 24
Chrysosporium	–	2	1 3
Rhizopus	3	3	4 10
Total	45	45	36 126

Table 5: Relative abundance (%) of the fungi species within the snail farm

Fungi L1 L2 L3 MEAN

Dichobotrys 15.15 17.77 10.77

Botrytis 8.88 6.66 11.11 8.88

Gonatobotrys 11.11 6.66 11.11 9.63

Fusarium 8.88 6.66 – 5.18

Trychoderma 4.44 – 2.77 2.40

Giotricum 4.44 4.44 2.77 3.88

Aspergillus 26.66 24.44 3611 29.07

Phytopthera 13.33 22.22 22.22 19.26

Chrysosporium – 4.44 2.77 2.40

Rhizopus 6.66 6.66 11.11 8.14

DISCUSSION

The isolation of bacterial species from the soil showed that more microorganisms were observed in the snail farm soil L1 and L2 than L3. Of the 12 bacterial species observed in this study, four species were absent in the control soil samples unlike the snail farm soil samples which have more species. (Table 1.). The observation agrees with Parham et al (2003) and Reverodo and Melo (2007). The bacteria species were widely distributed except Alcaligens, Klebsiela, proteus and Vibrio, which did not show wide distribution in the three locations. Pseudomonas, Xantomonas, Bacillus, Chromobacterium, Staphilococcus, Clavibacter and Clostridium were all distributed in the three locations as shown in Table 1. This might be due to the presence of suitable habitat and breeding sites. Alcaligens was found only in location L1. Also, Vibrio was restricted to location L1 and L2 as shown in Table 1.

The highest number of bacteria was recorded in location L1 (12). This was followed by location L2 (11). The increased microbial prevalence in the snail farm soil samples indicates the increased microbial nutrient and conditions of bacterial growth. The high prevalence of micro-organism observed in location L1 and L2 agrees with Olaniya (2004). The snail waste could serve as increased additional source of microorganism in the soil. It could also be due to the heavy presence of leaf liters and more volumes of water in the location. This is also the location that recorded the lowest mortality. Sizable number of bacteria and fungi species were recorded in the three sites. Probably due to the dampness of the locations since the experiment was carried out at the peak of rain with relative air humidity near saturation which could be harmful to the snail in agreement with (Cobbinah et al 2008).

Bacillus was the most abundant species with the highest abundance recorded (28) during the study as shown in Table 2. Pseudomonas are the second most abundant species recorded. The highest numbers were recorded at location L3. There was no presence of Vibrio in location L3 and Alcaligens in location L2 and L3 as shown in Table 1.

Table 2 showed Baccillus as the specie with the highest relative abundance during the study. Staphylococcus are the second most abundant species recorded. Alcaligens have the lowest relative abundance.

Statistical analysis indicates that relative abundance between the locations were not significantly (P>0.05) different. Statistically there is no significant (P>0.05) difference between the species richness and diversity of the three locations. This may be attributed to the similar vegetation composition, climatic condition and soil condition of the sites. It may also be attributed to the sampling method used.

Shannon-Wiener and Margalef indices measures species richness of a community independent of sample size. Bacteria species richness was most significant at location L1 and less significant at location L3. Location L1 has the highest number of bacteria species indicating higher species diversity. (Table 3) This means that location L1 has greater biological stability while location L3 has less biological stability.

Sorenson quantitative index that was calculated showed that greater number of similar species are recorded at the location. This may be attributed to similarity in soil conditions like depth, size and vegetation cover.

In Table 4, Aspergillus in location L3 was the highest dominant specie(13) while the least dominant species were Trychoderma in location L2, Fusarium in location L3 and Chrysosprium in location L1. In Table 5, Aspergillus is the most dominant Fungi species (28.88) in location L3 while the least dominant species were giotricum (2.22) and Chrysosporium (2.22) in location l3. Aspergillus has the highest relative abundance (27.07). Variations of the relative abundance among the species in the habitat were not significantly different (P>0.05).

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, the season and time of the study which was at the peak of rain and other factors like over dampness of the farm could lead to increase in bacteria and fungi population.The prevalence and population of the various bacteria group could be used to assess soil fertility. Kazeev (2006) reported that many fertile soils have high microbial count.

A further study of bacteria and fungi species using more modern technology to obtain a detailed view of microbial diversity and using different sampling method is recommended as an extension of the investigation in the future.

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The influence of body geometry on the composition of visual-corrective tattooing

Roman Zao (Zakharchenko)
Artist, tattoo artist, researcher in visual culture
Judge of international tattoo conventions
Author of scholarly and research publications in tattoo art and body art
United States
EMAIL: Roman.Zao.ink@gmail.com
ORCID: 0009-0003-5561-6339

UDC 7.036:391.91

Publication Date: 14 January 2026
Keywords: visual-corrective tattooing, body geometry, composition, body art, anatomy, visual perception, spatial correction, practice-based research

In contemporary tattoo practice, the visual-corrective function of imagery has become increasingly significant. Within this context, tattooing is considered not only as a decorative or symbolic element, but also as a tool for visual transformation of bodily form. Compositional decisions in tattoo art can enhance, soften, or reinterpret the geometry of the human body, making bodily structure a key factor in artistic choice.

Body geometry comprises a set of proportions, directions, curvatures, rhythms, and visual accents shaped by the anatomical structure of a specific body. Visual perception of the human figure is based not on objective anatomical parameters, but on their optical interpretation. In this context, tattooing may function as a visual-corrective instrument, working with the perception of form, direction, and balance.

Visual-corrective tattooing involves a conscious approach to line, scale, compositional direction, and rhythmic structure. Artistic decisions are developed with consideration of the body’s vertical, horizontal, and diagonal axes, as well as zones of visual tension and relaxation. Composition may reinforce verticality, soften abrupt transitions of form, balance asymmetry, or deliberately accentuate particular bodily features.

Practice-based analysis demonstrates that line is one of the key instruments of visual correction. Vertically oriented elements visually elongate the form; diagonal lines introduce dynamics and a sense of movement; horizontal structures may stabilize composition, yet if applied incorrectly, they can visually weigh down the figure. Thus, the directional choice of line within tattoo composition directly affects the optical perception of body geometry.

Scale is another significant factor. Large-scale compositions enable redistribution of visual emphasis and the formation of a new bodily rhythm, whereas fragmented solutions operate locally, correcting specific areas. Visual-corrective tattooing cannot be universal in application; its effectiveness depends on precise alignment between composition and the individual bodily structure.

Equally important is the interaction between tattoo imagery and the body’s natural curves and curvature. Placement that ignores curvilinear surfaces results in proportional distortion and diminished visual coherence. Conversely, integrating composition into bodily curvature achieves organic fusion, in which the tattoo is perceived as a continuation of the body rather than an applied surface element.

To systematize visual-corrective factors and their influence on compositional decision-making, the following analytical table is presented.

Table 1. Body Geometry Influence on Visual-Corrective Tattoo Composition

Body geometry factor	Visual perception issue	Corrective compositional approach	Expected visual effect
Vertical imbalance	Compressed silhouette	Vertical line dominance	Elongated body perception
Asymmetry	Visual instability	Directional flow alignment	Balanced visual structure
Excess curvature	Distorted proportions	Adaptive curvature mapping	Harmonized form perception
Volume concentration	Visual heaviness	Scale redistribution	Visual lightness
Irregular surface	Fragmented perception	Modular composition	Visual coherence

For more precise analysis of visual-corrective tattooing, the following system of notational markers is applied within the study.

Notation system (used in analytical observation)
V-axis — dominant vertical orientation of composition
H-axis — dominant horizontal orientation
D-axis — diagonal compositional direction
C-curve — curvature alignment with body surface
S-scale — relative scale of tattoo composition
F-flow — directional visual flow of elements

This notation system allows for documentation and comparison of compositional solutions across different cases, revealing correlations between body geometry and the visual effect of tattooing.

Analysis of accumulated practical and research material indicates that visual-corrective tattooing constitutes a complex form of spatial design in which artistic decision-making extends beyond imagery itself. In this context, the tattoo artist functions not only as a creator of visual form, but also as an interpreter of bodily structure, working with perception and optical transformation.

Thus, the influence of body geometry on the composition of visual-corrective tattooing is systemic in nature. Conscious integration of anatomical and geometric factors enables tattooing to be understood as an instrument of visual body modeling situated at the intersection of art, anatomy, and visual culture. Further research in this field opens pathways for deeper understanding of tattoo art as a form of spatial and perceptual artistic expression.

References

DeMello, M. (2014). Inked: Tattoos and Body Art around the World. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO.
Featherstone, M. (2010). Body, image and affect in consumer culture. Body & Society, 16(1), 193–221.
Pitts-Taylor, V. (2016). The Brain’s Body: Neuroscience and Corporeal Politics. Durham: Duke University Press.
Sweetman, P. (2004). Anchoring the (postmodern) self? Body modification, fashion and identity. Body & Society, 10(2–3), 51–76.
Jones, C. A. (2011). Body Art/Performing the Subject. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
Sanders, C. R., & Vail, D. A. (2008). Customizing the Body: The Art and Culture of Tattooing. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
Braidotti, R. (2013). The Posthuman. Cambridge: Polity Press.
Pitts, V. (2003). In the Flesh: The Cultural Politics of Body Modification. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

The anatomy of the human body as a factor in artistic decision-making in tattoo art

Roman Zao (Zakharchenko)
Independent artist-researcher in visual culture and tattoo art
Master of Fine Arts (Graphic Design), Far Eastern Federal University
Judge of international tattoo conventions
Author of scholarly and research publications in tattoo art and visual culture
United States
EMAIL: Roman.Zao.ink@gmail.com
ORCID: 0009-0003-5561-6339

UDC 7.036:391.91

Publication Date: 14 January 2026

Keywords: tattoo art, human anatomy, corporeality, visual culture, composition, body art, artistic decision-making, practice-based research

Tattoo art represents a distinct form of contemporary artistic practice in which the image is inseparable from the human body and cannot be examined outside its anatomical, spatial, and dynamic characteristics. Unlike traditional visual arts oriented toward a flat surface or a static volume, tattooing exists within the context of a living, constantly changing corporeal structure. This condition determines the central role of human anatomy in shaping artistic decision-making in tattoo art.

Contemporary research in body studies, visual studies, and body art emphasizes that the human body is not a neutral carrier of imagery. On the contrary, it functions as an active medium that influences composition, scale, rhythm, and the visual perception of an artistic image. Within the framework of this study, anatomy is considered a structuring factor of artistic decision-making rather than a secondary limitation of the creative process.

In tattoo art, the body constitutes a three-dimensional, dynamic form characterized by individual geometry, plasticity, and kinematics. Muscle masses, joint areas, natural curves, and transitional forms create a complex relief that inevitably interacts with the image. Artistic decision-making in tattooing emerges through a dialogue between the author’s concept and the anatomical features of a specific body. As a result, the same image transferred onto different bodies acquires distinct visual and semantic qualities.

Analysis of practical material and existing research demonstrates that neglecting anatomical factors leads to a loss of artistic integrity in tattoo imagery. Images created without regard for bodily geometry lose expressiveness in motion, deform with changes in body position, and enter into visual conflict with natural bodily lines. Conversely, integrating anatomical considerations into artistic decision-making enables the creation of images that maintain coherence and expressiveness both in static and dynamic states.

Of particular importance in tattoo art is work with areas of bodily mobility. Joints, shoulder and hip regions, and the spinal area require specific compositional approaches, as images in these zones are inevitably involved in movement. In such cases, artistic decisions are constructed with consideration not only of form but also of potential bodily kinetics. This brings tattoo art closer to principles of kinetic and performative art, in which movement constitutes an integral component of the artistic image.

Anatomy also directly affects the scale and rhythmic structure of composition. Large muscular surfaces allow for expanded forms and complex compositional structures, whereas anatomically complex areas demand more modular and fragmented solutions. In this context, the artistic thinking of the tattoo artist involves spatial modeling comparable to approaches used in sculpture and architecture.

For a clearer representation of the influence of anatomical factors on artistic decision-making in tattoo art, a comparative analytical overview is presented below.

Table 1. Influence of Human Anatomy on Artistic Decision-Making in Tattoo Art

Anatomical factor	Artistic implication	Compositional strategy	Visual outcome
Muscle volume and relief	Distortion or enhancement of form	Alignment with muscle flow	Increased visual coherence
Joint mobility	Image deformation during movement	Dynamic or segmented composition	Preserved readability in motion
Body curvature	Altered perspective	Adaptive scaling and curvature mapping	Natural visual integration
Skin tension zones	Line instability	Controlled line direction	Structural stability of image
Individual body proportions	Scale imbalance	Personalized compositional layout	Harmonized body–image relationship

As the analysis demonstrates, artistic decision-making in tattoo art is formed through a complex consideration of anatomical factors. Body anatomy not only influences the technical execution of imagery but also becomes an active participant in the artistic process, shaping the visual logic and expressive capacity of the tattoo image.

Viewing anatomy as an artistic factor allows for a reconsideration of authorship in tattoo art. Artistic decisions do not arise from the transfer of a preexisting image onto the body but rather from the interaction between the author’s concept and the corporeal reality of a specific individual. In this sense, the body functions as a co-author of the artistic image, fundamentally distinguishing tattooing from most traditional forms of visual art.

Thus, human anatomy constitutes a foundational factor in artistic decision-making in tattoo art. Recognizing the body as an active artistic medium enables tattooing to be understood as a complex interdisciplinary practice situated at the intersection of art, anatomy, visual culture, and corporeality. Further investigation of this interaction is essential for a deeper understanding of tattoo art as a form of contemporary artistic expression.

References

Pitts, V. (2003). In the Flesh: The Cultural Politics of Body Modification. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Featherstone, M. (2010). Body, image and affect in consumer culture. Body & Society, 16(1), 193–221.
DeMello, M. (2014). Inked: Tattoos and Body Art around the World. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO.
Sanders, C. R., & Vail, D. A. (2008). Customizing the Body: The Art and Culture of Tattooing. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
Sweetman, P. (2004). Anchoring the (postmodern) self? Body modification, fashion and identity. Body & Society, 10(2–3), 51–76.
Irwin, K. (2001/2003). Legitimating the first tattoo: Moral passage through informal interaction. Symbolic Interaction, 24(1), 49–73.
Jones, C. A. (2011). Body Art/Performing the Subject. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
MacCormack, P. (2008). The Anatomy of Disgust. New York: Continuum.
Braidotti, R. (2013). The Posthuman. Cambridge: Polity Press.
Pitts-Taylor, V. (2016). The Brain’s Body: Neuroscience and Corporeal Politics. Durham: Duke University Press.

When Rybelsus Fits Into Type 2 Diabetes Care: A Practical Guide

Oral options for type 2 diabetes are changing how people manage blood sugar. Rybelsus is one such option that works through a hormone pathway and supports day-to-day glucose control. This guide explains what to expect, how to use it well, and ways to reduce common challenges.

For context about formulation and dosing strengths, reviewRybelsus Semaglutide Pills to understand how the tablet is designed and taken on an empty stomach. The information below focuses on practical steps, symptom patterns, and safety considerations in everyday life.

How this oral GLP-1 option works in the body

This medicine acts like GLP-1, a gut hormone that helps regulate glucose. It signals the pancreas to release insulin when blood sugar rises and reduces excess sugar made by the liver. It also slows stomach emptying slightly, which may help with appetite and post-meal spikes.

Why this mechanism matters

People often notice steadier fasting levels and fewer late-day highs. Some experience reduced hunger, which can support gradual weight changes. Results vary, and benefits build over weeks as the body adjusts.

Who may consider it

Adults with type 2 diabetes who need better A1C control despite diet and exercise may be candidates. It is not for type 1 diabetes or diabetic ketoacidosis. A clinician will factor in kidney function, gastrointestinal history, and personal goals before prescribing.

Symptoms, goals, and everyday challenges

High blood sugar can cause thirst, frequent urination, fatigue, and blurry vision. Over time, chronic highs raise risks for heart, kidney, eye, and nerve complications. The aim is consistent, safe targets while maintaining energy and preventing lows.

Setting realistic targets

Tracking fasting and post-meal readings helps spot patterns. Many people start with small, achievable goals such as trimming a 20–30 mg/dL rise after meals. Discuss personal targets and A1C goals with your clinician, especially if you have other conditions.

Recognizing early signals of change

During the first weeks, you may see smoother mornings or fewer sugar spikes after larger meals. Appetite may shift, making smaller portions feel sufficient. Keep a simple log of meals, doses, and symptoms to guide adjustments.

Getting started safely: timing, dosing, and interactions

Oral GLP-1 therapy is sensitive to timing and stomach conditions. The tablet is typically taken on an empty stomach with a small amount of water, followed by a wait period before eating, drinking, or taking other medications. Consistency at the same time each day helps absorption and outcomes.

Baseline checks and medical history

Before starting, clinicians often review kidney function, gastrointestinal history, and risk factors such as pancreatitis. Share all medications and supplements, including over-the-counter products. Mention any prior gallbladder issues, thyroid concerns, or severe reflux.

Other medicines and low-sugar risk

On its own, a GLP-1 usually has a low risk of hypoglycemia (low blood sugar). However, when used with insulin or sulfonylureas, lows can occur. Know symptoms like shakiness, sweating, or confusion, and carry fast-acting carbs if your regimen includes a low-risk medicine paired with a higher-risk one.

Class context and options

These therapies are part of a broader group that target the GLP-1 pathway. For a general overview of the class, seeGLP-1 Agonists and discuss with your clinician how the oral form compares with injections for your needs.

Managing common side effects and staying consistent

Most side effects are gastrointestinal and tend to be mild to moderate. Nausea, fullness, burping, or softer stools are common during dose changes. They often improve within two to eight weeks as your body adapts.

Ways to reduce nausea and reflux

Eat smaller, more frequent meals instead of large portions.
Favor bland foods early on; limit very spicy or greasy meals.
Sip water slowly; avoid chugging liquids around meals.
Wait the recommended time after dosing before eating or drinking.
Reduce carbonated beverages if bloating is bothersome.

If symptoms persist

Track what triggers discomfort and share specifics with your clinician. Slowing the dose increase or pausing escalation can help. Seek urgent care for severe abdominal pain, persistent vomiting, signs of dehydration, or yellowing of the skin or eyes.

Protecting hydration and digestion

Because this class can slow stomach emptying, hydration matters. Aim for consistent fluids across the day, especially in hot weather or during exercise. Include fiber from vegetables, legumes, and whole grains to support regularity.

Nutrition, activity, and daily routines that reinforce progress

Medication works best when paired with simple habits. Consistent meals, movement, and sleep can sharpen your response and reduce swings. Small, repeatable steps often outperform drastic short-term changes.

Meal planning and portion balance

Build plates around non-starchy vegetables, lean proteins, and healthy fats.
Choose high-fiber carbohydrates like beans, oats, and berries.
Watch added sugars in drinks, sauces, and snacks.
Use a consistent breakfast, especially important with a morning tablet routine.

Movement that fits your life

Even short walks after meals can reduce post-meal spikes. Aim for regular aerobic activity and two sessions of resistance training weekly, as tolerated. If activity raises low-sugar concerns with other medicines, plan a small carb snack and test more often.

Sleep, stress, and alcohol

Short sleep and high stress can raise glucose. Create a bedtime routine and practice brief stress breaks during the day. If you drink alcohol, monitor sugars more closely and avoid drinking on an empty stomach. Using a non invasive blood glucose monitor can make tracking your glucose levels easier and more comfortable, allowing you to check trends without frequent finger pricks and adjust your lifestyle choices in real time.

Monitoring progress and knowing when to adjust

Regular reviews help you and your clinician decide on dose changes. Many people see early shifts within four to eight weeks, with larger A1C changes over several months. Labs and home readings together give the clearest picture.

What to track weekly

Fasting glucose at least a few mornings per week.
One or two post-meal checks at varying meals.
Side effects, appetite changes, and hydration.
Body weight trends, if weight is a goal.

When readings are off target

Consider meal timing, missed doses, illness, or new medicines. Review tablet timing and the wait period to protect absorption. Bring your log to appointments so your clinician can tailor next steps.

Safety signals to discuss promptly

Contact a clinician for ongoing severe GI symptoms, signs of dehydration, or unexplained abdominal pain. Sudden worsening of glucose with illness warrants closer monitoring. If you become pregnant or plan to conceive, review your treatment plan.

Some people explore cross-border options for cost or access and consider Canadian pharmacies that ship to the United States. If comparing sources, confirm licensure and dispensing standards, and discuss any changes with your clinician beforehand.

Medical disclaimer: This content is for informational purposes only and is not a substitute for professional medical advice.

For site-wide education and resources on diabetes care, visitCanadianInsulin for general information and articles focused on condition management.

Ex UK/HMRC Tax Inspector – Amit Puri – Provides Statistics on Offshore / Worldwide Disclosure Facility & Indian Income

Pure Tax Investigations: HMRC Tax Investigation Specialists announced the release of their latest WDF article for AccountingWEB earlier this year, ‘Should HMRC ramp up offshore liability nudge letters?’ which was written by founder and managing director Amit Puri to provide up-to-date statistical information from HMRC on the Worldwide Disclosure Facility.

With 10+ years of direct experience at the UK tax authority – HM Revenue and Customs – and over 10 years in the private sector, Amit leverages his specialist tax disputes resolution expertise to analyse the facts and figures concerning HMRC’s “nudge-letters” as well as the non-disclosure related action taken. In India this problem is often referred to as offshore ‘black money’ and it has had its own disclosure facilities in the past.

What is the Worldwide Disclosure Facility (HMRC WDF)?

The Worldwide Disclosure Facility (HMRC WDF), which can be used to disclose a UK tax liability relating to an offshore issue, has now been running since September 2016.

It’s still running, providing individuals who have earned income or achieved gains overseas with a streamlined opportunity to bring their tax affairs up to date, by means of making a voluntary disclosure through an online portal. Provided a full and complete disclosure is made, there is no need to meet HMRC face-to-face or engage in numerous rounds of correspondence about the facts.

“Making such disclosures to HMRC can be uncomfortable, as one must recount what has been done (or not) and explain why. Experienced tax investigation and disclosure specialists will understand this part well and seek to provide peace of mind to their clients, while keeping abreast of WDF developments and HMRC’s practices” added Amit.

What do the HMRC WDF disclosure statistics show?

Let’s start by reviewing the number of WDF disclosures received by HMRC and the number of nudge letters, or one-to-many letters, as HMRC likes to call them nowadays, that were sent. The article has detailed figures, but some 53,000 WDF disclosures have been made (up to and including 2024/25).

From the WDF’s humble beginning in September 2016 where 88 disclosures were received (presumably in the calendar year), then ramping up in 2017, and then the most ever were received in 2018 and 2019 per year. This coincided with the Requirement to Correct (RTC) window. This was so that disclosures could still be based on the regular offshore penalties regime. After that window closed, all disclosures had to be based on the newer, much more aggressive Failure to Correct (FTC) offshore penalties regime — for tax years up to and including 2015/16.

… the average penalties per disclosure has remained quite flat. Averaging a little over £1,000 at their lowest, and up to about £2,500 for other years. We expected them to rise over time as more FTC penalties are involved.

WDF disclosure numbers remaining flat

It is safe to say the number of WDF disclosures received annually has remained quite flat too, which again is quite surprising. But, notably, the number of nudge letters sent out by HMRC has decreased in relative terms over the years, despite more offshore financial accounts data being available to HMRC and their supposedly advanced IT and innovative analysis tools.

So it doesn’t come as a surprise to see that the average taxes secured per disclosure have not increased over time. This is despite the newer extended 12-year tax assessing rule for offshore matters being introduced. One should expect there to be more tax years included in WDF disclosures over time, all other things being equal.

There seems to be no good reason for the average taxes recovered figures being much lower for 2021/22, and for it being much higher for 2022/23. These seem to be anomalies.

Fewer WDF disclosure nudge letters

Interestingly though, it could be that the significant reductions in the number of nudge letters sent in 2021 and 2022 have contributed to the lower yields from disclosures in 2021 onwards. We compared this to the higher tax revenues in earlier years when a lot more nudge letters were sent out.

It is clear that annual revenues from WDF disclosures have never recovered, and neither have the number of nudge letters sent out.

The article had detailed annual figures, but let’s note that in total some £815,654,804 had been raised in taxes, interest and penalties.

Some £665m was secured in taxes, through the WDF. When we include associated late payment interest and penalties thereon, the total revenues are c.£816m. This excludes the future benefit of voluntary compliance, where clients maintain their correct footing and file accurate tax returns as appropriate in the future.

Could HMRC do more to encourage more WDF disclosures?

Of course. There seem to be material issues with their handling of the offshore financial data and/or the quality of that data. It is plain to see the number of WDF disclosures made has remained painfully minuscule compared to the enormous volume of banking data received and available…

As an example, look at the number of disclosures received for 2018 and 2019 — a total of 16,589 — but consider the number of offshore accounts reported to HMRC in say 2017 or 2018 — around 3–4m. The data exponentially eclipsed the number of disclosures.

Also, in May 2022, HMRC reported that in 2019, UK residents had some £850bn in offshore financial accounts. Also, in their No Safe Havens 2019 report, they reported to have received some 5.67m records in 2018 alone pertaining to offshore bank accounts.

There seems to be a lack of ambition at HMRC, despite being armed with so much offshore banking data they could probably swim in it. So it should come as no surprise that we still strongly believe the number of WDF disclosures made has always directly been influenced by the number of nudge letters sent by HMRC.

*** CONTACT: Pure Tax Investigations, 63 St Mary Axe, London, EC3A 8AA, United Kingdom +44 203 7575 669 / pure-tax.com

How can we help with WDF disclosures?

If you or your client has been contacted by HMRC about non-UK / offshore income / Indian interest income and offshore bank accounts then we can help steer that worldwide disclosure facility process, to keep it on track and focused, to bring about a swift and commercial conclusion. We will fully review the underlying records to identify investment interest income, dividends, and gains on assets, so that we robustly prepare annual tax calculations. We are not in the business of procrastinating.

Importantly, we deliver that all-important trusted ‘buffer’ between our clients and HMRC during their in-depth and intrusive investigations and in all voluntary disclosures too.

From experience and speaking to other practitioners, we noted that HMRC has been writing to people with much smaller levels of income overseas and/or those who have not been in the UK for long. That too signals the end of any low-hanging fruit era. But the take-home message remains that, those who wait for HMRC to contact them lose the ability to make a wholly voluntary disclosure and are therefore unable to secure the minimum FTC penalties (100%). Unfortunately, prompted FTC penalties start at 150%.

It is still a good time to review a client’s overseas activities, accounts and wealth to ensure UK taxes on investment income and gains are correctly calculated, disclosed and paid. We encourage seeking out specialist tax disclosures advice where there is a lack of experience in making them and handling corresponding inquiries, to secure the very best possible outcomes for our clients, based on robust knowledge about tax assessment rules regarding time limits, the various offshore penalty regimes that apply, and double taxation relief quirks.

Founded by ex-senior Tax Inspector Amit Puri, who boasts over ten years of direct experience at HM Revenue and Customs, Pure Tax Investigations is a tax investigation specialists boutique firm, offering expert Tax Investigations and Disputes, Business Enquiries and Disclosures support. Along with wider HMRC specialist support to their clients and their existing advisers, as well as some tax restructuring, estate planning and other tax advisory services.

Pure Tax Investigations has become renowned for its pragmatic, client-centric approach, offering clear and bespoke tax advice tailored to each client’s unique tax concerns and business aspirations. Utilising a wide range of local and international accounting and tax knowledge, the HMRC tax investigation specialists provide peace of mind and certainty to clients by ensuring HMRC is effectively managed.

Amit Puri, Pure Tax Investigations: +44 20 3757 5669 / info@pure-tax.com

DIY versus hiring a pro for dry rot repairs

It’s never a good feeling to find a soft spot on your deck rail or notice paint peeling off your porch trim. For homeowners in Sacramento, dry rot is a common problem that often goes unnoticed until damage is done. If you want a clear overview, the Sierra Blog explains the basics well. Dry rot is a type of wood decay caused by fungi that grow where there’s moisture and poor airflow. It might seem minor at first, but dry rot can quickly weaken wood and turn a small issue into a real safety concern.

The science behind dry rot is straightforward. The fungus, known as Serpula lacrymans, needs moisture, oxygen, and wood to thrive. It sends out thin strands called hyphae that break down the wood’s structure. As a result, the wood crumbles, turns brittle, and changes color. Dry rot usually appears in dark, damp places such as under decks, behind trim, or inside porch posts. You might notice wood shrinking or cracking, paint bubbling or peeling for no clear reason, or even a musty smell. Sometimes, all it takes is a small leak for dry rot to take hold and spread fast.

Finding these warning signs early is important. Quick action can mean a simple repair. If you wait, you may face the cost and trouble of replacing large sections of wood. Dry rot is not something to ignore or put off. Acting fast can save you both time and money, and help avoid bigger structural problems later. Knowing what dry rot looks like is the first step before deciding whether to handle repairs yourself or hire a professional.

DIY Dry Rot Repair

Fixing dry rot on your own can be both rewarding and a bit risky. Some homeowners enjoy rolling up their sleeves, especially if they already have the right tools. Others might want to save money or time, especially for small jobs. Sometimes, a repair is simple enough to handle without outside help – if you know what you’re facing.

When DIY Is Enough

Here’s a quick story. Last spring, a friend in Citrus Heights found a soft spot on a stair tread leading to his deck. The damage was limited and he spotted it early, before it spread. With a little research and a simple repair kit, he cut out the bad wood, treated the area, patched it, and finished in just a few hours. He was back to grilling that evening. The main reason it worked? He caught the problem early and kept the repair small. For minor, easy-to-see patches like this, handling it yourself often makes sense.

DIY Checklist

Quick Tip: If you can see exactly where the rot stops, the damage is not deep, and the spot isn’t holding up a roof or deck, you can probably fix it yourself. If you have any doubts, reach out to a professional.

The rotten patch is smaller than a dinner plate
The wood is not part of a support beam or main structure
No mold, mushrooms, or deep crumbling wood are visible
You can reach and remove all of the damaged area

Here are the basic steps for a typical DIY dry rot repair:

Find and mark the rotten wood
Cut away all damaged material
Treat the area around the cut with a wood hardener or fungicide
Patch the hole with new wood or epoxy filler
Prime, paint, or seal the area to prevent future damage

These repairs don’t require special training, but you do need to work carefully. Gather a saw, chisel, dust mask, gloves, and take your time. Missing hidden rot or rushing the job could end up causing more trouble down the road. If you find the damage spreading, see signs of trouble near supports, or uncover anything unexpected, it’s safer to stop and contact a professional. The next section explains exactly when that’s the best move.

The Case for Hiring a Pro

Many homeowners feel confident grabbing a hammer to tackle dry rot repairs. Sometimes, a quick fix works. Other times, that small soft spot turns into a much bigger problem. Dry rot often hides beneath the surface, spreading quietly for years. What looks minor on the outside can mean major trouble deeper in the structure.

Dry rot doesn’t care where it starts. It can eat through support beams, posts, and joists. If you fix only what you see and miss the hidden damage, you risk bigger repairs down the line. I once met someone who replaced a few deck boards on their own. The next year, the main support beam gave out. Moisture had spread, and they ended up needing a full rebuild. If they had called a professional right away, they could have fixed just the problem area and saved a lot of money and hassle.

There’s another layer to think about: building codes and warranties. In many cities, repairs to structural parts – like beams, joists, or stairs – must meet local codes. If the work isn’t up to standard, you could run into trouble when selling your home. Professionals know the rules and make sure repairs pass inspection. Most also offer a guarantee on their work, giving you extra protection if issues come up later. That peace of mind matters.

Red Flags That Need an Expert

If you notice any of these warning signs, it’s best to call a professional:

Dry rot shows up in support posts, beams, or joists (not just surface boards).
The deck sags, shifts, or feels bouncy when you walk on it.
Rot appears in hard-to-reach spots, like under stairs or behind siding.
You’re unsure how far the damage goes, or the affected area keeps growing.
The repair requires permits or inspections.

Trying to fix dry rot alone can easily turn a small repair into a major project. If you spot any of these red flags, or even just feel unsure, don’t risk it. A professional can find the real problem and fix it right the first time. Sometimes, the smartest choice is getting help from someone with the right experience.

Making the Right Choice

Choosing between fixing dry rot yourself or hiring a professional is often a balancing act. Think of it like spotting a stubborn stain on your shirt. You could try to fix it alone, but there’s always a risk of making things worse. The main things to consider are how much damage there is, your confidence with repairs, and how much risk you’re comfortable taking to save money.

If the dry rot is shallow, easy to reach, and you know your way around a chisel and some epoxy, trying it yourself can make sense. But if you see warning signs like crumbling wood, spreading soft spots, or anything from the earlier red flag list, it’s time to get help. Don’t ignore areas you can’t see or damage near stairs and railings. Safety comes first.

DIY repairs can save money and time, but only if the problem is small and you feel prepared. If anything feels off or the job seems bigger than you expected, reach out to a professional. Quick self-assessment helps: is this a simple patch or a bigger issue? When in doubt, ask for expert advice. The safest fix is the one that keeps your home strong and lets you spend your weekends doing things you actually enjoy. Listen to what the wood is telling you. If you aren’t sure, it’s always wiser to get help than to risk making the damage worse.

Call for Papers – 2026

📢 Call for Papers – 2026

International Journal of Research (IJR)

📧 Submit at: ijr@ijrjournal.com
🌐 Journal Website: https://www.ijrjournal.com

The International Journal of Research (IJR) invites original and high-quality research papers for publication in its 2026 issues. IJR is a peer-reviewed, open-access international journal committed to promoting multidisciplinary research and making scholarly knowledge accessible to researchers, academicians, professionals, and students across the globe.

🔍 About the Journal

The International Journal of Research (IJR) is a monthly, peer-reviewed academic journal that provides an inclusive platform for publishing original research articles, review papers, case studies, conceptual papers, and short communications. The journal follows a double-blind peer review process to ensure academic rigor, originality, and quality.

IJR strongly supports open-access publishing, allowing published articles to be freely accessible worldwide without subscription barriers.

📚 Scope of the Journal

IJR is multidisciplinary in nature and welcomes submissions from a wide range of academic and professional fields, including but not limited to:

Engineering and Technology
Architecture and Planning
Computer Science and Information Technology
Management and Commerce
Social Sciences and Humanities
Education and Psychology
Environmental Studies and Sustainability
Life Sciences and Agriculture
Health Sciences and Public Policy
Economics, Finance, and Development Studies

Interdisciplinary and applied research papers are highly encouraged.

✍️ Types of Papers Accepted

Original Research Articles
Review Papers
Case Studies
Conceptual and Theoretical Papers
Short Research Communications

All submissions must be original, unpublished, and not under consideration elsewhere.

💰 Publication Fee (APC)

To support affordable and inclusive academic publishing:

✅ Open Access Publication Fee: Only USD 10
✅ No submission fee
✅ No hidden charges

This minimal APC makes IJR one of the most affordable peer-reviewed open-access journals, especially beneficial for students, early-career researchers, and scholars from developing countries.

🧪 Peer Review & Ethics

Double-blind peer review
Plagiarism check before acceptance
Ethical publishing standards followed strictly
Constructive reviewer feedback provided

IJR aims for a fast yet rigorous review process without compromising publication quality.

📅 Important Dates

Submission Open: Ongoing (for 2026 issues)
Review Time: Short and efficient
Publication: Monthly issues throughout 2026

Early submissions are encouraged for priority review and publication.

📤 How to Submit

Authors are requested to send their manuscripts via email:

📧 ijr@ijrjournal.com

Include:

Manuscript (MS Word format)
Author details and affiliations
Declaration of originality

Detailed author guidelines are available on the journal website:
🌐 https://www.ijrjournal.com

🌍 Why Publish with IJR?

✔ Peer-reviewed international journal
✔ Open access for global visibility
✔ Very low APC (USD 10 only)
✔ Monthly publication
✔ Multidisciplinary scope
✔ DOI assignment and proper indexing process
✔ Supportive editorial team

📌 Submit your research and be part of the 2026 scholarly community of IJR.

For queries, feel free to contact: ijr@ijrjournal.com

We look forward to your valuable contributions!

Hummingbird Executive Launches a Secure Digital Hub for High-Net-Worth Individuals and Family Offices

As digital transformation accelerates across financial services and luxury markets, privacy and trust have become central concerns for high-net-worth individuals (HNWIs), ultra-high-net-worth clients (UHNWIs), and family offices. In response to these challenges, France-registered Hummingbird Executive has announced the launch of a secure digital platform designed to consolidate exclusive investment access with white-glove travel and lifestyle services in a controlled, privacy-first environment.

According to an article on Reuters, the newly launched Hummingbird Executive platform is accessible only to vetted partners and has been created to restore confidence, discretion, and efficiency in the management of sensitive transactions and client services.

Addressing Privacy Gaps in High-Value Transactions

High-net-worth individuals and family offices frequently operate across borders, asset classes, and service providers. Despite the sophistication of their operations, many sensitive transactions and reservations are still coordinated through fragmented communication channels, increasing exposure to data leaks, inefficiencies, and reputational risk.

Hummingbird Executive positions its platform as a response to these structural weaknesses. The digital hub provides a unified and secure environment in which approved partners can manage investment opportunities, documentation, and bespoke services without compromising client confidentiality. Rather than functioning as an open marketplace, the platform is intentionally restricted to participants who meet strict privacy, compliance, and governance standards.

This selective architecture reflects a broader shift in wealth management toward closed ecosystems built on long-term trust rather than scale-driven access.

Platform Architecture and Core Capabilities

At its core, the Hummingbird Executive platform combines secure communication, transaction coordination, and service orchestration. Approved partners are able to discreetly explore off-market investment opportunities while maintaining direct control over client data and identity.

Key platform functions include:

Access to curated investment products and off-market assets
Direct engagement with asset owners, legal advisors, and vetted professionals
Secure handling of documentation and communications under defined privacy protocols

By minimizing unnecessary intermediaries, the platform allows family offices and partner firms to streamline workflows while preserving discretion — a critical requirement for UHNW clients.

Guillaume Nardini, head of white-glove services at Hummingbird Executive, highlighted that the platform was designed to counter the growing reliance on unsecured tools in high-stakes environments. He noted that trusted partners can now deliver elevated services without sacrificing control over sensitive information.

Integration of White-Glove Travel and Lifestyle Services

Beyond investment and transaction management, Hummingbird Executive integrates a comprehensive suite of global travel and lifestyle services. These offerings are designed to complement financial operations by addressing the personal and logistical needs of high-net-worth clients through a single, coordinated interface.

Partners may extend these services to their clients, which include:

End-to-end travel arrangements, from commercial flights and private aviation to yachts, luxury hotels, and private villas
Lifestyle and concierge services, such as fine dining access, bespoke event planning, and local on-the-ground support
Centralized in-app communication for managing complex itineraries and individual requests through a single point of contact

Importantly, these services are delivered within the partner’s own relationship framework. This ensures that firms retain ownership of the client experience while leveraging Hummingbird Executive’s operational network and expertise.

Selectivity, Governance, and Partner Qualification

Access to the Hummingbird Executive platform is granted strictly by invitation or qualification. Prospective partners undergo a screening process that evaluates their commitment to confidentiality, regulatory compliance, and long-term relationship management.

This governance model is intended to foster a trusted ecosystem in which all stakeholders — including asset owners, family offices, and service providers — operate under shared standards of discretion and accountability. By limiting participation, the platform reduces operational risk while enhancing collaboration among vetted participants.

Such selectivity aligns with the expectations of high-net-worth clients, for whom privacy is not a feature but a foundational requirement.

Market Context and Strategic Relevance

The launch of Hummingbird Executive’s digital hub comes amid growing demand for secure, integrated solutions in wealth management and luxury services. Family offices increasingly seek platforms that can unify financial, lifestyle, and operational needs without exposing sensitive data across multiple vendors.

At the same time, regulatory scrutiny and cybersecurity concerns have intensified. These pressures have accelerated the adoption of purpose-built digital environments that prioritize data protection and controlled access over convenience-driven openness.

By combining technology, curated access, and concierge-level service delivery, Hummingbird Executive positions itself at the intersection of wealth management, private markets, and lifestyle orchestration — a segment characterized by high expectations and limited tolerance for risk.

Implications for Family Offices and UHNW Clients

For family offices, the platform offers a potential solution to long-standing coordination challenges. Centralized access to investment opportunities and services reduces operational complexity while supporting governance and reporting requirements.

For UHNW clients, the value proposition lies in discretion and continuity. By operating within a closed ecosystem, clients benefit from consistent service standards and reduced exposure to external threats, regardless of geography or asset type.

Conclusion

Hummingbird Executive’s secure digital hub represents an attempt to redefine how high-net-worth services are delivered in an increasingly interconnected yet risk-sensitive environment. Through selective access, integrated capabilities, and a strong emphasis on privacy, the platform addresses critical gaps in existing service models.

As demand for trust-based digital infrastructure continues to grow, solutions that prioritize discretion, governance, and long-term relationships are likely to play an expanding role in the global high-net-worth landscape.

Modernity and the Subaltern Experience in the Works of Kiran Desai, Arundhati Roy, and Aravind Adiga

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Citation

Yadav, P. (2026). Modernity and the Subaltern Experience in the Works of Kiran Desai, Arundhati Roy, and Aravind Adiga. International Journal of Research, 12(12), 689–694. https://doi.org/10.26643/rb.v118i1.7254

Priyanka Yadav

Research Scholar

Dept. of English, J. P. University, Chapra

Abstract

The emergence of modernity in postcolonial India has generated complex social, economic, and cultural transformations that have significantly influenced the lives of marginalized communities. Indian English fiction has played a crucial role in representing these changes by foregrounding the voices of the subaltern and interrogating dominant narratives of progress and development. This paper examines the representation of modernity and the subaltern experience in the selected works of Kiran Desai, Arundhati Roy, and Aravind Adiga. Through a close reading of The Inheritance of Loss, The God of Small Things, and The White Tiger, this study explores how these writers depict the tensions between tradition and modernity, privilege and deprivation, power and resistance. Drawing upon postcolonial theory, subaltern studies, and sociological perspectives, the paper argues that these novelists present modernity as a contradictory force that simultaneously promises mobility and perpetuates inequality. The protagonists and marginalized characters in these works negotiate their identities within oppressive social structures shaped by class, caste, gender, and global capitalism. By highlighting lived experiences of exclusion and aspiration, Desai, Roy, and Adiga challenge hegemonic representations of Indian modernity and create alternative narratives that foreground subaltern agency. This comparative analysis demonstrates that contemporary Indian English fiction serves as a powerful medium for critiquing social injustice and reimagining inclusive forms of development.

Keywords: Modernity, Subaltern Studies, Indian English Fiction, Marginality, Postcolonial Literature, Power, Globalization, Social Inequality

Introduction

The concept of modernity occupies a central position in discussions of postcolonial societies, particularly in the context of developing nations such as India. Modernity is often associated with industrialization, urbanization, technological advancement, education, and global integration. However, in postcolonial settings, modernity is rarely experienced uniformly. Instead, it is marked by uneven development, social stratification, and persistent forms of marginalization. While certain sections of society benefit from economic liberalization and globalization, large segments continue to remain excluded from opportunities and resources. This uneven distribution of power and privilege has generated a complex social reality in which traditional hierarchies coexist with modern institutions.

Indian English literature has consistently engaged with these contradictions. Contemporary novelists have explored how modernity shapes individual lives and collective identities, particularly among marginalized communities. The subaltern, a term popularized by the Subaltern Studies Group and theorists such as Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, refers to those social groups who are excluded from political representation and cultural dominance. These groups include the rural poor, lower castes, women, migrant workers, and other disenfranchised communities. Their voices are often silenced within dominant historical and literary narratives.

Kiran Desai, Arundhati Roy, and Aravind Adiga belong to a generation of writers who have critically examined the impact of modernity on Indian society. Their novels reflect the anxieties, aspirations, and struggles of individuals located at the margins of power. Through innovative narrative techniques and socially engaged storytelling, these writers interrogate the myth of progress and expose the human costs of development. This paper seeks to analyze how modernity is represented in The Inheritance of Loss, The God of Small Things, and The White Tiger, and how the subaltern experience is articulated within these narratives.

By adopting a comparative approach, this study aims to highlight both common concerns and distinctive perspectives in the works of these authors. It argues that while Desai emphasizes emotional displacement and cultural alienation, Roy foregrounds caste and gender oppression, and Adiga focuses on class conflict and economic exploitation. Together, their writings provide a multidimensional critique of contemporary Indian modernity.

Theoretical Framework: Modernity and Subaltern Studies

Theoretical discussions of modernity in postcolonial contexts emphasize its ambivalent nature. Scholars such as Partha Chatterjee and Homi Bhabha have argued that postcolonial modernity differs significantly from its Western counterpart. It emerges within conditions of colonial domination and economic dependency, resulting in hybrid social formations. Modern institutions such as democracy, education, and capitalism coexist with feudal structures, patriarchal values, and caste hierarchies. As a result, modernity becomes a site of conflict rather than consensus.

Subaltern Studies, initiated in the 1980s by scholars like Ranajit Guha, sought to recover the voices of marginalized groups from elite historiography. This approach challenged nationalist and colonial narratives that ignored popular resistance and everyday struggles. Spivak’s influential question, “Can the Subaltern Speak?”, further problematized the representation of marginalized voices in academic and literary discourse. She argued that even well-intentioned intellectuals often appropriate subaltern experiences, thereby reinforcing power structures.

In literary studies, the subaltern perspective has encouraged critics to examine how marginalized characters are portrayed and whether they possess narrative agency. The intersection of modernity and subalternity reveals how development projects, globalization, and urban expansion often displace traditional communities and exacerbate inequalities. Literature becomes a crucial space for articulating these tensions and contesting dominant ideologies.

This paper draws upon postcolonial theory, subaltern studies, and sociological insights to analyze how Desai, Roy, and Adiga represent marginalized lives. It considers narrative voice, characterization, spatial settings, and symbolic imagery as key elements through which modernity and subalternity are negotiated.

Modernity and Displacement in Kiran Desai’s The Inheritance of Loss

Kiran Desai’s The Inheritance of Loss presents a nuanced exploration of globalization, migration, and cultural alienation. Set in the Himalayan town of Kalimpong and interspersed with scenes from the United States, the novel portrays characters caught between local traditions and global aspirations. The narrative foregrounds emotional and psychological dimensions of marginalization rather than overt political resistance.

The character of Biju, an undocumented immigrant in America, represents the transnational subaltern. His journey reflects the disillusionment of many migrants who seek economic mobility but encounter exploitation and isolation. Working in restaurant kitchens under harsh conditions, Biju remains invisible within the host society. His experience exposes the darker side of globalization, where labor mobility benefits corporations while dehumanizing workers.

In India, characters such as Sai and Gyan grapple with identity crises shaped by colonial legacies and modern education. The judge, Jemubhai Patel, embodies internalized colonialism. Educated in England, he despises his native culture and family, resulting in emotional repression and social withdrawal. His alienation illustrates how modernity, mediated through colonial institutions, can produce self-denial and cultural dislocation.

The Gorkhaland movement depicted in the novel highlights regional marginalization and political unrest. Insurgent youth challenge state authority, reflecting frustrations arising from economic neglect and cultural invisibility. However, Desai presents this resistance as fragmented and emotionally charged rather than ideologically coherent.

Through these narratives, Desai portrays modernity as a force that fragments identities and intensifies feelings of loss. The subaltern in her novel is characterized by vulnerability, displacement, and longing. While her characters rarely achieve structural transformation, their emotional struggles reveal the human consequences of uneven development.

Caste, Gender, and Subaltern Resistance in Arundhati Roy’s The God of Small Things

Arundhati Roy’s The God of Small Things offers a powerful critique of social hierarchies rooted in caste, gender, and class. Set in Kerala, the novel examines how rigid social norms regulate individual desires and perpetuate inequality. Roy situates her narrative within both local traditions and broader political contexts, including communism and globalization.

Velutha, an Untouchable carpenter, represents the most marginalized figure in the novel. Despite his technical skills and political awareness, he remains excluded from social mobility due to caste discrimination. His relationship with Ammu violates social codes and triggers brutal repression. Velutha’s death symbolizes the violent silencing of subaltern aspirations that challenge hegemonic structures.

Ammu’s marginalization as a divorced woman further illustrates gendered oppression. Her lack of economic independence and social status exposes her vulnerability within patriarchal systems. Although educated and emotionally resilient, she is denied dignity and autonomy. Her tragic fate reflects the limitations imposed on women within both traditional and modern frameworks.

The twin protagonists, Estha and Rahel, experience psychological trauma resulting from social conflict and familial breakdown. Their fragmented identities reflect the broader disintegration of social cohesion under modern pressures. Roy employs a non-linear narrative structure to mirror this fragmentation and to challenge conventional storytelling modes.

Roy’s political engagement distinguishes her approach from Desai’s more introspective style. She foregrounds collective injustice and structural violence, emphasizing the need for social transformation. By centering the narrative on marginalized voices, Roy enables the subaltern to speak, even if temporarily, through literary representation.

Modernity in Roy’s novel is associated with consumerism, political corruption, and cultural erosion. Yet, she also gestures toward alternative forms of solidarity and resistance. Love, memory, and storytelling emerge as subversive forces that contest dominant power relations.

Class Conflict and Economic Exploitation in Aravind Adiga’s The White Tiger

Aravind Adiga’s The White Tiger presents a stark portrayal of neoliberal India characterized by extreme economic disparities. Through the voice of Balram Halwai, the novel exposes the brutal realities of class exploitation and social immobility. Adiga adopts a confessional narrative style that allows the subaltern protagonist to narrate his own story.

Balram originates from the “Darkness,” a metaphor for rural poverty and systemic neglect. His early life is marked by deprivation, child labor, and lack of educational opportunities. Despite his intelligence, structural barriers prevent his upward mobility. The novel thus critiques meritocratic myths associated with modern capitalism.

Working as a driver for a wealthy family, Balram witnesses corruption, hypocrisy, and moral decay among elites. His employers embody the contradictions of modernity, combining Westernized lifestyles with feudal attitudes. They benefit from globalization while perpetuating exploitation.

Balram’s eventual act of murder and theft represents a radical form of resistance. By becoming an entrepreneur through criminal means, he breaks free from servitude. However, his success raises ethical questions. Adiga does not romanticize violence but presents it as a product of systemic injustice. The “rooster coop” metaphor illustrates how social conditioning prevents collective rebellion among the poor.

Unlike Desai’s passive sufferers and Roy’s tragic rebels, Adiga’s protagonist actively reshapes his destiny, albeit through morally ambiguous methods. His voice is assertive, ironic, and confrontational. This narrative strategy challenges elite literary conventions and foregrounds subaltern consciousness.

Modernity in The White Tiger is depicted as ruthless competition. Economic growth benefits a small minority while marginalizing millions. Adiga exposes how democracy and capitalism fail to deliver social justice, thereby questioning dominant development paradigms.

Comparative Analysis: Convergences and Divergences

A comparative reading of these novels reveals significant thematic convergences. All three authors critique the myth of inclusive progress and highlight the persistence of inequality. Their narratives expose how modern institutions reinforce existing hierarchies rather than dismantling them. Globalization, urbanization, and education emerge as double-edged forces that offer opportunities to some while marginalizing others.

At the same time, each writer adopts a distinct perspective. Desai emphasizes emotional displacement and cultural hybridity, portraying marginalization as a condition of existential uncertainty. Roy foregrounds caste and gender oppression, presenting subalternity as structurally embedded and violently enforced. Adiga focuses on economic exploitation and class conflict, depicting subaltern resistance in aggressive and pragmatic terms.

Narrative strategies also differ significantly. Desai employs lyrical prose and multiple perspectives to convey fragmentation. Roy uses experimental structure and symbolic imagery to challenge linear history. Adiga adopts a satirical and confessional voice to provoke readers. These stylistic choices shape how subaltern experiences are represented and interpreted.

In terms of agency, Desai’s characters remain largely constrained, Roy’s characters resist but are defeated, and Adiga’s protagonist succeeds through transgression. This variation reflects different ideological positions regarding the possibility of social change. Together, these narratives suggest that subaltern agency is contingent, fragile, and often compromised.

Conclusion

The works of Kiran Desai, Arundhati Roy, and Aravind Adiga provide insightful critiques of modernity and its impact on marginalized communities in postcolonial India. Through diverse narrative techniques and thematic concerns, these authors expose the contradictions of development and globalization. Their novels reveal how modernity, instead of ensuring social mobility and equality, often reproduces structures of exclusion.

By foregrounding subaltern experiences, these writers challenge dominant representations of Indian progress. They emphasize lived realities of poverty, discrimination, and displacement that remain invisible in official discourse. At the same time, their narratives explore possibilities of resistance, whether through emotional resilience, political dissent, or radical self-assertion.

This study demonstrates that contemporary Indian English fiction functions as a vital space for negotiating questions of power, identity, and justice. Desai, Roy, and Adiga not only document social realities but also reshape literary conventions to accommodate marginalized voices. Their works invite readers to reconsider prevailing notions of success and development and to imagine more inclusive forms of modernity.

In an era marked by rapid economic change and persistent inequality, these novels remain profoundly relevant. They remind us that true progress cannot be measured solely by material growth but must be evaluated in terms of human dignity, social equity, and ethical responsibility.

Works Cited

Adiga, Aravind. The White Tiger. HarperCollins, 2008.

Ashcroft, Bill, Gareth Griffiths, and Helen Tiffin. The Empire Writes Back: Theory and Practice in Post-Colonial Literatures. 2nd ed., Routledge, 2002.

Bhabha, Homi K. The Location of Culture. Routledge, 1994.

Chatterjee, Partha. The Nation and Its Fragments: Colonial and Postcolonial Histories. Princeton UP, 1993.

Desai, Kiran. The Inheritance of Loss. Hamish Hamilton, 2006.

Guha, Ranajit. Dominance without Hegemony: History and Power in Colonial India. Harvard UP, 1997.

Nayar, Pramod K. Postcolonial Literature: An Introduction. Pearson, 2008.

Roy, Arundhati. The God of Small Things. IndiaInk, 1997.

Spivak, Gayatri Chakravorty. “Can the Subaltern Speak?” Marxism and the Interpretation of Culture, edited by Cary Nelson and Lawrence Grossberg, U of Illinois P, 1988, pp. 271–313.

Thiong’o, Ngũgĩ wa. Decolonising the Mind: The Politics of Language in African Literature. Heinemann, 1986.

Young, Robert J. C. Postcolonialism: An Historical Introduction. Blackwell, 2001.

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