Olakunle Michael Folami

 Abstract

The rate at which computer and Information and Communication Technology (ICT) are mobilized to perpetrate crime in Nigeria is becoming worrisome. The amounts of money lose to the activities of fraudsters adopting sophisticated methods of defrauding banks and people surpass that of traditional ways of fraudulent activities. With the introduction of ATM in Nigeria, banks have set another pace for unprecedented fraudulent activities. This study is anchored on Edwin Sutherland’s Social Differentiation Theory. Those who engage in fraudulent acts learn the techniques and methods from those they associate and interact with. The study employed the use of secondary data and in-depth interview methods. The secondary data were obtained from Nigerian Deposit Insurance Corporation annual reports for the period of five years and in-depth interviews were conducted with ten (10 ) bank chief inspectors. It was found out that amount of money lose to fraudsters through the ICT is far above the amount associated with traditional methods of committing fraud in the banking industry. Different methods of defrauding banks were revealed in this study. This paper therefore, recommended good centralized networking of computer systems, employment of professional police officers who specialized in fraud detection in banks, and regular rotation of staff and duties were also recommended in this study.

 

 Introduction

Technology is invented for the positive manipulation of social, economic, political and physical environments by man. Technological inventions came with both manifest and latent functions (Brown and Duguid, 2006; Baase 2003; and Erlbuam 1997). The manifest function of ICT is to provide support for human activities. Baase (2003) says computers have made unprecedented impacts on society. It is essential for the smooth running of day-to-day activities. Most of the things we do at work and at home as a matter of routine could not run without the use of computers, whether it is for accessing major databases, online shopping or playing a simple game of Solitaire.

The manipulation of bank activities through computer, and information and communication technology (ICT) to defraud the public made examination into the latent function of technological revolution (Mobbs, 2003). According to Ojimba (2006), when computer was invented, the intention of its inventors is to hasten data processing with effortless ease. That it has been doing efficiently by giving timely and accurate information. But like other mechanical and/ or electrical electronics devices, it has equally lent itself to manipulation. What is meant to assist in daily data operations has turned out to be an undoing. While basking in the euphoria of its efficiency, banks in Nigeria are now grappling with the fraudulent manipulations of computer and ICT. It is like a mixed blessing combining the bright and dark sides. Over the times, it has turned to a servile tool of fraud when banks and other organizations began to be computerized over two decades ago in Nigeria.  The inability of bank management to control manipulations, frauds, and forgeries in bank through computer and ICT gives constitute a major challenge to the banking operation in Nigeria. Since computer fraud is carried out over a period of time, a minor one at the initial stage snowballs into a sizeable one over a period of time (The Nation, 2008).

The emergence of ‘Yahoo boys’, the hackers in the anal of the nation economic and financial crimes make banking operations through computer and ICT more problematic. Computer and ICTs enhance the ability of the scammers with effortless ease to defraud banks.  Yahoo boys surf and hack the Internet to perpetrate scam in banks. They work hand-in-hand with bank staff to get access to bank data. In the last ten years, cases of computer-aided frauds in the banks have been on the increase with each year recording staggering figures (Baase, 2003). This paper therefore, aims to examine method by which computer and ICT is used to manipulate banks activities in Nigeria. It also examines the impacts of computer and ICT crime on the banks in Nigeria. The paper identifies what could be done to stem the phenomenon of bank frauds in Nigeria. The manipulation of banking operation by using computer and ICT is learned through association with other bank staff that exposed to illegal operations. There is a significant difference between the amount involved with the traditional method of defrauding banks and the use of computer and ICTs in Nigeria. Computer, and ICTs usage without proper security backup and checks in banks in Nigeria enhance fraudulent practices. This paper argues that banking fraud through computer and ICT can be reduced through association with banking staff that are exposed to a strong work ethics. The paper is divided into four sections: first, leaning the technique of banking fraud; second, fraudulent operations in banks; methods of examining computer and ICT frauds in banking sector; and finally, findings and conclusion.

 

Learning the Technique of Banking Fraud

This study is situated in Differential Association Theory by Edwin Sunderland (1947) to explain the experience as bank staffers that work with computer and ICT on daily basis. Sutherland’s theory departs from the pathological and biological perspectives that attributing crime to the social context of individuals only. The theory rejected biological determinism, the extreme individualism of psychiatry, as well as economic explanations of computer and ICT related crime in the banking sector. The theory provides for an alternative understanding of computer and ICT related crime that through the development of association paradigm. In contrast to both classical and biological theories, Differential Association Theory poses no obvious threats to the humane treatment of those identified as criminals. (Gaylord, 1988)

The Sutherland’s theory of differential association has nine principles:

1. Criminal behavior is learned.
2. Criminal behavior is learned in interaction with other persons in a process of communication.
3. The principal part of the learning of criminal behavior occurs within intimate personal groups.
4. When criminal behavior is learned, the learning includes techniques of committing the crime (which are sometimes very complicated, sometimes simple) and the specific direction of motives, drives, rationalizations, and attitudes.
5. The specific direction of motives and drives is learned from definitions of the legal codes as favorable or unfavorable.
6. A person becomes delinquent because of an excess of definitions favorable to violation of law over definitions unfavorable to violation of the law.
7. Differential associations may vary in frequency, duration, priority, and intensity.
8. The process of learning criminal behavior by association with criminal and anti-criminal patterns involves all of the mechanisms that are involved in any other learning.
9. While criminal behavior is an expression of general needs and values, it is not explained by those needs and values, since non-criminal behavior is an expression of the same needs and values.

An important aspect of differential association theory is the frequency and intensity of interaction. The amount of time that a person is exposed to a particular definition and at what point the interaction began are both crucial for explaining criminal activity (Boundless Sociology, n.d). The process of learning criminal behavior is really not any different from the process involved in learning any other type of behavior. Sutherland maintains that there is no unique learning process associated with acquiring non-normative ways of behaving (Boundless Sociology, n.d).  The principle of differential association states that a person becomes delinquent because of an “excess” of definitions favourable to violation of law over definitions unfavourable to violation of law. In other word, criminal behaviour emerges when one is exposed to more social message favouring conduct than pro-social messages (Sutherland, 1947). Sutherland argues that the concept of differential association and differential social organization could be applied to the individual and to aggregation (or group) levels. While differential association theory explains why any individual gravitates toward criminal behaviour Differential social organization explains why crime rates of different social period in the history of banking sector in the Nigeria different from each other. Edwin Sutherland’s Differential Association Theory opens a thoughtful provoking argument on the manipulation of computer and ICT to perpetrate crime in the banking sector. Sutherland suggests that the distinction between law breakers and the law abiding lies not in their personal make-up but in the content of what they learned. Computer and ICT crime, just as other white-collar criminality is learned; computer and ICT manipulation to defraud bank is learned through direct or indirect association with those who are practicing the act; those who learn this criminal behaviour are in frequent and close contact with perpetrators. ‘If you are not verse in computer usage, you cannot use it to defraud bank and manipulate money (Folami, 2000)

 

 

 

 

Fraudulent Operations in the Banking Sector

 

Mega Bank came with the introduction of Automate Teller Machine (ATM)  to banking operations in Nigeria in 2005. Jalingo (2004) says most computer frauds are usually done with the aid of insiders. A particular instance was a case in which the account of a customer in a commercial bank was credited with a large amount that fell short of his actual balance. The fraudulent account credited was done by a computer operator in the bank. Onoh (2000) said that computer crime in the banking system is very much with us and it now comes in its most sophisticate forms than ever before. Thus, the computer has the two sides of the coin and can prove to be a double edge sword. Computer fraud are in different types and forms. An example is defrauding a bank using a genuine account of an employee who is a defrauder. Another one is through the use of fictitious account; also, fraud is carried out with the aid of an employee’s friend. Similarly this act is sometimes done using an account of a third party that depends on an employee-insider to perpetrate the crime. Computer crime can and almost certainly will render obsolete the traditional type of physical large-scale robbery involving banks, bank managers and security vans (see Parker, 1997)

According to Aluko-Olokun (2000) the majority of fraudulent act committed in the banking sector are usually committed through the use of cheque while few others are by cash theft and electronics transfer, and lately through computer manipulation. Negotiable securities will be stored magnetically and electronically as data inside computer and transmitted over communication circuits from one computer to another. Perpetrators of security theft will use the skills, knowledge, and access associated with computer and data communication technology. For example, the Inner London Crown court sentenced one Olaide Taiwo, to eight-and-a-half year imprisonment for stealing the identities of 350 people to claim £1.3million in bogus tax credits in the largest benefit scam of its kind. Olaide Taiwo, 35, hijacked the identities while working as a security guard for a number of large national companies. He then used the names to claim tens of thousands in working tax credits (Camber, 2011). Another example is a hacker that manipulated computer to perpetrate economic crimes. Abayomi Aje, a repentant scammer said that many people desperate for love and affection especially in Europe and North America have had their fingers badly burnt with Nigerian internet fraudsters having a great feast on them. He explained the ‘Modus Operandi’ thus: ‘Each person has as many as six women at a time. We would search through dating websites such as Yahoo personals, match.com and singlenet.com and create an account, usually with stolen credit cards’. The women are in most cases, desperate to get a man in her life. For those who are being difficult, you send a gift on a weekend with some nicely worded card. Once the victim has fallen in love, the next thing is to tell her you are going on a short business trip to any part of the world. You call the victim and are romantic with her on the phone. Then, after some days, you ask her for money giving her some sob story, like you were robbed or forget your money. ‘She will either agree to send the money or, if she is ready gullible, she will clear the money or money order for you. She may also be asked to receive wire transfers into her bank account’. Do you think this is possible without the connivance of bankers? No, he retorted.

 

It is important to examine types of frauds in order to properly situate this study in the literature. Types of computer and ICT crime is any type of act distinctly associated with computer or data manipulation in which victim involuntarily suffer or could have suffer losses, injuries or damage or in which perpetrator receive or could have received gain is refer to as a  computer crime (Economic and Financial Crime Commission 2003). The types of computer and computer related crimes include first, computer-aided fraud and embezzlement. This is automated version of the good fashion manual fraud or embezzlement that has been going on for centuries by unscrupulous employees. Skilled data processing professionals usually perpetrate this type of computer fraud. However, if a user knows the system, a non- computer employee can pull off the fraud. Second, salami technique

This is consist of reducing either by a slight change in certain programme or by inserting extra instruction into programme interest bearing account by a couple of pennies or even fractions when calculating interest/dividends. Electronics data processing auditors are the ones who have sufficient skill and access to financial application to put off computer crime. Third, trojan horse. This type of computer aided crime which consists of covertly inserting unauthorized instruction into a production programme might be done to achieve material gain. System programmers/ analysts, computer operators and end users are possible perpetrators. Fourth, time (or Logic) Bomb (or Trap Door) involves in converting instruments are written and inserted into a production programs or files, or cause application software, such as payroll to or account receivable, or the whole system to crash. A time bomb is almost impossible to detect or prevent and it is almost impossible to catch the person who devise it because a clever programmer can write the instruments so that when the bomb erase the target program application or system, it destroy itself as well. Fifth, a computer virus or worm program has the capacity of instantaneously cloning a copy of it burying that copy inside other program just before it erases programs or an application, and just before it destroys itself. Perpetrators are outsiders, hackers as well as inside people such as data processing professional. Sixth, scavenging is a method of obtaining data or information by searching trash cans of banks, data processing departments, this is called physical scavenging. There are also electronics scavenging that involves searching for residual data left in a computer. Potential perpetrators are janitor, ground keepers, outsiders and DP professional or user. Seventh, data Manipulation

This is simply adding prior to or during the process of entering data into the computer system. The modus operandi of data manipulation is adding fictitious claims or account, and sending the claims clerks or clerks for the account payable amounts to the fictitious account. Potential perpetrators are anybody from programmer/analysts, computer operators, data entry operators, to end users. Eight, software piracy involves copying or theft of proprietary computer software and/or raw data or information. Moreover, if the criminal just copied the valuable software or sensitive data, it is almost impossible to detect the crime because the original software or data remains on the disk or tape, or in the computer. Experience programmers or EDP analysts, programmer/analysts, system programmers or EDP auditors are potential perpetrators.

 

Method of Examining Computer and ICT Fraud 

This study was carried out in Lagos State, Nigeria. Lagos State, the commercial nerve center of the nation housed the headquarters of the twenty-four major banks in Nigeria, excluding micro finance banks. The data used for the analyses in this study were collected immediately after the Obasanjo’s administrative bank reform agenda which ushered in a new era of bank system in Nigeria.

Before the advent of mega banks in Nigeria, there were two thousand, three hundred and seventy four (2,374) insured commercial and merchant banks with one hundred and fifteen (115) head offices nationwide. Lagos, accounts for five hundred and thirty seven (537) commercial and merchant banks branches, and ninety seven (97) head offices, the highest in the country. (NDIC, 2006). With the reform of the nation’s banking sector in 2005, Nigeria now has twenty five mega banks (see www.cenbank.org).

Technique of Data Collection

Secondary data used in this study were collected from the cases of fraud reported to the Nigeria Deposit Insurance Corporation (NDIC) by all the insured commercial and merchant banks in Nigeria between 2006 and 2008. The qualitative method was predominantly in-depth interviews. The interviews were carried out among ten (10) Bank Chief Inspectors, and six (06) Assistant Director/Director Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN). The commercial and merchant banks chosen were the ones with the highest number of reported cases of fraud. The limitation of secondary data in this study is that methods and ways of perpetrating different forms of fraud were not highlighted. This however, necessitated the use of qualitative technique to address these shortcomings.

Analysis of Data

Descriptive analysis was employed to analyze data collected through the secondary source. The qualitative data were subjected to thematic analysis. Comprehensive inferences and conclusions were drawn from the analysis.

 

Results and Conclusion

The returns of insured banks on fraud and forgeries were analyzed. The periods span between 2007 and 2008. Each year is divided into quarters to provide basis for how intense phenomenon of bank frauds is in Nigeria.

 

An exorbitant amount of money, about 55billion lost to fraudsters within this period. As shown in the table, there was a total of 2,007 reported cases of attempted frauds and forgeries involving over 53.0 billion in 2008 compared with 1,553 reported cases of frauds and forgeries involving =N=10.01 billion in year 2007. The expected loss components of the reported cases of frauds and forgeries, that is, those whose probability of recovery was low as well as those not frauds and forgeries in insured banks in 2008. The chunk of this amount was processed through computer and ICTs.

The slight reduction in the amount of returns on fraud by both the insured commercial and merchant banks in 2007 might due to the fact that most of the affected banks preferred not to report the incidences to the Nigeria Deposit Insurance Corporation (NDIC). Vanguard, (2008) reported that the incidence of 72 million computer fraud which was perpetrated in the United  Bank of Africa (UBA) in 2008 was not reported by the authority of the bank to the NDIC. A participant in in-depth interviews when commenting on the incidence of fraud in the banks said:

The introduction of electronics device like computer to process activities in banks has increased the level of crime in the banking sector. According to him, computer as we know is ‘Garbage in Garbage out’. Many bank staff have used computer to manipulate accounts. Of recent, computer related frauds have been on the increase. Though, it has its own advantages but it has contributed in no small measure to huge rate of bank fraud. An example was a fraud detected recently in one of our branches was there was a fraud of about #80 million. The fraud was perpetrated through the means of computer which involved a group of staff.

 

Manipulation of banks through computer and ICT has heavy burden on banks. It involves large amount of money. The reported cases of bank fraud increases yearly as bank staffers were exposed to ICT. Immediate anti-fraud mechanism should have been introduced to stem the trend.

The secondary data shows the distribution of banks’ members of staff that involved in fraudulent practices between 2003 and 2008. Table 3 above shows the status and number of banks’ staff involved in frauds and forgeries in the past three years. A total of 313 members of staff of banks were reported to be involved in frauds and forgeries in 2008, an increase of about 14.65% when compared with the previous year’s figure of 273. Of the total, core operations staff such as supervisors, officers, accountants, managers, executive assistants, clerks and cashiers totalled 223, thus accounting for about 71.25 percent. That represented a decrease of 4.57 percentage points relative to the 2007 position.  Bank frauds increased among the staff that have access to computer and involved in electronics money transfer. Other categories are messengers, cleaners/security guards 7(21.11 percent) that were involved in fraud in various banks between 2006 and 2008. Frauds and forgeries were also common among temporary staff 165 (53.95) between 2006 and 2008.

The above findings are corroborated by the in-depth interviews conducted with some bankers in the selected banks:

The introduction of electronics devices like computer to process activities     in the banks has some negative effects. The idea of information technology is a very challenging one. What is designed to serve human beings has become the enemy of human beings’ (Emokpae, an Assistant Director (Examination).

However, electronics machine such as computer has helped tremendously to quicken bank operations and made crime detection in banks very easy.

 

Electronics machine in banks has assisted operations in banks a lot. No matter its shortcomings, computer functions in the bank are indispensable. It has helped a lot in speedy international money transfer.

Detection and Prevention of Computer and ICT Related Crimes

The influence of sophisticated machines like electronic fund transfer, computer etcetera on bank fraud is very significant. Aluko-Olokun (2000) said that majority of fraud committed in the banking sector are usually committed through electronics transfer and computer manipulation. Computer technology is an imported sophisticated and complex way of defrauding banks in Nigeria today. Computer crime takes the form of computer aided fraud and embezzlement, Salami technique, Trojan horse, Time bomb, Virus and Worm, Scavenging, Data manipulation and Software privacy. To prevent computer and ICT fraud, better networking and routine check of money transfer and transactions would frustrate the fraudsters. A bank chief Inspector explained:

 

The best weapon to fight ICT fraud is better information collection, exchange and use of intelligence. Prevention can range from in-house remedies such as greater supervision; the inscription of the information traveling between computer to prevent computer fraud; to tighten control on financial markets; and of course, the exchange of information about new developments.

A participant said that human supervision of ICT high waves can bring incidence of ICT manipulation to the barest minimum.

 

Effective control is the most potent antidote against fraud. He stressed that, you must to have effective control measure in place; you must have effective inspectorate team in your bank, so that whenever there are things going wrong, the Chief Inspector will be able to detect the flaws and ensures the control measures are effective.

Another participant added to ways by which computer and ICT fraud can be reduced in the Nigerian Banking sector.

             

ICT should be subjected to a high level of security consciousness to guard against improper use, that is posting and diversion. He said the more computerization the banking system, the easier it will be for inspection. It will be possible to stay in Lagos and monitor accounts throughout the country, if all branches are hooked up on high waves.

The idea that human elements in the incidence of banking fraud through computer and ICT can be minimized provided there are effective control measures in place. However, no one is immune to bank fraud. As earlier mentioned in the literature, whatever you garbage into computer, you get garbage as a result.

 

Conclusion

Computer and other information and communication technology have now become major instruments to defraud banks in Nigeria. Fraud is a fast growing menace in the nation’s banking system. Fraud in the banking industry has been deteriorating as hardly a day passed without the public being informed about some form of fraud in one bank or the other which involved staff, non-staff and the collusion of both staff and non-staff to defraud banks. This study however, revealed that the use of ICT to defraud banks has now found its way into banking operations. Computer crime in the banks is a sophisticated and complex way of defrauding banks in Nigeria. It takes the form of computer aided fraud and embezzlement, salami technique, Trojan horse, time bomb, virus, and software piracy. The secondary data also revealed that the influence of electronics on bank has a significant relationship with high incidence of fraud in the Nigerian banking sector. The interview conducted with a participant corroborated this finding. For example, in one of their bank branches it was discovered recently that there was a fraud of about #800 million through the means of computer manipulation.

There are also a strong correlation between high incidence of fraud in the banking sector and the phenomenon of information and communication technology. It was discovered in this paper that fraud which involved a large amount of money has affected the financial position of many banks thus led to total collapse. The incidence of frauds in the banking sector has also had band wagon effects on the nation’s economy. Public confidence in the banking sector has been significantly eroded. In-depth interview conducted with a participant revealed that ICT fraud has dented the image of the nation on the international scene. People around the globe treat Nigerians with disdain. They have problem of credibility with this country as a result of discovery from time to time one form of electronics fraud or the other.

The incidence of electronics fraud in the banking sector is taking unprecedented tolls on the bank stakeholders, customers and the nation’s economy.  This paper suggested that a legislation that will allow for the training of a special squad in the Federal Investigation and Intelligent Bureau (FIIB) of the Nigerian Police which could have access to the computer network of the banks to enable them to detect and expose any form of computer related crimes with a great dispatch. According to NDIC reports (2009), the causes of frauds and forgeries can be classified under two generic factors namely: the institutional or internal factors and environmental or societal factors. Institutional causes of frauds and forgeries in insured banks include poor accounting and weak internal control systems, ineffective supervision of subordinates, uncompetitive remuneration and perceived sense of inequity in reward, disregard of Know Your Customers (KYC) rules, et cetera. Environmental causes of fraud include undue societal demands, low moral values, slow and tortuous legal process, lack of effective deterrent or punishment and at times reluctance on the part of individual banks to report fraud cases due to the negative publicity it could attract for their image. Given the substantial growth in the quantum of frauds and forgeries in 2008 compared to 2007 as highlighted in this section, it is important that insured banks should strengthen their internal control and security systems to reduce the incidence of computer related frauds and forgeries. Insured banks should also thoroughly screen prospective employees by obtaining status reports from previous employers and relevant agencies and to desist from deploying casual staff to sensitive positions. Insured banks should also endeavour to educate their customers on the use of the Automatic Teller Machines (ATM) and other e-banking services on the need to safeguard their Personal Identification Numbers (PINs).

Banks must ensure regular rotation of duties and staff to prevent an individual from staying too long on a computer system or in a department. There should be inter -branch and intra-bank regular rotation of bank staff.

In conclusion, the menace of computer related fraud has to be addressed by those who are connected with the wellbeing of the nation’s financial institution with sincerity and diligence. This decadence in the banking sector has resulted into financial incapacity, economic failure, vicious circle of poverty and international disrepute.

Bibliography

 

Aluko- Olokun. A (2000) ‘Nigerian Banks and Computer’: National

              Concord, Oct.19, 2000.

Baase. S (2003) A Gift of Fire.  Prentice Hall, 2003, second edition.

Brown J.S & Duguid .P (2000)  ‘The Social Life of Information’. Harvard

               Business School, 2000.

Boundless Sociology. (n.d). Differential Association Theory. Boundless

                Sociology. Boundless, 21 Jul. 2015. Retrieved 19 Oct. 2015 from

               https://www.boundless.com/sociology/textbooks/boundless-

               sociology-textbook/deviance-social-control-and-crime-7/the-

                symbolic-interactionalist-perspective-on-deviance-64/differential-

               association-theory-381-8939/

Button. G, Coulter. J & Lee. J (1995 ) Computers, Minds and Conduct

              .Polity 1995.

Camber, R. (2011), ‘The Nigerian who stole 350 IDs to claim £1.3m

               benefits’ www.dailmail.co.uk/news/article-1360037. (date:

               26/02/2011)

Cullen & Agnew (2002). Criminological Theory: Past to Present (Essential

               Readings). Los Angeles, CA: Roxbury.

Eric. B (2004) Requirements Engineering: Social and Technical Issues,

               edited by Marina Jirotka and Joseph Goguen Academic Press,

               1994.

Erlbaum. L (1997) Social Science, Technical Systems, and Cooperative

              Work, edited by Geoffrey Bowker, Susan Leigh Star, William

               Turner and Les Gasser .

Folami, O.M (2000) ‘Crime in the Banking Sector’. M.Sc Thesis submitted

                to the Department of Sociology, Obafemi Awolowo University,

                Ile-Ife, Feb 2000. Published by LAP incorporation, Germany,

                2011

Gaylord, Mark S and John F. Galliher. (1988). The criminology of Edwin

                 Sutherland. Transaction, Inc

Mobbs, P (2003) Computer Crime: The Law on the Misuse of Computers

                and Networks. GreenNet Civil Society Internet Rights Project.

                Revision 1, April 2003. http://www.internetrights.org.uk/

Ojigbede, S.I (2006) ‘Fraud in Banks’ a Paper Presented at the Effective

               Bank Inspection. FITC, Lagos 6-17 Oct, 2006.

Pecar, J.A (1975) ‘White Collar Crime and Social Control’ International

               Journal of Criminology and Penology pp. 183-199.Sutherland, E

               (1945). Is White-Collar Crime crime?. American sociological

               review, 10(April):132-139The Cultures of Computing, edited by

               Susan Leigh Star. Blackwell, 1995

The Nation (2008) ‘Making Money from Cybercrime Easier Than Ever’

                  The Nation Newspaper Publication, March 25, 2008

Ugbamadu, U (2004) ‘Collapse of Banks’ Bussiness Times, Jan. 31, 2004, pp.7

www.efccnigeria.org

www.cenbankng.org

www.ndic.org Nigeria Deposit Insurance Corporation Annual Report 2004

www.ndic.org Nigeria Deposit Insurance Corporation Annual Report 2005

www.ndic.org Nigeria Deposit Insurance Corporation Annual Report 2006

www.ndic.org Nigeria Deposit Insurance Corporation Annual Report 2007

www.ndic.org Nigeria Deposit Insurance Corporation Annual Report 2008

www.ndic.org Nigeria Deposit Insurance Corporation Annual Report 2009

 

 

 

 

Kudzayi Savious Tarisayi

 

 

Abstract

This paper explores the challenges facing satellite schools in Masvingo district. Data was generated through semi-structured interviews with teachers, school heads and parents in this study. The sample for this study constituted satellite schools in resettlement (land reform areas) in Masvingo district. The researcher purposively sampled fifty participants from a sample of five satellite schools in Masvingo district. The study findings revealed that satellite schools faced challenges which include water constraints, low enrolment, and poor working conditions for teachers, affiliations and levies, inadequate community support and cooperation, lack of resources among others. The study recommends that the Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education should set up a special fund for supporting satellite schools. In addition, satellite schools should be exempted from paying affiliations and levies until they are registered.

Keywords: satellite schools, challenges, Masvingo district

1.0 Introduction

Discourse on the land reform in Zimbabwe has arguably been pluralistic and proffering a multiplicity of perspectives. Most research has been confined to political and economic narratives without necessarily interrogating the implications of the land reform on social services such as education. Mavundutse et al (2012) state that the advent of land reform in Zimbabwe since the year 2000 has had a profound impact across the socio-political landscape including education. The onset of the land reform has been accompanied by a new phenomenon in education of satellite schools. Langa (2012) state that the birth of satellite schools was a stop-gap measure since the schools do not meet the expectations of conventional schools. While Hlupo and Tsikira (2012:604) define a satellite school as, “budding school operating under the auspices of a well-established mother school. According to the Minister of Primary and Secondary Education, there are 1425 satellite schools in Zimbabwe (The Herald, 2014). According to the Report of the Thematic Committee on Millennium Development Goals on the provision of education in resettled areas the government of Zimbabwe has left the funding and construction of satellite schools to the community (Parliament of Zimbabwe, 2012).

2.0 Objectives of the study

This study was guided by the following objectives;

• To assess the state of satellite schools in Masvingo district.
• To identify challenges inhibiting the satellite schools.
• To make recommendations to address these challenges.

3.0 Methodology

Data for the study was gathered through semi-structured interviews with teachers, school heads and parents. Gill et al (2008) elucidates that semi-structured interviews involve numerous questions that make it easier to discover the parts that give meaning to the research and it also allows the interviewer to choose an impression of the interviewee or get them to explain their response more thoroughly. The researcher purposively sampled five (5) satellite schools and from these four (4) teachers, five (5) parents and one (1) school head per satellite school were sampled. Thus, the researcher utilised a sample of fifty participants.

4.0 Context of the study

The study was carried out in Masvingo district. The district has ten (10) satellite secondary schools. The satellite secondary schools are mainly located in areas inhabited by land reform programme beneficiaries. While a few satellite schools have been established in communal areas. Thus, the study area falls mainly within the resettlement areas of Masvingo district.

5.0 Validity

Struwig and Stead (2001:136) aver that validity is the extent to which a research design is scientifically sound or appropriately conducted. Simon (2011) elaborates that there are various approaches a researcher can use to address validity and reliability in qualitative studies, the most popular include: triangulation of information among different sources of data, receiving feedback from informants (member checking), and expert review. In this study, the researcher will triangulate sources of data as data will be obtained from school heads, teachers and parents. Thus, the utilisation of multiple data sources (teachers, heads and parents) enhanced validity of this study.

6.0 Ethical Considerations

Several ethical issues were given due cognisance in this study. Several ethical issues were considered while collecting data because data collection always costs someone something. Chireshe (2000:06) in Mugweni (2012:149) avers that ethics entail, “… a moral philosophy that deals with making judgements, good or bad, proper or improper, approval or disapproval, right or wrong”. According to Wallman (2006:148), “ethics are the rules of conduct in research”.  The researcher observed voluntary participation, confidentiality and anonymity in this study.

 

7.0 Findings of the study

7.1 Lack of resources

There was consensus among the participants in the study that the main challenge faced by satellite secondary schools in Masvingo district was lack of resources. It was noted by all the participants (100 %) that the establishment and construction of satellite schools was grossly affected by financial resource constraints. While, there was an apparent need for funds to build classrooms, toilets and teacher’s accommodation at the budding schools, efforts were being hampered by lack of resources across the satellite schools.

 

In addition, the participants (80 %) in the study revealed that there was a lack of teaching materials. Teaching materials such as stationery, syllabi and textbooks were revealed as deficient among satellite secondary schools. Teachers who participated in the study also revealed that there were no funds at their schools to finance their attendance of subject panel workshops. Thus, the teachers were not abreast with latest developments in their respective subjects and teaching methods. Hence, the researcher noted that due to the lack of resources satellite secondary schools were facing a multiplicity of challenges.

7.2 Infrastructure

The study also revealed that satellite secondary schools had infrastructural challenges. The majority of participants (90 %) in the study stated that they did not have buildings that meet the minimum functionality requirements as stated by the Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education. From the participant satellite schools only one school had two completed classroom blocks and two F14 teacher’s house. According to the Report of the Thematic Committee on Millennium Development Goals on the provision of education in resettlement areas for a school to qualify for registration it should have at least 2 F14 standard teachers house, at least two classroom blocks and adequate toilet facilities (1 hole: 20 girls and 1 hole:25 boys) (Parliament of Zimbabwe, 2012). From the study it can be revealed that the majority of satellite schools (80 %) do not have adequate infrastructure. The schools are operating from the buildings of primary schools and former farm houses (Hlupo & Tsikira, 2012).

 

The study also revealed that there was a critical shortage of accommodation at the satellite schools. Participants in the study, at one satellite school revealed that they were provided accommodation by a primary school which was four (4) km away from their school site. Thus, it meant that the teachers walked eight (8) kilometres every day to and from work. One respondent remarked, “Tinofamba makiromita gumi zuva rimwe nerimwe rinomera”. (We have have to walk ten kilometres to each and every day of the week to work). Thus, this further reveals glaringly that there was a dire accommodation crisis at the satellite schools.

7.3 Poor working conditions for teachers

The participants revealed that there were poor working conditions for teachers in satellite secondary schools. Seventy percent (70 %) of the participants working conditions for the teachers revealed that teachers working in satellite secondary schools were exposed to appalling and poor working conditions. As has already been highlighted that teachers at some satellite schools have to walk long distances to work. In addition, lack of resources and infrastructural constraints have a bearing on the working conditions of teachers. School heads and teachers were unanimous about the appalling working conditions at satellite secondary schools. This finding concurs with the Mwenezi District Education Officer’s sentiments quoted by the Report of the Thematic Committee on Millennium Development Goals that it is actual unbelievable that there were still able to find teachers to take up posts at such schools (Parliament of Zimbabwe, 2012).

7.4 Affiliations and Levies

The participants in this study revealed that satellite secondary schools were being constrained by affiliations and levies. All secondary schools including satellite secondary schools are supposed to pay affiliations to the National Association of Secondary Heads (NASH), BSPZ as well as levies to the local district authority. The participants revealed that it was actually surprising that despite the evident financial challenges faced by satellite schools, the District Education officials, NASH and Local Authority still expects satellite schools to pay their dues. The incapacitating financial challenges are thus further compounded by these financial obligations. One school head stated, “The local authority has gone to the extent of engaging lawyers to force satellite schools to pay levies despite the glaring challenges at the schools”. Thus, the study revealed the insensitiveness of district education officials, NASH and the local authorities towards the plight of satellite schools in terms of affiliations to a greater extent.

7.5 Community Support and Cooperation

The participants (60%) exposed that satellite secondary schools were not getting support and cooperation from the community. The establishment of satellite schools has not been matched by the community support and cooperation which was evident during the establishment of rural ‘upper-top schools’ just after Zimbabwe’s independence. Participants in the study stated the parents and community have alternative schools for their children thus are not prepared to offer voluntary work at the satellite schools. However, the  Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education  expects  resettled  communities  to  take  up  the  initiative  of  constructing schools but such communities are scratching for a living (Parliament of Zimbabwe, 2012). Therefore, without the community support and cooperation the satellite secondary schools become constrained to a larger extent.

7.6 Low Enrolment

The challenges faced by satellite secondary schools were further compounded by the low enrolment according to the participants (80 %). The satellite schools it was bemoaned had discouraging enrolments as parents shunned the schools due to their lack of resources and poor infrastructure. Due to challenges facing satellite schools parents were opting to send their children to well established schools despite them being distant. Hence, low enrolment further constraints the satellite secondary schools’ capacity to mobilize resources for infrastructural development.

7.7 Water

The participants (90 %) revealed that they had constraints in terms of reliable sources of water at the satellite schools. The satellite secondary schools do not have reliable sources of water within the stipulated distance of 500 metres as recommended by Project Sphere (2004). One participant revealed that, “The staff at our school has resorted to hiring a local farmer to fetch water using an ox-dram scotch cart from a borehole about 4 km away”. Therefore, water challenges further compound the dire situation at the satellite secondary making them less appalling to both staff and pupils to a greater extent.

 

7.8 Conflicts between traditional leadership and appointed leadership of land reform beneficiaries

The findings of this study revealed that there were perennial conflicts between traditional leadership and new leadership among the farmers. On participant elaborated that, “Madzishe nevakuru vemawar vets vakatowana pekurwira”( meaning The traditional leaders and the leadership of war veterans are using satellite schools as a fighting ground to assert their authority in the resettlement farms. Marongwe (2008:285) argues that there was the emergence of power and authority of new actors and institutions such as war veterans and committees of seven which emerged. Committees of seven are management committee made up of seven people put in place to take care of scheme. Thus, this poses a challenge on satellite schools as there is conflict over jurisdiction over the satellite schools. These apparent conflicts are more pronounced during school functions and moreso, when the school approaches the community for help. Hence, it can be revealed from this study that this role conflict between the traditional leadership and land reform beneficiary leadership poses a constraint on satellite schools.

8.0 Conclusion

From the foregoing, it can be concluded that there are a multiplicity of challenges faced by satellite schools in Masvingo district. These include lack of resources, infrastructural inadequacies, low enrolment, and poor working conditions for teachers, affiliations and levies and inadequate community support and cooperation.

 

9.0 Recommendations

From the findings of this study the researcher makes the following recommendations;

• Satellite schools should be exempted from paying affiliations and levies until they are well established and registered.
• The government should set up a special fund for supporting satellite schools.
• Parents should be engaged to contribute voluntary labour in the construction of satellite schools.

9.0 References

Gill, P., Stewart, K., Treasure, E. and Chadwick, B. (2008). Methods of data collection in qualitative research: interviews and focus groups. British Dental Journal, 204

Hlupo, T and Tsikira, J (2012) A Comparative Analysis of Performance of Satellite Primary Schools and their Mother Schools in Masvingo Province, Zimbabwe. A Comparative Analysis of Performance of Satellite Primary Schools and their Mother Schools in Masvingo Province, Zimbabwe

Langa, V. (2012). “Land reform schools in a sorry state,” Parliament: Zimbabwe.

Marongwe, N (2008) Interrogating Zimbabwe’s Fast Track Land Reform and Resettlement Programme: A focus on beneficiary selection. PhD thesis. University of the Western Cape

Mavundutse, O., Munetsi, C., Mamvuto, A., Mavhunga, P.J., Kangai, P., and Gatsi, R (2012) Emerging teacher education needs as a result of land reform in Zimbabwe: a focus on new resettlement areas. Academic Research International, Vol. 3, No. 2.

Mugweni, R (2012) Secondary school teachers’ conceptualisation and implementation of the aids action programme in Zimbabwe. PhD thesis. University of Pretoria

Simon, M.K (2011) Dissertation and Scholarly research: Recipes for success (2011 Edition). Seattle, W.A, Dissertation Success, LLC