The evolution of technology has triggered a crucial shift in the landscape of qualitative research methodology. Among the myriad of tools available, video has emerged as a remarkable medium for data collection, analysis, and presentation in qualitative research. It enables academics to examine a wide range of social phenomena because of its multidimensional methodology.
This article gives a thorough investigation of the usefulness of video as a tool for qualitative researchers.
1. Embracing Authenticity: Video in Data Collection
Video recording facilitates the collection of raw, unedited, and comprehensive data – free from the subjective interpretations of the researcher during the initial stages. It helps capture the sequence, context, and non-verbal cues often missing in textual transcripts. Video data also offers a rich visual and auditory record serving as a reference for repeated playback and analysis.
A. Recording Interviews
Incorporating video into interviews allows researchers to preserve the nuances of the interaction. Software development can also involve utilizing coding tools to examine expressions, body language, tone of voice, and other forms of verbal communication.
The video also allows researchers to capture the physical environment of the interview, providing a more holistic account of the context. A visual rеcord with a tеlеpromptеr allows rеsеarchеrs to sее what was said and how it was said, as wеll as thе physical еnvironmеnt in which thе intеrviеw took placе. The visual record can be used to support or challenge a researcher’s interpretation of the interview.
B. Ethnographic Observations
Through the capture of nonverbal cues like gestures and facial expressions, video may show the organic flow of an interaction. Visuals also make it possible to record social encounters in audio and visual ways that writing down notes on paper cannot.
For researchers who wish to get a thorough record of an interaction, like a therapy session or focus group discussion, video is especially helpful. Video can also be used to create animations like a GIF that illustrate key concepts in the findings. A GIF compressor is used to reduce the size of the file and make it easier to share and post online. The GIF format is an image file that uses lossless compression, which means there’s no loss of quality when you compress the file that way it can be used for visualizing data in a way that is engaging and easy to understand.
C. Onlinе Survеys
Online surveys can be utilized as a productive technique to quickly get data from a large number of individuals. For example, You might desire to obtain input on the user-friendliness of your website or unveil the opinions of customers regarding a novel product design before its official launch into production.
2. Expanding Perspectives: Video in Data Analysis
Qualitative data analysis pivots on interpretation, and video data offers a multi-layered realm for making sense of phenomena. It goes beyond words and voice tones, taking into account body language, spatial dynamics, and interactions that might otherwise be overlooked.
A. Microanalysis
Video allows for microanalysis, helping readers scrutinize every frame for rich information – such as changes in facial expression or variations in voice pitch.
B. Macroanalysis
Macroanalysis Video allows readers to zoom out, taking a macro-level view of the interaction and seeing how it fits into the larger context of an event or group setting.
For еxamplе, a vidеo can hеlp you sее how pеoplе movе around thе room or how thеy rеact to what othеr pеoplе say. It’s easy to miss these details in transcripts, but when you watch a video of a meeting or classroom discussion, these things become much more apparent.
C. Longitudinal Studies
The ability to review and reanalyze data over time ensures a reliable comparison and improved conclusions. Video recording makes the implementation and tracking of longitudinal studies simpler.
Videos can be compressed using an MP4 compressor to reduce their size while maintaining their original quality. This frees up storage space and enables researchers to access the videos later.
3. Enhancing Communication: Video in Data Presentation
In today’s agе of knowlеdgе, vidеos havе bеcomе a tool for rеsеarchеrs to undеrstand and convеy thеir discovеriеs. Thеy offеr a platform to showcasе rеsеarch rеsults in an intеractivе and еasily undеrstandablе way.
A. Video Abstracts
Instead of standard, text-based abstracts, video abstracts give an overview of a study, improving the accessibility and dissemination of research findings.
The ability to skim or ignore text-based abstracts makes video abstracts more attention-grabbing than those that are only text-based. A video abstract can also be embedded in a webpage, which makes it more accessible for researchers and readers. As it facilitates the sharing and dissemination of information, the usage of video abstracts is growing in popularity among scientists.
B. Interactive Media in Academic Publishing
Complementing Written Findings: Vidеos providе visual support to tеxtual dеtails, еnhancing undеrstanding and intеrprеtation of thе rеsеarch contеnt.
Clarity: Visual representations can simplify complex information, making it easier for readers to grasp the core concepts or findings.
Strengthening Reader-Researcher Connection: Vidеos can fostеr a morе pеrsonal and intеractivе еxpеriеncе comparеd to tеxt-only formats, potеntially еngaging rеadеrs at a dееpеr lеvеl.
Elevating Pedagogical Value: Multimеdia contеnt can support various lеarning stylеs, thus еnriching thе еducativе potential of academic publications.
Researchers should be aware of ethical problems even if the use of video in qualitative research creates a wealth of opportunity. Consent that has been informed is essential, along with the protection of participant privacy and confidentiality. The effects of technical difficulties and the significance of data management must also be considered by researchers.
Utilizing the potential of video qualitative research allows us to explore the intricacies of behavior in greater depth. It enables us to uncover nuanced insights and significantly enhances our knowledge and comprehension.
Author Bio: (If needed)
Cris is currently working in VEED.io as a Search Engine Optimisation Specialist. He is a tech enthusiast who loves capturing photos and videos. He loves technology and can do video editing, programming, QA system testing, and writing.
In a rapidly evolving business landscape, staying ahead of the curve is no small feat. But with the right strategies and techniques, you can seize every opportunity that comes your way. One such technique that has been gaining major traction recently is Relationship Mapping. But what is it exactly and how can it be used effectively in business? Below, we delve into these questions and more.
Defining Relationship Mapping in the Business Context
Relationship Mapping, at its core, is about understanding and visualizing the complex network of relationships within and surrounding a business. It involves identifying the key stakeholders, their relationships with each other, and the dynamics of those relationships.
While the concept may seem straightforward, the actual process can be intricate and multi-dimensional, requiring deep insight into individual behaviors, preferences, and motivations.
An effective relationship map can serve as an invaluable guide, providing clarity and direction through the often murky waters of business negotiations and strategic planning.
The Significance of Relationship Mapping in Today’s Competitive Market
Alt Text: A businessperson going over market trends.
In an ever-competitive market, understanding the network of relationships around your business can be a game-changer. It can influence pivotal business decisions and lead to more strategic and effective operations.
Relationship Mapping promotes greater business intelligence, strategic alignment, and customer engagement. It provides businesses with necessary insights into the requirements, challenges, and preferences of the stakeholders.
At the heart of Relationship Mapping is a data-driven approach that promotes objective decision-making, minimizes risks, and optimizes opportunities.
Step-by-Step Guide To Implementing Relationship Mapping
Implementing Relationship Mapping in your business isn’t as complex as it may initially sound. It requires a systematic approach and the right tools.
The first step is understanding who the key players are. These could be internal stakeholders, customers, vendors, or even competitors.
After identifying these individuals, the next step is to understand the intricacies of these relationships. This includes understanding the dynamics, the strengths, the weaknesses, and the opportunities.
Finally, the collected information is visualized in the form of a map to provide a clear and comprehensive view of the relationship landscape of the business.
Innovative Methods To Streamline Relationship Mapping Process
Alt Text: A businessperson mapping market trends on a board.
While Relationship Mapping can seem overwhelming, innovative solutions make it easier and more efficient. Digital tools and software solutions enable businesses to automate and streamline the Relationship Mapping process.
These tools allow businesses to store information, track changes in relationships, and visualize complex networks intuitively. They are an invaluable asset in managing and navigating the complex world of business relationships.
The combination of human insight and technology in relationship mapping is a powerful mechanism for improving business strategy, operations, and ultimately performance.
Measuring the Success of Relationship Mapping in Business
The success of Relationship Mapping in business can be measured through various metrics. These could be enhanced stakeholder engagement, improved customer relationships, and increased business growth.
Negative patterns can be identified and rectified while positive trends can be leveraged for greater success. Ultimately, the aim is to strengthen relationships and drive business growth.
Companies can also determine the value of their Relationship Mapping initiatives by observing improvements in decision-making, strategic alignment, and business intelligence.
In conclusion, Relationship Mapping is proving to be a vital management tool in the arsenal of businesses. Its value extends far beyond mere visualization and unlocks insights that can significantly influence business success. So, if you haven’t already, consider making Relationship Mapping a part of your business strategy and streamline your operations. The potential benefits are immense and can benefit any business.
Housing is no longer just about location, location, location. The conversation is rapidly shifting towards sustainability and how eco-friendly a house can be. As the awareness of our carbon footprints grows, so does the demand for eco-friendly homes. The real estate industry is taking note of this global trend. Let’s explore how this green wave is revolutionizing the property sector.
As stated by Green Builder Media, the global market for green building materials is anticipated to skyrocket to a staggering $1.2 trillion by 2027. Notably, in the United States, there has been a 500% increase in LEED-certified buildings within the past ten years. This upward trend highlights an increasing consumer consciousness towards the environmental repercussions of their homes and an eager willingness to minimize their carbon footprints.
Quick Fact: In 2022, the National Association of Realtors revealed that 61% of home buyers were hunting for houses with green features. The Millennials are leading this charge, with 68% prioritizing eco-friendly characteristics.
2. Popular Green Features in Modern Homes
Eco-friendly housing isn’t merely a buzzword; it’s a broad spectrum of features and designs that homeowners now expect in their future homes. According to the 2023 National Association of Realtors report, leading the green wish list are:
Energy-efficient appliances (53%)
Energy-efficient windows (48%)
Solar panels (46%)
Yet, the innovations continue. Forbes listed the top eco-friendly housing trends in 2023, which include:
Net-zero energy homes: Designed to balance the energy consumed with the energy produced.
Sustainable building materials: Crafted from renewable or recycled sources.
Smart home technology: A digital touch to reduce energy consumption and water wastage.
Green roofs: Offering a dual benefit of reducing stormwater runoff and elevating air quality.
Community gardens: Fostering community spirit while offering a sustainable food source.
3. The Real Estate Market Responds
Incorporating green features lowers utility bills, reduces environmental impact, and has a tangible monetary advantage when selling a property. As stated by the Journal of Real Estate Research, homes with eco-friendly attributes were found to sell at a premium of 4.5% over traditional houses. This stat serves as a potent reminder to buyers and sellers: sustainability is not just a passion but an investment.
A pertinent question often arises: can you buy a house before selling your own?The answer is yes, although it comes with challenges. However, in the competitive housing market, especially where green homes are concerned, making a quick purchase might be an intelligent strategy. Let’s explore how this green real estate wave is revolutionizing the property sector”
4. Steps Toward a Greener Home
Not all homes come eco-friendly, but they can be upgraded. The Consumer Financial Protection Bureau (CFPB)encourages homeowners to embark on the green journey. Their top recommendations include:
Conducting an energy audit to detect energy drains.
Implementing basic fixes like swapping to energy-efficient bulbs and sealing any air leaks.
Investing in more extensive energy-saving tactics like insulating homes or switching to green appliances.
Eco-friendly housing isn’t a fleeting trend; it’s the future of real estate. With more buyers prioritizing green features, it’s evident that sustainability, both in construction and living, is driving the real estate landscape. Whether you’re looking to buy, sell, or upgrade, now is the time to think green and invest wisely in the future of our planet.
1, 2&4Department of Educational Management and Policy, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.
3Department of Arts and Social Science Education, Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University, Igbarim.
Abstract
The study examined the influence of effective classroom control and management on the academic performance of secondary school students in Enugu East LGA. The study was guided by one specific purpose and one research question. From a population of 36,711 a sample size of 335, were drawn using simple random sampling technique. A structured questionnaire which was validated by experts was used to collect data for the study. The reliability of the instrument was carried out using Cronbach’s Alpha and this yielded a reliability index of 0.75. The data collected was analyzed using mean score. The result showed that use of the right teaching methods and adequate use of instructional material helps in improving classroom management and control in secondary schools. The researchers recommended that workshops/seminars should be organized for teachers on the importance of instructional materials in teaching and learning process so as to improve their classroom management.
Keywords: Classroom Management, Classroom Control, and Academic Performance
Introduction
Classroom management has been highlighted across numerous research studies as a major variable that affects students’ academic performance. The most obvious reason for this assertion is that, effective classroom management sets the stage for teaching and learning. It sets a tone in the classroom that captures students’ attention – as a necessity for effective teaching and learning (Onyali, 2020). This statement is obvious since a classroom which is chaotic and disorganized as a result of poor classroom management is highly unlikely to enhance expansive learning and students’ academic performance and might, indeed, inhibit it. In chaos, according to Ononye (2020), very little academic learning can take place. According to Walter (2012), classroom management differs from one teacher to another because of the teacher’s personality, teaching style, preparedness, and number of students in the classroom. According to Oguejiofor (2020), the concept of classroom management is broader than the notion of student control and discipline, it includes all the things teachers must do in the classroom to foster students’ academic involvement and cooperation in classroom activities to create conducive learning environment.
Nwankwo (2022), relates that classroom management involves curtailing learner’s disruptive behaviors such as fighting and noise making, close observation, arrangement of classroom learning materials, and response to students who suffer from poor sight (vision), poor hea3etb ring, poor reading, poor writing, poor spelling, shame, dullness, hyperactivity and poor study habits. When classroom management is viewed in a more wider and holistic sense, incorporating every element of the classroom from lesson delivery to classroom environment becomes important (‘Obiakor’ 2022). According to Nicholas, this includes creating organized and orderly classroom, establishing expectations, inducing students’ cooperation in learning tasks, and dealing with the procedural demands of the classroom. This view of classroom management contrasts to a more narrow view of classroom management as it deals with just discipline and control. According to Bassey (2012), the wider view of classroom management shows increased engagement, reduction in inappropriate and disruptive behaviors, promotion of student responsibility for academic work, and improved academic performance of students. In effect, discipline, control and the consequences become authoritative or punitive approaches to classroom management. These have become much smaller part of the term classroom management. Thus, classroom management denotes much more than any of these words (Charlie, 2016).
In the view of Williams (2014), classroom management involves how the teacher works, how the class works, how the teacher and students work together and how teaching and learning takes place. An analyses of the past 50 years of classroom management research identified classroom management as the most important factor, even above students’ aptitude, affecting students’ learning and academic performance (Akubilo, 2019). Contrary to popular belief held by Obi and Obiakor (2021), classroom management is not a gift bestowed upon some teachers. While it is true that some teachers adapt to classroom management easily, making it felt by their colleagues as if they possess some innate talents. Classroom management is a skill that can be acquired like any other profession. It is a skill that must be practiced to achieve proficiency. Classroom management thus requires specific skills such as planning organizing, as well as an aptitude for team work. It requires a great deal of commitment, initiatives, teachers’ willingness to adjust, creative thinking and actions (Abel, 2011)
Ofojebe and Obiakor (2022) observes that improved teacher training in classroom management is a critical part in improving academic performance in a particular subject. Factors contributing to effective classroom management include: teaching methodology, lesson planning and preparation, interpersonal relationships and student motivation (Gaston, Lee and MacArthur 2010). Ezenwagu and Obiakor (2021) observed that structuring a classroom so that it supports positive student behavior requires prior planning. The structure of the classroom environment should decrease the likelihood of inappropriate student behavior and increases desirable student interactions and consequently improves academic performance. A classroom environment would enable learners to study in a way that is interesting, enjoyable and purposeful. Among models to restructure a good classroom environment include: use of a variety of teaching methods and involving students to numerous learning activities, physical class arrangement that allows a teacher to access students, efficient use of class time and ensuring that students interact positively during cooperative learning activities (Obiakor and Oguejofor,2021). Kerr and Nelson (2012) assert that the use of rules is a “powerful, preventive component of classroom organization and management plans.” Rules are aimed at establishing the expected behaviors, what to be reinforced and the consequences for inappropriate behavior. Thus emphasis of effective class discipline helps to cut down on discipline problems and leave the classroom with fewer interruptions and disruptions. Wong (2009) believes that student performance is influenced by how well the procedures are laid out and taught to them.
To instill class discipline, teachers should introduce class rules early enough when the year is beginning and make sure they are understood by all. The teacher should be fair and impartial across all the students. In case of disruption within a lesson, the teacher should deal with the interruption with as little distraction as possible. Teachers should consider over planning as a recipe to avoid giving students free-time within the lesson. The teacher should be consistent in that they cannot afford to ignore negative behavior. Collins (2012) advocates for “cooperative discipline” where the teacher and students work together to make decisions. To him teachers should come up with a code of conduct that shows how students should behave and not how they should not behave. This instills discipline in a child as they know what is expected of them. Glenn (2013) emphasized the need for teachers to hold class meetings severally. Class meetings encourage respect among teacher and students. According to Barbara Coloroso theory of Inner self control, students should be given an opportunity to develop their self-control and that classrooms are the ideal places for this opportunities.
Thus class discipline can be identified through the use of lesson plans, learning activities, a code of conduct (rules and routines), communicating to parents and through group works (Collins 2012). Consequently there are strategies that promote good use of routines such as: praising, giving a token and signing behavior contracts with students with behavior problems (Emmer and Stough 2011). In South Africa: school Act of 1996 encouraged the need for positive disciplinary strategies as opposed to corporal punishment. Mabeba and Prinsobo (2010) asserts that positive discipline builds a learners’ self-esteem and enables them to cooperate and participate in the classroom and consequently assume responsibility for what happens. A research carried out by Nelson (2012) in Nigeria shows that teachers who assist students to set high expectations and engage them in self-evaluation of their performance get better grades as compared to student with poor self-efficacy.
Kerr and Nelson (2012) encourage the use of humor as a way to engage students and activate their learning. To them, when teachers share a laugh or a smile with students, they help students feel more comfortable and open to learning. Moreover, humor brings enthusiasm, positive feelings, and optimism to the classroom. Teachers are expected to conduct a needs analysis to identify the needs of students so as to capture their attention during learning process. Students need to be taught respect for self and others so that they can be able to function healthily in the society (Rogers, 2009). In Nigeria, as a behavior adjustment strategy, guiding and counseling department has been introduced in educational institutions as opposed to corporal punishment used in many African countries. Thus a good classroom environment should promote independent learning (Kireria 2014). Students should be exposed to numerous learning activities so that they can take pride in their accomplishments and instill a desire for knowledge.
The quality of education has been reflected not only in the subjects taught and achievement levels reached, but also in the learning environment. The environment has both reflected and influenced the behavior of students, and it has been affected by events within and outside of the school (Condition of Education, 2014). Most educators and researchers have agreed that the total environment should be comfortable, pleasant, and psychologically uplifting; should provide a physical setting that students find educationally stimulating; should produce a feeling of well-being among its occupants; and should support the academic process. One major aspect of the classroom climate that has fallen under the control of the teacher is that of classroom management and discipline. As might be expected classroom climate which motivated learning and afforded the students the opportunity to be actively and meaningfully engaged in academic activities influenced the positive rating of teacher’s classroom management hence the relation to their performance in physics.
Classroom management has referred to all the planned or spontaneous activities and interactions that have occurred within a classroom. In recent years, a growing interest has emerged in the area of classroom management. The classroom environment is a large part of classroom management that will either encourage students to succeed, or hamper their abilities and cause more failures. The classroom environment is different than the classroom management because it deals with how the students feel in the classroom. While classroom management focuses on procedures, routines, and expectations, the classroom environment focuses on the relationships between students and teachers, as well as how the students feel amongst their peers in the classroom (Stepanek, 2011). Classroom management is the heart of teaching and learning in school setting. A well-managed classroom can provide an exciting and dynamic experience for everyone involved. Unfortunately, student behavior can often with this process. Good classroom management implies not only that the teacher has elicited the cooperation of the student s in minimizing misconduct and can intervene effectively when misconduct occurs, but also that worthwhile academic activities are occurring more or less continuously and that the classroom management system as a whole is designed to maximize student engagement in those activities, not merely to minimize misconduct. Many times, by encouraging behavior that is more positive and uplifting in one classroom, the behavior will carry on into other classrooms, taking the safe environment further than one classroom. Student achievement, as well as emotional and social outcomes, can all be positively affected by a safe, positive learning environment (Stepanek, 2011). When teachers do not tolerate disrespect both among students and between the students and teacher, they set the standard for their classroom and students feel more encouraged to participate and take risks in the classroom. Because of this, setting the classroom environment is often just as important as establishing classroom management strategies.
Teachers have entered a new age of classroom management. Faced with new challenges during the first part of the twenty first century teachers, teacher educators and school administrators have searched for alternative ways to manage classrooms. However, finding answers to classroom management situations is difficult because there is disagreement about what constitutes effective classroom management approaches.
Some administrators and teachers think of classroom management and discipline as being synonymous terms. Vasa (2014) describe classroom management as behaviors related to maintenance of on-task student behaviors and the reduction off-task or disruptive behaviors. Those who share his view define effective classroom management as a way of preparing students for life. They focus not on controlling students‟ behavior today but on preparing students for the world they live in tomorrow. Teachers and administrators who approach classroom management from this perspective define effective classroom management as the process of creating a positive social and emotional climate in the classroom (Morris, 2016). One of the most important skills possessed by effective teachers is that of classroom management. These skills are considered by Lang (2012) as by far the most important aspect of a teachers training and they state that effective classroom management is largely concerned with disruptive strategies, but other aspects are also of vital importance. Aspects are also of vital importance. The definitions developed by Conrath (2011) for classroom management includes the organization and planning of students’ space, time and materials so that instruction and learning actives can take place effectively.
Alternatively, effective classroom management was divided into four main categories in the studies of Evertson & Emmer (2012) and Sanford (2014). These four categories are: classroom procedures and rules, student work procedures, managing student behavior and organizing instruction. It is clear from these examples that classroom management is much more than a collection of strategies for discipline and involves many aspects of a teacher’s professional expertise. Teacher’s varying approaches to classroom management are reflected in differing levels of effectiveness. For example, a well-prepared teacher has a much greater chance of achieving effective lesson management. In the discussion of Lang (2012), different approaches to discipline are said to range from intimidation to total permissiveness. They advise that such extremes should include monitoring and enforcing reasonable classroom rules, procedures and routines. Effective teaching is more than discipline alone and classroom management has been closely linked to the achievement and engagement of high school science students (McGarity & Butts, 2010). Both this study and the discussion of Lang indicate that teachers should strive to develop effective classroom management techniques and that this will have a significant impact on their educational effectiveness. An analysis of the past fifty years of educational research as noted by (Wang, Haertel, and Walberg 2011) revealed that effective classroom management increases student engagement, decreases disruptive behaviors, and makes good use of instructional time.
A teacher is a person who possess specified knowledge and skills from an institution of higher education and have fulfilled requirements for certification (McNergney and Herbert 2011). Teacher qualifications include attaining a post graduate certificate in education (PGCE), Professional Graduate Diploma in Education (PGDE) and Bachelor of Education. Telia (2013) defined teacher qualification as the highest educational certificate possessed by a particular teacher. Whitehurst (2009), views teacher qualification indicators as; teacher’s academic ability, teacher’s certification status, teacher’s instructional practice in the classroom, teacher’s subject matter expertise and experience. In the study area, teacher preparation takes the form of undergraduate training with a period of teaching practice designed to provide opportunities to practice in the classroom. During teaching practice, the trainee is required to maintain a record about students’ needs and abilities, classroom rules and routines and the flow of instructional activities. At the same time, the trainee is expected to conduct tutoring sessions in the classroom or/and assist the teacher with classroom activities. It is after successful completion of the five year undergraduate course that a teacher is awarded a certificate or licensed if they meet the basic requirements and standards of a particular state.
Moreover, the certification is a way of preventing harmful teaching practice. Thus the certified teacher needs to continually attend seminars organized in colleges and university campus to discuss issues of teaching and share ideas about more and less effective teaching strategies. In a research carried out by Moreau (2017), asserts that extra training of teachers influences pupil learning outcomes positively. Extra training improves teacher performance by sharpening both their technical skills and their instructional competence.
This is confirmed by the fact that many state governments in Nigeria have increased the requirements for one to qualify for certification (MacPhialWilcox and King 2012). At the same time, it was noted that possession of master’s degree or teacher education at graduate level did not have an impact on pupil learning. However, Bidwell and Kasadra (2009) asserted that teacher qualification is closely tied to teaching skills that is the nature of instruction and concluded that teacher retention in the profession was of significant importance in influencing the level of student performance. Goldhaber and Brewer (2010) noted significant achievement on high school students handled by teachers with standard, probationary or emergency certification as compared to those students handled by teachers who are not certified and those who held private school certification. Similarly, Fetler (2009) found that students of fully certified teachers did better than those of emergency certified teachers. In India there are two groups of teachers; teachers with formal Education (TFEs) and subject specialist teachers. The TFEs are teachers with minimum qualification in Bachelor of Education degree or Masters in Education but they are not subject specialists. Specialist teachers include teachers with at least a Master’s degree in a particular subject.
In conclusion, teacher training should provide appropriate field experience. The trainees should practice with experienced teachers in their subject field (Emmer and Stough, 2011). They recommend that teacher training programs should provide content and supervised experience related to classroom organization and behavior management.
Poorly managed classrooms are usually characterized by disruptive behaviors such as sleeping, late coming, noise making, miscopying of notes, eating, calling of nicknames, verbal or physical threat to fellow students or the teacher (Ekere, 2013). These disruptive behaviors disorganize learning processes and hamper academic performance of students. Effiong (2012) suggests that teachers can deal with these disruptive behaviors in the classroom and reduce them to the minimum through effective classroom management so that effective learning can take place. Once teachers are able to effectively reduce or eliminate disruptive behaviors in the classroom, there would be increased academic attentiveness and engagement which would pave way for better academic performance by students. The use of verbal instruction is one of the techniques for effective classroom management that can be adopted by teachers. According to Good (2014), clear instruction on what should be done gives the students concrete direction to compliance. In this approach, teachers try to be consistent in enforcing the verbal instruction so that it produces the desired results. Until recently, corporal punishments were used widely as an effective classroom management technique to curb disruptive behaviors in the classroom. It is now not commonly applicable through it is still practiced in some schools as an effective classroom management technique.
Instructional supervision is another technique of effective classroom management adopted by teachers in the classroom. According to Obot (2010), instructional supervision involves moving around the classroom to observe students closely, engaging students in academic activities, asking questions and employing both verbal and non‐verbal teaching methods to ensure that students are paying undivided attention and taking more from the lesson than simple facts. Delegation of authority to learners is still another technique of effective classroom management where the teacher delegates his/her authority to deserving students and assign them duties such as cleaning chalk board, time keeping, controlling noisemakers, managing learning materials, collecting assignment from students, copying lesson notes on the chalk board, class representatives on behalf of the class (Nima, 2014). These contribute a great deal to making the classroom a conducive place since cooperation between students and teachers in the classroom is fostered. Classroom management techniques are aimed at producing conducive learning environment where students can learn with ease and perform better academically. All of these techniques can be adopted in the classroom depending on the nature of the problem at hand.
This study is aimed at examining the influence of effective classroom control and management on the academic performance of secondary school students in economics in Enugu East LGA.
Statement of the Problems
Unconducive learning environment in the public schools has posed serious problems to students’ academic performance over many decades ago. This trend has been on the increase on daily basis. Its prevalence has attracted the concern of the teachers, parents, the guidance counselors and many researchers. Effective classroom management has been discussed extensively at educational seminars and workshops, with efforts aimed at bringing lasting solution to the problem of students’ poor academic performance encountered in secondary schools. In most cases, classroom teachers become tired of using verbal instruction in attempts to establish effective classroom management, but this method alone does not produce desired results. Many teachers use corporal punishment to instill fear and discipline in the classroom yet there are prevalence of disruptive behaviors in the classroom. A lot of teachers waste time and energy in intensive classroom supervision so that the classroom climate could be conducive for lessons. Some classroom teachers delegates authority to deserving prefects such as time – keeper, noise prefects, class prefects, etc. to share in the responsibility of ensuring a conducive learning atmosphere in the classroom. These methods are adopted by teachers to enable the classroom become conducive enough for effective teaching – learning process and to facilitate higher academic performance of the students and it seems not to be yielding any result hence this study.
Purpose of the Study
The main purpose of the study is to examine the influence of effective classroom control and management on the academic performance of secondary school students in economics in Enugu East LGA of Enugu State.
Research Question
How does the environment influence classroom management and control in secondary schools?
Methods
A descriptive survey research design was adopted for the study which was carried out in public secondary schools in Enugu East Local Government Area of Enugu State. One research question guided the study. From a population of 38,077 respondents, a sample of 335 was drawn using a multistage sampling procedure. A researchers’ developed instrument titled “Classroom Management and Control Questionnaire” (CMCQ) which was validated by three experts was used for data collection. The questionnaire was structured on a four point scale of Strongly Agree (SA), Agree (A) Disagree (D) and Strongly Disagreed (SD) weighted 4, 3, 2 and 1. The internal consistency of the instrument was ascertained using Cronbach’s Alpha and this yielded reliability coefficient of 0.75. The instrument was considered reliable in line with Nworgu (2015), who stated that if the co-efficient obtained for an instrument is up to 0.70 and above, the instrument should be considered good enough to be used for a study. The direct administration and retrieval method was used for data collection. Mean was used to answer the research questions.
Results
Table 1: Mean responses of respondents on how environment influences classroom management and control in secondary schools
S/N
Items
Mean
SD
Remark
1
Home factor/parental upbringing affects the child behavior in school
2.61
.83
Agree
2
Unfriendly school atmosphere influences classroom management
2.86
.98
Agree
3
Lack of teacher’s attention in the school influences classroom management
Influence of peer groups affects classroom management and control
2.56
.95
Agree
6
Children from wealthy single parent homes do not have much financial support compared to their counterpart from poor single parent’s homes.
2.66
1.23
Agree
7
Children from poor parental homes do not have much financial support compared to those from wealthy single parental homes.
2.52
1.28
Agree
According to the table above, the respondents agree that all seven items are factors that influence classroom management and control in secondary schools in Enugu East Local Government Area of Enugu State. The mean ratings for the seven items ranged from 2.50 to 2.86.
Discussion
The finding of the study showed that unfriendly school atmosphere, inadequate infrastructure, influence of peer groups and lack of teacher’s attention in the school are some of the environmental influences on classroom management and control in secondary schools. This was in line with the findings of Johnson (2013) who noted that unconducive learning environment and non-availability of the teaching materials can make the teaching/learning environment boring and unbearable. Also, the finding Ngwangwa (2012) is in line with the findings of the present study. His study showed that environmental influences impacts on teachers’ classroom management and control.
Conclusion
Based on the findings of the study, the researcher concluded that unfriendly school atmosphere, lack of teacher’s attention in the school, peer group influence and inadequate infrastructure influences classroom management and control in secondary schools.
Recommendations
Based on the findings of the study, the researcher recommended that;
Schools should endeavor to provide the necessary learning facilities that will enhance classroom management and control.
Teachers should be advised to use the available instructional material in teaching as it will enhance their classroom management
References
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Manufacturing Technology and Engineering Industry R& D Center, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia (Msc)
Lijalem Gebrehiwet 2
Ethiopian Space Science and Technology Institute, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia (Msc)
Abstract
Semi-Knock-Down (SKD) and Complete-Knock-Down (CKD) solutions have been widely accepted worldwide for export and import goods especially for automotive industry. The CKD kit ensures trade benefits and boosts technological capability for import substitutions. Duty at customs is high for products which are in the state of ready to use conditions where as the duty on SKD or CKD products imported from another country is lesser. Most domestic companies where the assembly cost is low and import cost is high prefer to buy product in SKD or CKD kits where as Complete-Built-Up (CBU) are not preferred technically and economically. This study focuses primarily on the basic concepts of assembly kit in Ethiopia, their benefits in tariff considerations, import substitution, technological transfer and other economic advantages. Secondly to analyzes basic problems on the understanding of these concepts to develop vehicle standard SKD and CKD in Ethiopia. In addition to this to highlight the automotive industry stage of development. The implementation of these concepts has great benefits in the size of job creation and import substitution rates which have impact on the economy. The investment for CKD in automotive industry requires greater finance when to compare machineries and equipment.
The automotive sector is vast in terms of commercial and technical factors which require different types of assembling and vehicle body manufacturing facilities to produce finished products (White, 1979). Ethiopia is transforming from total car importer to domestic assembler to some extent and its automotive stage of development is compared and contrasted in Figure 1 in which Kenya and Myanmar are a little ahead of Ethiopia (Ohno, 2019). Information of products, suppliers, international quality service links and technology is still lagging behind which still gives space for CBU second hand cars in Ethiopia. The main problems in SKD and CKD shipments are related to tariff issues in a particular country and it should promote manufacturers over importers (Ohno, 2019).
Figure:01 Automotive industry development
According to Rob (2016), there are differences and inconsistencies in SKD and CKD definitions and standards worldwide as a result different countries may have different standards for these particular kits. The basic definition for these kits is provided by the Japan Automobile Manufacturing Association (JAMA) as shown in Figure 2 (Kim, 2013).
Figure:02 Definition of SKD,CKD and CBU by JAMA
The vehicle production for assembling of manufactured and inspected parts is referred to as SKD where as in CKD kit there are car body related tasks including interior parts assembly, welding and painting works (Hofmann, Neukart & Bäck, 2017). According to Tomiyama (2014) & Sherry (2015), CKD is more sophisticated than a SKD. The main objective of this study is to standardize different products in SKD and CKD kits. Secondly assessing their tariff system and impact on the domestic trade and labour. Finally standardize the binding rules for national SKD and CKD concepts in automotive industry. At the end we should identify the stage of SKD & CKD development in Ethiopia from different manufacturers’ point of view.
Literature Review
2.1 CBU, SKD and CKD Conditions
The use of any form of kit has a direct impact on the total cost of the chain of supply. CBU, SKD and CKD logistics have great impact to the imported country. Motorcycles, trucks, buses, and tractors occasionally need to be imported in CKD, which accounts for greater market share as viewed by Libor and Alan (2008). Saberi (2018) described that CKD forms are exported to countries where automotive industry is at high development stage from developed countries which require high capital investment. Knocked down strategy for a company should be carefully evaluated in order to decide with any kind of deal and the formula used to calculate the overall logistics cost of CKD is shown below (Malavolti, 2019) ;
Cost of CKD = Cost of stock + Cost of warehouse + Cost of customer clearance + Cost of Shipping + Cost of customer clearance (Supplier) + Cost of stock (Supplier) + Cost of packing (supplier) + Cost of unpacking…………………………………………………(1)
The finished bodywork is assembled in the country of destination and they are exported where complete disassembled of parts not required (Libor & Alan, 2008). According to the definition of Toni (2022), kit is not totally knocked down and SKD often refers to subassemblies that can be quickly and readily put together partially in another nation. CBU vehicles are those that arrive in a country ready to use with completely build. In the research paper of Yongwook (1987) and Tulder & Ruigrok (1998) each model change requires production line changes, re-tooling, and constant technological change. Some companies in Malaysia issued supplier development and localization program as well as locally produced parts initiated by the company with listed parts in different category (Abdullah, Lall, & Tatsuo, 2008). In conclusion, the common definitions of the three terms can be illustrated as shown below (Chemendy, 2018).
Figure:03 Automobile model kits
2.2 Automotive Manufacturing Processes
Automotive integrated manufacturing facilities consist of different shops or departments each with a special function with input resource delivered from outside suppliers. The body shop, paint shop, assembly shop and material logistics department are the five key departments that make up the general organisation of the assembly plant (Oumer, Atnaw, Cheng, and Singh, 2016). According to the paper by Sherry (2015) Mortimer (1987), KD parts are delivered to the production site by the car manufacturer or independent contract suppliers.
2.2.1 Chassis Fabrication
Generally there are different types of chassis according to the fitting of engine namely, Conventional chassis, Non-Conventional chassis, Full forward, Semi forward, Bus chassis, Engine in front and Engine at the center. Conventional type is also known as a non-load-carrying frame where as the non-conventional chassis is known as frameless chassis or unibody chassis (Abernathy, 2012), (Brünger, Engler, & Hirsch, 2006) and (Selvamanikandan &Venkatesan, 2019).
Figure:04 Conventional and Non-conventional chassis
According to Bhise, (2012) and Hryciów, Wiśniewski, Rybak & Tarnożek, (2021), the bus chassis provides an increased floor space in the vehicle. Harr, (2018) described the automobile frame moves to component assembly areas where complete front, rear suspensions, different components and accessories are sequentially installed. Chassis is mostly imported from OEM in different forms. Every assembly task on chassis has provided assembly workers with the safest and most efficient tools available (Anazawa, 2021 and Aswicahyono & Kartika, 2010).
2.2.2 Stamping Process
Metal stamping is a sophisticated industrial process that uses a variety of metal shaping techniques to transform flat metal sheets into precise forms which is also known as pressing. The term “Body in White” (BIW) describes the parts of the car that have been welded together using various types of connecting methods. The parts included in the BIW are the cover, body, floor, and encon (Mortimer, 1987), (Selvamanikandan &Venkatesan, 2019), (Cooper, Rossie, & Gutowski, 2016), (Fu, Guang-Hong, Yang, Ma, Chen, & Zhu, 2022) and (Awatiger, 2020).
Figure: 05 BIW stamped parts (Yu-Kai Fu and et al, 2022)
The required shape is obtained by shaping the metal using different stamping techniques and model BIW stamped parts is shown in Figure 5 (Mortimer, 1987), (Cooper, Rossie, & Gutowski, 2016), (Fu, Guang-Hong, Yang, Ma, Chen, & Zhu, 2022) and (Asnafi, Shams, Aspenberg, & Öberg, 2019). Stamping is a common choice in the automotive sector due to its high productivity, affordable, capacity to provide exceptional strength, and cost-effectiveness at high production volumes (Cao, Kinsey, Yao, Viswanathan, & Song, 2001). Technically stamping is considered to be a net shaping process (Mortimer, 1987) and (Brünger, Engler, & Hirsch, 2006). The body of a vehicle is made up of several hundreds of stamped components which are joined together by spot welding and accurate production of the car body (BIW) is essential (Thiruvengadam, 2010) and (Chaturvedi & Kumar, 2019).
2.2.3 Body Fabrication
The process of fabricating bodies is extremely mechanized and most popular tools are used to create unibody chassis assemblies. The largest body component to which a multitude of panels and braces will subsequently be either welded or bolted together as it moves down the assembly line (Almeida, Diasa, Goncalvesa, Peschlb, & Hoffmeisterc, 2011). According to Sherry (2015), manually operated welding equipment is also used in less automated manufacturing facilities. The front and rear door pillars, roof, body and side panels are assembled in the same fashion with a high number of weld operations with a degree of great accuracy (Mortimer, 1987) and (Brünger, Engler, & Hirsch, 2006). Fully assembled parts are subsequently installed using pneumatically assisted tools (Almeida, Diasa, Goncalvesa, Peschlb, & Hoffmeisterc, 2011).
Figure:06 Car body fabrication
2.2.4 Vehicle Painting and Curing Ovens
Vehicles move into the paint shop after final body assembly. According to research paper of Pendar, Rodrigues, Carlos Pascoa, & Lima, (2022), the paint shop provides corrosion protection and attractive appearance to the BIW vehicle body. Primer coating operations in an automobile assembly plant are usually implemented in three stages (M. Mahajan, Varade, P. Mahajan & Patil, 2019).
Figure: 07 Layers in primer coating
The exterior body parts are thoroughly cleaned and inspected as it moves through a brilliantly illuminated white chamber to see any flaws (Pendar, Rodrigues, Carlos Pascoa, & Lima, 2022). The main purpose of painting is to prevent the BIW from corrosion and to provide desired shapes in style, texture and color. Different countries have their own vehicle painting standards and processes (Lovell, Higgs, & Deshmukh, 2006). Paints usage should be free of environmental hazard and most eco-friendly painting process should be used (Meschievitz T., Rahangdale Y., & Pearson R., 1995)
Curing ovens are directly or indirectly heated by various types of fuels and they are applied after the primer coat, base coat and the clear coats. Ovens are divided into multiple zones with the radiated heat dries the outer layer of the paint (Sherry, 2015) and (Akafuah, Poozesh, Salaimeh, Patrick, Lawle, & Saito, 2016).
Figure:08 Flowchart of car painting process
2.2.5 Vehicle Interior Assembly and Car Mating
The painted body travels through the process where parts like instrumentation, wiring systems, dash panels, interior lights, seats, door and trim panels, headliners, radios, speakers, all glass (except the automobile windshield), steering column, wheel, body weather strips, brake and gas pedals, carpeting, bumpers and fascias are assembled. The automated lines facilitates a continuous process with a moderate speed which enables human operators to perform interior and door assembly tasks with the required level of safety (Mortimer, 1987) and (Brünger, Engler, & Hirsch, 2006). During mating the chassis assembly and body shell conveyor meet at final stage of production in which the shell is lifted from its conveyor fixtures and placed onto the frame to be bolted by assembly workers. The automobile travels down the assembly line to receive final trim components after auto mating of body shell and chassis White (1979) and (Brünger, Engler, & Hirsch, 2006). The majority of modern automobiles has a unibody construction in the middle of the vehicle and supports various components in a half-frame configuration (Mortimer, 1987) and (Brünger, Engler, & Hirsch, 2006).
3. Material and Methods
3.1 Kit Production Network
The kit concepts mainly differ in terms of the degree of disassembly, partition, number of kits and the value addition. The automotive global production network clearly put the production strategy that determines the type of assembly sections established at the local production facility as well as in the sales country as shown in Figure 9 (Börold, Teucke, Rust, & Freitag, 2020) and (Schwede C., Song Y., Sieben B., Hellingrath B. & Wagenitz A., 2009).
Figure: 09 Strategies in global automotive production network
In SKD process description, the exporter collects and packs the parts in the SKD warehouse but the importer repacks the products in the local OEM factory. This process can be referred as SKD-packing-and-SKD-unpacking process (Börold, Teucke, Rust, & Freitag, 2020) and (Schwede C., Song Y., Sieben B., Hellingrath B. & Wagenitz A., 2009). Similarly under the CKD mode, the exporter has the control of technology, the factory organizational structure and information flow. The operation point of view all CKD parts are subject to the CKD-packing before export in the exporter warehouse. The CKD kits are subject to the CKD unpacking before the assembly in the importer plant (Börold, Teucke, Rust, & Freitag, 2020) and (Schwede C., Song Y., Sieben B., Hellingrath B. & Wagenitz A., 2009).
3.2 CBU/SKD and CKD Tariff Conditions
Ethiopia is known for its high automotive tax rates which require various policies and amendments for car assembly from the CBU to SKD and then to CKD stage. Nigeria raised CBU tariffs to 70% for passenger cars and 35% for commercial vehicles while SKD tariff is 10%. CBU is taxed at higher than CKD which gives sufficient incentive for domestic assemblers. There is no distinction between passenger cars and commercial vehicles in Kenya’s tax structure as shown in the Figure 10 (Ohno, 2020) and (K.Ohno, I. Ohno, & Nagashima, 2018).
Figure: 10 Kenya’s automotive tax structure until 2019 (Ohno, 2020)
According to Ohno, (2020) and K. Ohno et al (2018), positive rates are applied for designated 17 automotive components but Kenya did not have an SKD definition as of 2019. The smaller tax gap is not economical to cover production cost and Japanese producers need at least 20-30% advantage in favor of SKD/CKD over CBU (Ohno, 2019), (Nogimori, 2020) and JETRO (2018). The duty rate for different automotive products and tariff code is tabulated from Ethiopian custom commission in accordance with different references from the Ethiopia Custom Guide, (2017), Ethiopian Customs proclamation, (No. 859/2014), Ethiopian Customs Tariff Book, (HS 2017) and Ethiopian HS Code Import Data. The tariff system for parts and accessories is seen clearly from Ethiopia’s automotive tariff structure as shown in the Table 1.
Table 1
HS code chapter 87 tariff description
Type ofproduct
HS codeTariff code
Tariff description
Duty rate
Complete vehicle
8703 3219
Other vehicles, with compression ignition internal combustion piston engine(diesel or semi diesel)…..Of a cylinder capacity exceeding 1500cm3 but not exceeding 2500cm3 …..Others
35%
Intermediateproducts
8706 0091
Chassis fitted with engines, for motor vehicles of headings 8701 to 8705 …..Others….For vehicle of heading 8703
10%
Parts andaccessories
8708 4020
Gearbox and parts thereof…..for industry assembly of (end-use condition)Vehicle of heading 8703
Chassis with engine for tractors, motor vehicles for pass/good & special purpose
870600
Chassis fitted with engines, for the motor vehicles of headings 8701 to 8705. For the vehicles of subheading 870120 or heading 8702 or 8704
8707
Bodies (including cabs), for specific motor vehicles
870710
Bodies (including cabs)For the vehicles of heading 8703
870790
Other Bodies, for the Other Motor Vehicles
Each component in SKD and CKD kits are not specified clearly in order to insert additional clarifications in the subtitles. In the CKD case studies of Aswicahyono & Kartika (2010), some joint venture company are responsible to produce engine for commercial trucks and others to be imported from overseas companies as well as locally produced engine parts as shown in the Figure 11.
Figure: 11 Engine CKD part for firm 2
The actual collection of “parts” does not have to be sufficient to assemble complete vehicles according to the clarification and the “parts” can be assembled into an incomplete article that has the essential character of a complete or finished article as declared in Ethiopian Customs Tariff Book, (HS 2017) and Ethiopian HS Code Import Data.
3.4 Custom Duty and Product for Imported goods
The supply strategies and the growth of sales of the product or product life cycle from CBU to different KD products can be related with the market’s maturity as a result the economic concept leads to a chronological order of the strategies (Schwede, Song, Sieben, Hellingrath and Wagenitz, 2009). The different import tax systems and facts in Ethiopia are shown in Table 3;
Table 3
Import tax in Ethiopia (Custom proclamation No. 307/2002, 570/2008, 610/2008 and directive no 18/2009), (Income tax proclamation No 286/2002 & Proclamation No. 285/2002), (Customs proclamation No. 622/2009) and (Customs tariff amendment No.1, 1996 edition)
S/N
Facts of taxes in Ethiopia
Remark
F1
The tax sequential orders are customs duty, excise tax, VAT, surtax and withholding tax. Taxes on imported goods are collected by Ethiopian Revenues and Customs Authority (ERCA).
ERCA collects customs duty based on the rules stipulated in the customs proclamation No. 622/2009.
F2
ERCA collects customs duty on a great variety of goods which can be classified into two categories. Depending on the primary purpose of the imported goods. Items for public, personal or non productive uses.
Category 1It includes raw materials, semi finished goods, producers goods and import items for public use.Category 2It includes items such as consumer or finished goods imported for personal use.
F3
Customs duty has 6 bands or groups of rates which are applied to imported goods. These bands of rates are 0%, 5%, 10% 20%, 30% and 35%.
The maximum is 35 percent of the CIF (Cost + Insurance + Freight) value of an imported item.
F4
According to the Customs Tariff, the maximum customs duty rate used to be 60 % of the CIF value of an imported item.
CIF(Cost + Insurance + Freight) value of an imported item
F5
Excise tax it is one of the most well known forms of tax in Ethiopia. It is a tax levied on selected goods such as luxury goods and basic goods. The minimum excise tax rate is 10% & maximum is 100%.
Excise Tax is also applied to goods which are considered hazardous to health and that may cause social problems.
F6
Excise tax has 10 bands or groups of rates at which excise can be charged. These band rates are 10%, 20%, 30%, 33%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 75%, 80% and 100%.
These rates are used to calculate the payable excise tax.
F7
In Ethiopia, VAT is levied at a flat percentage rate. To the exclusion of goods detailed in article 8 of the proclamation No. 285/2002 and goods exempted from VAT by the directive issued by the Ministry of Finance and Economic Development.
VAT is levied on every imported item. Importers are liable to pay 15 percent of the sum of cost, insurance, freight, customs duty and excise tax.
F8
Automotive techs are not included in the type of goods or services exempted from payment or VAT except the supply or import of fuel gas. It is stated at “Circular Ref. No. Am3/16/28/227.
The law that allows exemption of goods and services from payment of VAT for the supply or import of fuel gas.
F9
Surtax is the fourth of the five taxes imposed on import items. Surtax was introduced in the Ethiopian tax system on April 9, 2007. The council of Ministers issued a regulation to levy 10 percent surtax on imported goods.
Ten percent of the sum of cost, insurance, freight, customs duty, excise tax, and VAT is the base of computation for surtax on all goods imported into the country.
F10
There are items and services which are exempted from payment of surtax. Fertilizer, Petroleum, lubricants and motor vehicles.
Motor vehicles for freight and passenger and other special purpose motor vehicles.
F11
Withholding tax is not a tax in the traditional sense. Goods imported by the following individuals and firms are exempted from the 3 percent withholding tax imposed on commercial import items.
The amount collected on imported goods shall be three percent of the sum of cost, insurance and freight (CIF value). Auto tech is not included in this privilege.
From customs proclamation No. 622/2009 and Customs tariff amendment No.1, (1996 edition), the formula for calculating customs duty and other taxes in Ethiopia are shown below;
Basic standards are required in the tax related issue and should be clearly put with clarifications as a result the Ethiopian standards (recommended) for SKD and CKD automotive products or categories is tabulated in Table 4,5,6 and 7 below. The SKD/CKD parts and production methodology differs from company-to-company, permission of OEM, manufacturers’ company standard which is compatible with specific types of vehicles. SKD/CKD standards are summarized for vehicle types categorized as LMV, MMV and HMV for different models are described in the tables below.
Table 4
Vehicle parts for standard SKD/CKD category (Engine)
Vehicle type
LMV, MMV and HMV
KD type or form
SKD
Engine
From OEM for SKD parts
LMV, MMV and HMV Except for Bajaj and motor cycles
Full engine kit fixed on car chassis
Fittings and mechanical hardware
Assembly manuals
Electrical harness
User instructions
Fuel system pipe connection
Basic drawings
Cooling system assembly
`KD type or form
CKD
Engine
From OEM to CKD parts
It is for LMV, MMV and HMV Except for Bajaj and motor cyclesNote: Low Motor Vehicle = LMV= Car, Jeep, Minivan, etc Medium MV = MMV= Tempo, bus, mini truck, etc High MV = HMV= Truck, trailer, container, tractor, multi-axle bus
Separate engine kit in box
Disc assembly clutch
Engine is not fixed on chassis or airframe
Cover assembly clutch
Assembly manuals
Fly wheel
User instructions
Bracket mounting
Basic drawings
Cushion rubber
Engine testing instructions
Stopper
Defect troubleshooting manuals
Alternator
Ground support equipments
Starter motor
Radiator
Manifold exhaust rear/front
Oil pump
Fan
Water pump
Inlet manifold
Air filter & Oil filter
Cover assembly & Cover rocker assembly
Battery
Fitting and mechanical hardware
EGR valve and Catalyzer
Harness and Engine mounts
Table 5
Vehicle parts for standard SKD category (Car body)
Vehicle type
LMV, MMV and HMV
KD type or form
SKD
Car body
From OEM for SKD parts
It is for LMV, MMV and HMV Except for Bajaj and motor cyclesNote: Low Motor Vehicle = LMV= Car, Jeep, Minivan, etc Medium MV = MMV= Tempo, bus, mini truck, etc High MV = HMV= Truck, trailer, container, tractor, multi-axle bus
Main body (Body shell) + chassis unpainted§ All basic parts are supplied unassembled (LMV) (MMV and HMV)§ Car chassis without body parts but engine, gearbox, wheel/ tire, steering, drive train, suspension/dumper, seats, batteries, exhaust system, control parts supplied unassembled (MMV and HMV)§ All electrical wiring installed with lightsCar body parts painted for LMV
LMV
MMV
HMV
Fender and fender liner
Chassis without body
Chassis without body
Roof panels
Doors & door ways
Hinges
Doors
Skirt panel front/rear
Truck cabin
Sill
Main side panels bay1, 2, 3.
Catches and latches
Hood or bonnet
Access cap
Door checks
Number plate lid
Skirt panels (all)
Door panel locks
Window glass & mirrors
Spare wheel access flap and other panels
Handles
Wiper
Pillar capping (All)
Dump hoist assembly
Wheels
Roof panel bay1, 2, 3….
Bumper and hitch (rear)
Brake shoe
Valance panels
Other small assemblies
Trunk lid
Side panels (all type)
Parts to be manufacturedLocally for truck bodySide walls Columns (rails)Bulkheads (portal frame)Truck floor assemblySide sheet panelsRear panel (door)Beam doorSide ladderMetering chainDouble acting tailgateTank
Front and center pillar
Emergency door parts
Front and side roof rail
Flaps
Side member
Entrance steps
Small body parts
Door aperture
Engine hood
Longitudinal and lateral, rails, & frames
Floor parts
Wheel arches
Windshield glass
Roof parts (roof sticks)
Outside handle (locks)
Arch members
Door weather strip
Cross bearer
Front and rear bumper
Mirrors
Head & tail lights, lamps
Window glasses
Mud flaps
Windshield glass
Table 6
Car body CKD manufaturing requirements
CKD tasks
Main body (Body shell) + chassis unpainted§ Unassembled chassis or main body§ Car chassis without body parts but engine, gearbox, wheel/ tire, steering, drive train, suspension/dumper, seats, batteries, exhaust system, control parts supplied unassembled (MMV and HMV)§ All electrical wiring uninstalled § Car body parts fully not assemble, unpainted and not glazed Some component customized locally
Related to chassis
Without leaf springØ Without differential/axel partsØ Without suspension jointsØ Without axle longitudinal link supportsØ Without inner cross members and bracketsUnassembled brake and suspension components
Table 7
Vehicle parts for standard CKD category (Car body)
Vehicle type
LMV, MMV and HMV
KD type or form
CKD
Car body
From OEM for CKD parts
It is for LMV, MMV and HMV Except for Bajaj and motor cyclesNote: Low Motor Vehicle = LMV= Car, Jeep, Minivan, etc Medium MV = MMV= Tempo, bus, mini truck, etc High MV = HMV= Truck, trailer, container, tractor, multi-axle bus
LMV
MMV
HMV
All car body SKD components unassembled
All car body SKD components unassembled
All car body SKD components unassembled
Body sides, roof and floor supplied loose
Body sides, roof and floor supplied loose
All car body SKD manufacturing tasks
Fully disassembled body frame (chassis)
Disassembled (loose) chassis
Body sides, roof and floor supplied loose
Disassembled body parts(Read- made)
All materials supplied loose for final welding and assembling
All materials supplied loose for final welding and assembling
Disassembled doors, handle and locks
Disassembled doors, handle and locks
Disassembled (loose) chassis
Full logistics with assembly line is required
Full logistics with assembly line is required
Disassembled doors, handle and locks
Full logistics with assembly line is required
Full logistics with assembly line is required
Required equipments for CKD Welding guns, Jigs, Templates,Metrology Equipment (3-D measuring machines), etc.Conveyors, paint tanks, paint both,Drying oven, etc. Wheel alignment tester, Turning radius tester and Shower testing Head light tester, Side slip tester, Speedometer tester, Brake dynamometer and
4.2 Stages of Development for Domestic Assembling Companies in Ethiopia
The development stage of different domestic vehicle companies for light vehicle, bus, truck and trailer assembling as well as manufacturing are assessed as per to 2019 data and the current five years data will be required to further filter the respective assessment but the stage is mostly at CKD. Table 8 for light vehicle, Table 9 for buses, Table 10 for trucks and Table 11 for trailer fabrication companies are tabulated below to assess their developmental stage in SKD/CKD strategies.
Table 8
S/N
INDUSTRY
Stage of development
SKD
CKD
1
Abay technical and trading sc.
2
Belayab motors plc
3
Bishofitu automotive industry
4
JIN BEI motors plc
5
Marathon motors engineering plc
6
Mesfin industrial engineering plc
7
Tamrin international trading plc
8
Yangfan motors plc
Light vehicle assembling companies
Table 9
Bus assembling companies
S/N
INDUSTRY
Stage of development
SKD
CKD
1
Ada bus assembling and steel engineering
2
Bishofitu automotive industry
Table 10
Truck assembling companies
S/N
INDUSTRY
Stage of development
SKD
CKD
1
Bishofitu automotive industry
2
Frankun ET automotive engineering plc
3
NA metal industry and engineering
4
AMCE(Automotive manufacturing of Ethiopia)
5
Mesfin industrial engineering
Table 11
Trailer fabrication and assembling companies
S/N
INDUSTRY DESCRIPTION
Stage of development
SKD
CKD
1
Abenco general construction industry and trading plc
2
Alami industrial engineering
3
AMCE (Automotive manufacturing company of Ethiopia (sc.)
4
Ami metal engineering
5
Asnake engineering
6
Belaynehe Kindie metal Engineering complex
7
Bridge metal & wood shop business plc
8
Dagim Kennedy general trading plc
9
Fasil Mesfin Derso manufacturing
10
Frankun ET automotive engineering plc
11
Habtom G/Egziebher Woldehawaryat
12
HH engineering plc
13
KG Engineering
14
Kifle Mekonene importer trade in iron & steel manufacturing
15
Maru metals industry plc
16
Mesfin industrial engineering plc
17
NA metal industry and engineering
18
Nehemmiah engineering plc
19
NKG Engineering
20
Ocfa metal manufacturing plc
21
Rahel Dagnachew Gelaye
22
Tsehay industries sc.
From the above table, we can conclude that Ethiopia’s automotive development stage is mostly on SKD/CKD strategy and the import substitution or technological specialization is only on some body parts of vehicle types. Generally Ethiopia is in the second automotive manufacturing stage which is similar to the JICA report on automotive industrial development stage for Africa as shown below (FRN 2015 Report).
Figure: 12 Automotive manufacturing stages
5. Conclusion
In this study it is revealed that the value chain of interconnected global market system shows the importance of automotive manufacturing development with higher foreign investors’ and OEM role in this sector. The study identified clearly the following significance for assembling and manufacturing of auto vehicles in Ethiopia;
Perform relevant research studies on SKD/CKD concepts practically which is functional in different countries and CKD related tariff system encouraged by other nations.
Collection of annual market data in SKD/CKD for all vehicle types in auto manufacturing areas in Ethiopia and the impact of tax rates. Review highlights for custom classifications and their gap in fulfilling the CKD tariff systems
Clearly identify items to be manufactured domestically for all types of vehicles in order to promote the import substitutions. Auto domestic parts production capability study should be undertaken to restrict import of these parts and promote the manufacturers.
Revise the established standard for SKD/CKD kits for automotive industry in all types of vehicle models annually. All the prepared documents should be revised side-by-side with the assemblers for its effectiveness or gaps in production.
Import and excise duties for completed built-up and complete knocked-down vehicles should be promising in order to prohibit imports of used commercial vehicles, their parts, components gradually. Promising incentives should be provided for critical and high value-added parts and components.
The custom and tariff issues should encourage strategic partnership between globally branded manufacturers (OEM) with domestic investors which enhance the competitiveness and effective technological transfer.
Complete implementation of vehicle-type and component approval as well as vehicle end-of-life policy should be introduced by the Ministry of Transport for all types of vehicle imported to Ethiopia.
The Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation should introduce and enforce mandatory standards for vehicles, their parts and components operational nationally.
Relevant federal offices related to natural resources and environment should establish a clear roadmap for fuel, lubricants and paints standards used in vehicle operation, maintenance as well as manufacturing.
Acknowledgements
We convey our gratitude to all of our colleagues for their support and encouragement to publish the article.
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The study investigated communication patterns and leadership styles of administrators as correlates of organizational climate in South East, Universities, Nigeria. Five research questions guided the study and five null hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance. Correlation research design was adopted for the study. The population of the study comprised 749 administrators in public universities in South East, Nigeria. A sample size of 300 administrators was drawn for the study using proportionate stratified sampling techniques. A researcher developed questionnaires titled ‘‘Communication Patterns Questionnaire (CPQ)’’, ‘‘Leadership Styles Questionnaire (LSQ)’’ and ‘‘Organizational Climate Scale (QCS)’’ were used for data collection. The instruments were validated by three experts, two from the Department of Educational Management and Policy, and one from the Department of Educational Foundations, Nnamdi Azikiwe University. Cronbach alpha was used for a test of internal consistency of the instruments which yielded overall co-efficient values of 0.80, 0.82 and 0.82 for CPQ, LSQ and OCS respectively. The researcher together with four research assistants collected data for the study using the direct approach method and 97% return was recorded. Pearson Product Moment Correlational Coefficient was used to answer the research questions 1-4 and t-test of correlation to test hypotheses 1-4, while multiple regression was used to answer research question 5 and test hypothesis 5. The findings of the study revealed among others that downward and horizontal communication patterns of administrators have strong positive relationship with organization climate. Further results indicted that democratic leadership style of administrators has strong positive relationship with organizational climate in public universities South East, Nigeria. It was also revealed that all dimensions of communication patterns and leadership styles of administrators have significant relationship withorganizational climate in South East, Universities, Nigeria. Based on the findings, it was recommended among others that university management should organize training programmes in forms of annually or quarterly conferences, seminars, short-courses and workshops to enable administrators acquire skills and knowledge of applying communication patterns and leadership styles to create positive organizational climate.
Higher education is the post secondary level of education that enables individuals to gain knowledge and acquire skills to improve their sources of livelihood and also contribute to the development of the society. It also inculcates sound moral values and character that promotes peaceful coexistence of individuals in the society. Federal Republic of Nigeria (2013) noted that higher education is the education given after post basic education in institutions such as Colleges of Education, Monotechnics, Polytechnics, Universities and other specialized institutions such as Colleges of Agriculture, School of Health and Technology and the National Teachers’ Institutes (NTI). The focus of this study is on university.
University is an institution of higher learning where people study to acquire knowledge, shape their character and obtain degrees in different disciplines. Tofi, Agada and Okafor (2020) opined that university is the foremost tertiary institution in Nigeria with responsibility for equipping people with knowledge and skills to undertake tasks and employment functions which are necessary for transformation of societies. The authors added that the functions of university in Nigeria include: teaching, research, production of texts, certification, storage and retrieval of knowledge, community service and enlightenment service. Universities offer opportunity for people to study at an undergraduate level for first degrees and at postgraduate level for advanced degrees. Similarly, Asuquo and Ekpoh (2020) opined that as the apex of education, every university is expected to generate knowledge, ideas, skills and disseminate same through teaching, learning, research and community services.
There are public and private universities in Nigeria which are regulated by National Universities Commission. The focus of the study is on the public universities which are established, financed and managed by State or Federal Government. Akpakwu and Okwo (2014) noted that the State and Federal Universities in Nigeria are composed of members of Governing Council, Vice-Chancellors, Principals officers, Administrators (Deans and Heads of Departments (HODs), academic and non-academic staff. The administrators control the daily activities of academic and non-academic. The university administrators inform and clarify members of staff of their job responsibilities and expectations through communication.
Communication is the act of disseminating information, passing message and expressing feelings among two or persons. According to Akarika, Umoren and Okon (2021), communication is an expression of thoughts, feelings, ideas and messages from the sender to the receiver through verbal, non-verbal, written and non-written forms. It is a process by which individuals exchange information, share ideas, provide facts, express their thoughts, feelings and values in a given setting. University administrators disseminate information and influence the activities of members of staff through different communication patterns.
Communication patterns are the channels and strategies employed by workforce of an organization in passing messages, sharing ideas and feelings among each other. According to Weldeghebriel, Mberia and Ndavula (2019), communication patterns deal with how information flows for smooth and better functioning of an organization. Communication patterns are techniques for creating, sending, and receiving information in the workplace. Fiel-Miranda and Miranda (2019) defined communication patterns as the ways of transmitting ideas, facts, thoughts, feelings and values between two or more persons. It is the structure in which information flow in an organization. Contextually, communication patterns are the sets of lines or flows of information by words, writing, symbols, body languages and other mediums. Several scholars identified communication pattern as follow: upward, downward and horizontal patterns (Badau, 2018; Joda, 2022, Akarika, Umoren and Okon, 2022; Uwandu, Udo-Anyanwu and Okorie, 2022). The focus of the study is on downward and horizontal patterns of communication.
Downward communication pattern is the flow of information from superiors to subordinates in an organization. Job descriptions, policies and goals of an organization are made known to subordinates through downward communication pattern. Ogunola and Akporaro (2015) asserted that when managers, supervisors, and team leaders communicate with the employees that are directly under them, downward communication is used. Continuing, they stressed that it is used to assign goals, provide job instructions, inform employees of policies and procedures, point out problems that need attention, and offer feedback about performance. The administrators who send letters to lecturers to informing them of deadline for lectures delivery and commencement of examinations have applied downward communication pattern. Badau (2018) pointed out that university leaders, from central office administrators to building-level administrators, communicate downward to members of academic and non-academic staff through speeches, messages in University bulletins, University board policy manuals, and school procedure handbooks. They added that the types of messages transmitted through downward pattern of communication are job instructions, job rationales and practices information, feedback and indoctrination. Some of the information communicated downward could be discussed and disseminated among staff of the same level through horizontal communication pattern.
Horizontal communication pattern is the style of exchanging information among members of staff across the same level or rank in an organization. Joda (2022) noted that horizontal communication is the transmission of information between people, divisions, departments or units within the same level of organizational hierarchy. Horizontal communication pattern helps to improve coordination between departments in the university. Badau (2018) noted that information disseminated through horizontal communication pattern is basically for coordination to tie together activities within or across departments on a single school campus or within divisions in a school-wide organisational system. Horizontal communication pattern takes place, when there is exchange of information among Heads of Departments, Divisional Heads and Unit Heads among others. Hee, Qin, Kowang, Husin and Ping (2019) asserted that horizontal communication pattern is useful in coordinating the activities of different departments in an organization. They added that it contributes in developing stronger relationship among staff in both similar department and different departments in an organization. The flow of information in universities could be enhanced by the leadership style of administrators.
Leadership styles are strategies adopted by administrators to influence and control the efforts of staff towards attainment of set goals and objectives. Leadership styles are series of approaches adopted by management towards ensuring members of staff diligently execute their duties. Dzakpasu, Amankwah, Konin and Amanfo (2022) defined leadership styles as the patterns of the manager’s interaction or behaviour in guiding, structuring and facilitating activitiesand relationships in a school. Leadership styles are the behavioural patterns of operating the activities of an organization and influencing the efforts of members of staff to attain common goals. Narad, Kaitano and Lakhanpal (2020) definedleadership styles as the behavioural patterns that a leader adopt to influence and motivate the attitude of the followers to accomplish given objectives. Leadership styles are the peculiar ways of influencing the conduct of staff in the workplace. Operationally, leadership styles are the ways and approaches in which administrators provides direction, control and influence the activities of staff toward realising predetermined objectives. The leadership styles could inspire, demoralize or encourage the contribution of subordinates towards the attainment of set goals. Several scholars have outlined leadership styles as follows: democratic, autocratic and laissez-faires (Jideofor, 2022; Mohammad, Alam, Amin and Alam, 2019). This study focused on three leadership styles namely democratic, autocratic and laissez-faires because they influence the behaviour of staff in an organization.
The democratic leadership style is an approach of leading by participation and collaboration of subordinates. The university administrators who apply democratic leadership style seek the opinions of the subordinates before taking decisions on the affairs of the institutions. Achimugu and Obaka (2020) posited that the suggestions, recommendations, opinions and views of the subordinates who are affected by decisions are actively sought by administrators who apply democratic leadership style. They further asserted that democratic leaders encourage staff and students to participate actively, thereby making them feel engaged and motivated to attain predetermined goals and objectives of the institution. The democratic style of leadership encourages use of initiatives and promotes creativity as the inputs of lecturers are highly valued. Okoroma and Agbo (2022) posited that democratic leadership style encourages trust, promotes team work and cooperation among employees. They added that this leadership style makes workers to be motivated to do more as they are usually part of the entire process of reaching decision. The administrators who adopt democratic leadership style tend to treat members of staff with kindness, respect and fairness. The administrators who use threats to get things done have applied autocratic leadership style,
Autocratic leadership style is characterised by the use punishment, threat, rules and regulations to guide the conduct of staff in an organization. Ziduli, Molepo, Buka and Jadezweni (2018) pointed out that autocratic leaders do not consult members of the organization in the decision-making process; they set all policies, predetermine the methods of work, determine the duties of followers, specify technical and performance evaluation standards. Autocratic administrators dictate all activities and work procedures in an organization. Jideofor (2022) asserted that autocratic leadership style is a self-centred leadership approach in which the superiors provide clear expectations of what needs to be done, when it should be done and how it should be done. Administrators who adopt autocratic style of leadership issue orders and give directives that must be obeyed by subordinates without any question. Achimugu and Obaka (2020) averred that autocratic style of leadership often engenders anger, frustration, despair, and in extreme cases withdrawal from school activities. Under autocratic style of leadership, there is limited freedom because of the domineering control by the administrators. Autocratic leadership style of administrators is likely to shape organizational climate of the university.
Organizational climate is the perception of the staff about the norms, practices and expectations in the work environment. Ezinine and Ughamadu (2021) defined organizational climate as the behavioural pattern, structure, norms, values, and traditions of a college that distinguish it from other organizations. Organizational climate is the shared beliefs and values that guide the work behaviour of staff of an establishment. According to Bello and Oredein (2022), organizational climate is the norms, goals, values, interpersonal relationships, teaching, learning, management practices and structure of a workplace. Organizational climate is a set of characteristics, feelings and work norms which is created from the way an organization deals with its members. Operationally, organizational climate is core sets of norms, shared values and perceptions that influence the thoughts and actions of staff in the workplace.
The rapid demand for university education without corresponding leadership styles and communication patterns to build a favourable organizational climate creates the problem of institutional effectiveness in Nigeria. Some university administrators tend to disengage members of staff from making suggestions regarding tasks to be done for attainment of set organizational goals. This is buttressed by the observation of Ndukwe, Ukeje and Onele (2016) which indicated that some university administrators apply undemocratic leadership style by not only denying members of staff the opportunity to participate in decision/policy making but force them to complete tasks against their wish. They added that this has created organization climate of disloyalty and distrust which tend to leads to formation of coalitions and cliques among staff in public universities in South East, Nigeria. Some administrators tend to be too harsh to staff and also demonstrate strictness by insisting on total compliance to lay down rules and procedures in public universities in South East, Nigeria.
There tends to be gap in the flow of information from the top-down and the bottom-up as it appears that communication from bottom-up is considered relevant only when problematic situation arises in public universities in South East, Nigeria. Badau (2018) observed that some administrators fail to respond when staff members bring up information or problems in Nigeria Universities. The author further noted that failure of university administrators to respond to request of members of staff will ultimately result in communication gaps. The communication gaps tends to make subordinates feel under-valued and left out in the affairs of universities which breed gossips, rumours and distrust that create unhealthy organizational climate. Nebo, Nwankwo and Okonkwo (2015) noted that the constant delay in accessing information by staff of universities in South East, Nigeria seems to create unfavourable organizational climate. This background prompted the investigation into communication patterns and leadership styles of administrators as correlates of organizational climate in South East, Universities, Nigeria.
Statement of the Problem
The hostile, unsupportive and unhealthy atmosphere of some public universities in South East is probably due to untimely dissemination of information, closed-minded leadership behaviours of the university administrators and their leadership styles of ignoring of staff’s suggestions on crucial matters which breed misunderstanding and confrontation. Inputs of some lecturers that tend to be sought during decision-making process appear to be hardly taken into considerations before deciding on university affairs in South East, Nigeria. Communication channels put by in place by some administrators tend to distract, interrupt and impede the flow of information from bottom-up in public universities in South East, Nigeria. Some administrators seem to be bossy, harsh and rely on the use threats to get work done by subordinates.
The hostile nature of some universities atmosphere in South East, Nigeria may be connected to communication gaps and rigid leadership behaviour of university administrators. The communication gaps could be associated with rumours and confusion in universities in South East, Nigeria. Some lecturers who are not well communicated about their roles by administrators are more likely to misunderstand their job requirements and expectations which undermine the success of the universities. The negative reactions of lecturers to the breakdown in communication in some universities in South East have somehow been reflecting in their absenteeism, low team spirit, grudges and poor interpersonal relationship with administrators. This prompted this study to investigate communication patterns and leadership styles of administrators as correlates of organizational climate in south-east universities.
Purpose of the Study
The study determined the communication patterns and leadership styles of administrators as correlates of organizational climate in South East, Universities, Nigeria. Specifically, it determined
Downward communication pattern of administrators as correlates of organizational climate in South East, Universities.
Horizontal communication pattern of administrators as correlates of organizational climate in South East, Universities.
Democratic leadership style of administrators as correlates of organizational climate in South East, Universities.
Autocratic leadership style of administrators as correlates of organizational climate in South East, universities.
Communication patterns and leadership styles of administrators as correlates of organizational climate in South East, Universities, Nigeria
Research Questions
The following research questions guided the study:
What is the relationship between downward communication pattern of administrators and organizational climate in South East, Universities?
What is the relationship between horizontal communication pattern of administrators and organizational climate in South East, Universities?
What is the relationship between democratic leadership style of administrators and organizational climate in South East, Universities?
What is the relationship between autocratic leadership style of administrators as correlates of organizational climate in South East, universities?
What is the relationship between communication patterns, leadership styles of administrators and organizational climate in South East, Universities, Nigeria
Hypotheses
The following null hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance:
There is no significant relationship between downward communication pattern of administrators and organizational climate in South East, Universities.
There is no significant relationship between horizontal communication pattern of administrators and organizational climate in South East, Universities.
There is no significant relationship between democratic leadership style of administrators and organizational climate in South East, Universities.
There is no significant relationship between autocratic leadership style of administrators as correlates of organizational climate in South East, universities.
There is no significant relationship between communication patterns, leadership styles of administrators and organizational climate in South East, Universities, Nigeria.
Methods
Correlation research design was adopted for this study. According to Nworgu (2015), this type of study seeks to establish what relationship exists between two or more variables. This design is appropriate since the study sought to collect data from respondents in order to investigatecommunication patterns and leadership styles of administrators as correlates of organizational climate in South East, Universities, Nigeria. The study was conducted in South East, Nigeria which is bounded in the east by Benue and Cross River States, in the west by Delta State, in the North by Kogi State and in the South by Akwa Ibom and Rivers States. South East Nigeria has five states namely; Abia, Anambra, Ebonyi, Enugu and Imo States.
The population of the study comprised 749 administrators in public universities in South East, Nigeria. The sample for the study comprised 300 administrators drawn using proportionate stratified sampling technique. The sample size was 40% of the population of the study.
Three sets of instruments titled Communication Patterns Questionnaire (CPQ), Leadership Styles Questionnaire (LSQ) and Organizational Climate Scale (QCS) were used to collect data. The first instrument titled CPQ was developed by the researcher from literature review and consultation of experts in the field of education. The instrument which measured communication patterns contains 14 items spread two clusters (1-2). Cluster 1 contained 7 items on downward communication pattern and Cluster 2 contained 7 items on horizontal communication pattern. The second instrument titled LSQ was developed by the researcher from literature review and consultation of experts in the field of education. The instrument which measured leadership styles contained 19 items spread three clusters (I-II). Cluster I contained 10 items on democratic leadership style and Cluster II contained 9 items on autocratic leadership style. The third instrument titled OCS was adopted from Pena-Suarez, Muniz, Campillo-Alvarez, Fonseca-Pedrero and Garcia-Cueto (2013).The instrument contained 25 items which measured organizational culture. The items of the three sets of instruments are placed on a 4-point rating of Strongly Agree (SA), Agree (A), Disagree (D) and Strongly Disagree (SD) weighted 4, 3, 2 and 1 respectively.
The instruments were subjected to face validation by three experts, two in the Department of Educational Management and Policy, and one in Measurement and Evaluation in the Department of Educational Foundations, all in the Faculty of Education, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka. The researcher presented the title, purpose of the study, research questions and hypotheses with a copy of the questionnaires to the three experts and requested them to examine and scrutinize the items in terms of relevance, suitability, clarity of instruction and content coverage. The experts suggested among others that leading statements should be provided in all clusters and some items should be restructured. Their suggestions were used to produce the final version of the instrument. The reliability of the instruments were ascertained through Cronbach alpha. The internal consistency coefficient values of 0.81 and 0.79 were obtained for Cluster 1 and 2 of CPQ with overall reliability coefficient value of 0.80. On the other hand, the internal consistency coefficient values of 0.84 and 0.80 were obtained for Cluster I and II of LSQ with overall reliability coefficient value of 0.82, while the coefficient obtained for OCS was 0.82.
The researcher with the help of four research assistants who are lecturers in public universities in South East administered copies of the questionnaires to the respondents through a direct approach. A total of 300 copies of the questionnaires were distributed and 291 were properly filled and successfully retrieved indicating 97% return rate. The copies of the questionnaires distributed, duly filled and successfully retrieved were used for data analysis. Data collected were analyzed using Pearson’s Product Moment Correlation Coefficient to answer the research questions 1-6, t-test of correlation to test the hypotheses 1-8 and multiple regression to answer research question 9 and test hypothesis 9. For decision on the research questions, the coefficient r and the size of the relationship was interpreted using the correlation coefficient by Alsagr (2021), as follows
Coefficient Relationship
.00- .19 Weak correlation
.20- .39 Fair correlation
.40- .69 Moderate correlation
.70- .89 Strong correlation
.90- .1.00 Very strong correlation
In taking decisions on the null hypotheses, if p-value is equal to or less (≤) than significant value of .05, the null hypothesis was rejected, but if p-value is greater than (>), the significant value of .05 the null hypotheses was accepted.
Results
Research Question 1: What is the relationship between downward communication pattern of administrators and organizational climate in South East, Universities?
Variables
N
Downward Communication Pattern
Organizational Climate
Remarks
Downward Communication Pattern
291
1.00
.759
Strong Positive Relationship
Organizational Climate
291
.759
1.00
Table 1: Pearson (r) on Relationship Downward Communication Pattern of Administrators and Organizational Climate
Result in Table 1 revealed that Pearson’s correlation coefficient (r) of .759 was obtained. This showed that there is strong positive relationship between downward communication pattern of administrators and organizational climate in South East, Universities. This indicated that an improvement in downward communication pattern of administrators will contribute to positive organizational climate.
Research Question 2: What is the relationship between horizontal communication pattern of administrators and organizational climate in South East, Universities?
Variables
N
Horizontal Communication Pattern
Organizational Climate
Remarks
Horizontal Communication Pattern
291
1.00
.715
Strong Positive Relationship
Organizational Climate
291
.715
1.00
Table 2: Pearson (r) on Relationship Horizontal Communication Pattern of Administrators and Organizational Climate
Table 2 indicated that a Pearson’s correlation coefficient (r) of .715 was obtained. This showed that there is strong positive relationship between horizontal communication pattern of administrators and organizational climate in South East, Universities. This indicated that increase in horizontal communication pattern of administrators will lead to better organizational climate.
Research Question 3: What is the relationship between democratic leadership style of administrators and organizational climate in South East, Universities?
Variables
N
Democratic Leadership Style
Organizational Climate
Remarks
Democratic Leadership Style
291
1.00
.818
Strong Positive Relationship
Organizational Climate
291
.818
1.00
Table 3: Pearson (r) on Relationship Democratic Leadership Style of Administrators and Organizational Climate
As shown in Table 3, Pearson’s correlation coefficient (r) of .818 was obtained. This showed that there is strong positive relationship between democratic leadership style of administrators and organizational climate in South East, Universities. This indicated that improvement on the democratic leadership style of administrators will contribute to better organizational climate.
Research Question 4: What is the relationship between autocratic leadership style of administrators and organizational climate in South East, Universities?
Variables
N
Autocratic Leadership Style
Organizational Climate
Remarks
Autocratic Leadership Style
291
1.00
.309
Fair Positive Relationship
Organizational Climate
291
.309
1.00
Table 4: Pearson (r) on Relationship Autocratic Leadership Style of Administrators and Organizational Climate
Table 4 indicated that a Pearson’s correlation coefficient (r) of .309 was obtained. This showed that there is fair positive relationship between autocratic leadership style of administrators and organizational climate in South East, Universities. This indicated that autocratic leadership style of administrators will contribute to fair organizational climate.
Research Question 5: What is the relationship between communication patterns, leadership styles of administrators and organizational climate in South East, Universities, Nigeria?
Model
R
R Square
Adjusted R Square
Std. Error of the Estimate
Remarks
1
.876
.767
.762
.283658
Strong
Table 5: The Summary of Multiple Regression Analysis on Communication Patterns and Leadership Styles of Administrators as Correlates of Organizational Culture
Table 5 showed that correlation coefficient of simple regression analysis is .876 with a coefficient of determination of .767. This shows that 76.7% variation in organizational Climate can be attributed to communication patterns, leadership styles of administrators. The regression Coefficient r of .876 indicated that there is strong positive relationship between communication patterns, leadership styles of administrators and organizational climate in South East, Universities, Nigeria.
Hypothesis One: There is no significant relationship between downward communication pattern of administrators and organizational climate in South East, Universities.
Table 6: The Summary of t-test of Correlation on the Significant Relationship between Downward Communication Pattern of Administrators and Organizational Climate
Variables
N
Downward Communication Pattern
Organizational Climate
P-Value
∞
Remark
Downward Communication Pattern
291
1
.759
.000
.05
Rejected
Organizational Climate
291
.759
1
Table 6 revealed that the p-value of .000 is less than .05. Therefore, since the p-value is less than the stipulated .05 level of significance, the null hypothesis was rejected. Therefore, there is significant relationship between downward communication pattern of administrators and organizational climate in South East, Universities.
Hypothesis Two: There is no significant relationship between horizontal communication pattern of administrators and organizational climate in South East, Universities.
Table 7: The Summary of t-test of Correlation on the Significant Relationship between Horizontal Communication Pattern of Administrators and Organizational Climate
Variables
N
Horizontal Communication Pattern
Organizational Climate
P-Value
∞
Remark
Horizontal Communication Pattern
291
1
.715
.000
.05
Rejected
Organizational Climate
291
.715
1
The result presented in Table 7 revealed that the p-value of .000 is less than .05. Therefore, since the p-value is less than the stipulated .05 level of significance, the null hypothesis was rejected. Therefore, there is significant relationship between horizontal communication pattern of administrators and organizational climate in South East, Universities.
Hypothesis Three: There is no significant relationship between democratic leadership style of administrators and organizational climate in South East, Universities.
Table 8: The Summary of t-test of Correlation on the Significant Relationship between Democratic Leadership Style of Administrators and Organizational Climate
Variables
N
Democratic Leadership Pattern
Organizational Climate
P-Value
∞
Remark
Democratic Leadership Style
291
1
.818
.000
.05
Rejected
Organizational Climate
291
.818
1
The result presented in Table 8 revealed that the p-value of .000 is less than .05. Therefore, since the p-value is less than the stipulated .05 level of significance, the null hypothesis was rejected. Therefore, there is significant relationship between democratic leadership style of administrators and organizational climate in South East, Universities.
Hypothesis Four: There is no significant relationship between autocratic leadership style of administrators and organizational climate in South East, Universities.
Table 9: The Summary of t-test of Correlation on the Significant Relationship between Autocratic Leadership Style of Administrators and Organizational Climate
Variables
N
Autocratic Leadership Pattern
Organizational Climate
P-Value
∞
Remark
Autocratic Leadership Style
291
1
.309
.000
.05
Rejected
Organizational Climate
291
.309
1
Table 9 showed that the p-value of .000 is less than .05. Therefore, since the p-value is less than the stipulated .05 level of significance, the null hypothesis was rejected. Therefore, there is significant relationship between autocratic leadership style of administrators and organizational climate in South East, Universities.
Hypothesis Five: There is no significant relationship between communication patterns, leadership styles of administrators and organizational climate in South East, Universities, Nigeria.
Table 10: The Summary of Multiple Regression Analysis on Communication Patterns and Leadership Styles of Administrators as Correlates of Organizational Climate
Predictor
R
R2
F
P-value
Remark
Communication Patterns and Leadership Styles
.876
.767
158.856
.000
*S
*Significant
As shown in Table 10, the multiple regression coefficient (R) is .876 while the R2 is .767 showing that communication patterns and leadership styles of administrators make 76.7% contribution to the variance organizational climate. The F (1/291) =158.556 and the p-value of .000 is less than .05. Therefore, since the p-value is less than the stipulated .05 level of significance, the null hypothesis was rejected. Therefore, there is significant relationship between communication patterns, leadership styles of administrators and organizational climate in South East, Universities, Nigeria.
Discussion
The result of the study indicated that there is strong positive relationship between downward communication pattern of administrators and organizational climate in South East, Universities. This is in conformity with the finding of Thet and Htarr (2020) which indicated that there was positively strong relationship between principals’ downward communication pattern and school climate. The agreement in findings could be associated with the fact that the two studies were conducted in educational institutions where administrators give instructions and provide directions using downward communication pattern. This is in disagreement with the finding of This contradicted the finding of Sapian, Abdullah, Ghani, Abdullah and Omar (2019) which indicated that there was moderate relationship between principals’ downward communication pattern and school climate. The difference in geographical locations where there are different policies guiding downward communication pattern. This finding is explained by the fact that downward communication pattern is a means of providing instructions and disseminating information on policies, rules and work procedures enable subordinate become aware of their job roles and expected behaviour contribute to strong organizational climate. Downward communication pattern is strongly correlated with organizational climate due to the fact that it helps to keep members of staff up-dated and well-informed of tasks to be done and how to execute the tasks. The university administrators through downward communication pattern delegate duties and instill a sense of responsibilities to subordinates which contribute ton strong organizational climate.
Further result indicated that there is significant relationship between downward communication pattern of administrators and organizational climate in South East, Universities. This is in line with the finding of Thet and Htarr (2020) which revealed that there was significant relationship between principals’ downward communication pattern and school climate. The university administrators give order and directives to the subordinates through downward communication pattern to ensure uniformity and compliance to standard mode of operations which explain the significant relationship with organizational climate. The mission and values of universities shared with members of staff through downward communication pattern enable them understand the expected attitude towards achieving the values which thereby create favourable organizational climate.
It was revealed that indicated that there is strong positive relationship between horizontal communication pattern of administrators and organizational climate in South East, Universities. This is in agreement with the finding of Lannes (2021) which showed a strong positive correlation between organizational horizontal communication and organizational climate. Horizontal communication pattern which ensures unity of purpose among departments or teams at the same level in universities could explain the strong relationship with organizational culture. Members of staff with the same job title could work together to achieve interdependent goals through horizontal communication pattern. Some departments who are dependent on one another for vital information in executing tasks could create strong organizational climate through horizontal communication pattern. The opportunity in which horizontal communication pattern provides for staff at the same level to communicate directly without going through the university administrators could account for the strong relationship with organizational climate.
Further finding showed that there is significant relationship between horizontal communication pattern of administrators and organizational climate in South East, Universities. This affirmed the finding of Sidiropoulou (2021) which showed a significant correlation between organizational horizontal communication and organizational climate. Horizontal communication pattern which facilitates information sharing and task coordination between departments or units could account for the significant relationship with organizational climate.
The finding of the study indicated that there is strong positive relationship between democratic leadership style of administrators and organizational climate in South East, Universities. This supported the finding of Zamin and Hussin (2021) which showed there was a strong positive relationship between democratic leadership style and work climate. This is also in line with the finding of Barnova, Trelova, Krasna, Benova, Hasajova and Gabrhelova (2022) which indicated democratic leadership style has strong correlation with school climate. The agreement in the findings of the studies could be connected to the fact that the two studies were conducted in educational institutions. This finding is probably due to the fact that democratic leadership style which empowers subordinates to participate in decision-making process could make them feel valued and thereby create strong and healthy organizational climate. Open discussion and sharing of new idea encouraged by administrators who apply democratic leadership style lead to feeling of trust, loyalty and team cohesion could be connected with the strong relationship with organizational climate. Members of staff feel more involved, committed and inspired to take action that foster healthy organizational climate through their inputs and ideas solicited by democratic administrators.
Further result showed that there is significant relationship between democratic leadership style of administrators and organizational climate in South East, Universities. This is in consonance with the finding of Barnova, Trelova, Krasna, Benova, Hasajova and Gabrhelova (2022) which showed democratic leadership style has significant correlation with school climate. University administrators who apply democratic style inspire trust and respect among subordinates which could account for the significant relationship with organizational climate. University administrators who apply democratic leadership style delegate responsibilities, foster participatory management and team work which help to build strong organizational climate.
The result of the study indicated that there is fair positive relationship between autocratic leadership style of administrators and organizational climate in South East, Universities. This agreed with the finding of Zamin and Hussin (2021) which revealed that there was a fair positive and significant relationship between autocratic leadership style and work culture. This disagreed with the finding of Philip, Ibrahim and Yussof (2020) which revealed that there exist weak relationship between autocratic leadership style and organizational climate. The difference in geographical location could explain the disagreement in findings. The autocratic administrators who deprive subordinates the opportunities to make inputs and provide feedback on the affairs of university lead to feeling of mistrust and this breeds misunderstanding which could explain the fair relationship with organizational climate. The absolute control over subordinates by administrators who apply autocratic leadership impair creative ideas and inputs that tend to lead to physical confrontation which could contribute to the fair relationship with organizational climate. Autocratic administrators fail to value the suggestions of subordinates decrease their morale and create unfair organizational climate.
Further finding showed that there is significant relationship between autocratic leadership style of administrators and organizational climate in South East, Universities. This refuted the finding of Philip, Ibrahim and Yussof (2020) which showed that there was no significant relationship between autocratic leadership style and organizational climate. This disagreed with the finding of Ngoma, Sakakombe and Kabeta (2019) which indicated that the relationship between autocratic leadership style and school climate was not statistically significant. This disagreement could be attributed to the fact that the studies were conducted in different levels of education where the school administrators have different qualifications and experience that guide their use of autocratic leadership style to shape the school climate.
It was showed that there is strong positive relationship between communication patterns, leadership styles of administrators and organizational climate in South East, Universities, Nigeria. This supported the finding of Witarini and Sriathi (2020) which showed that there is joint strong relationship between leadership styles, effective communication and organizational climate. This finding is explained by the fact that communication patterns and leadership styles of administrators determine the social norms, values and expected behaviour that forms the organizational climate of universities. The interaction of administrators with subordinates, decision-making process as well as work procedures which are instrumental in creating strong organizational climate is determined by the communication patterns and leadership styles in universities.
Further result showed that there is significant relationship between communication patterns, leadership styles of administrators and organizational climate in South East, Universities, Nigeria. This agreed with the finding of Witarini and Sriathi (2020) which showed that there is significant relationship between leadership styles, effective communication and organizational climate. This finding is explained by the fact that the flow of information determined by communication patterns of administrators as well as their leadership styles which influence the work behaviour of staff could significantly create the organizational climate of universities.
Conclusion
Based on the findings, it was concluded that the communication patterns and leadership styles of administrators have positive and significant relationship with organizational climate in South East, Universities. Communication patterns and leadership styles of administrators help to convey information about core values, mission and expected behaviour that create organizational culture of universities. It is the patterns of communication and styles of leadership that could inspire open discussion, good interpersonal relationship, teamwork and honest feedback that strongly shape the organizational culture of universities.
Recommendations
Based on the findings of the study, the following recommendations were made:
University management should formulate programme and modalities that encourage downward communication pattern by creating innovative channels for timely dissemination of information to members of staff and students for healthy organizational climate.
University council should create flowchart that provide details of communication between departments or units with regard to frequency and mode of communication which will foster horizontal communication pattern and strongly improve organizational climate.
University administrators should practice democratic leadership style by encouraging open communication and friendly environment that embolden subordinates to express how they think and feel things could be done to strongly create healthy organizational climate.
University administrators should modify their autocratic leadership style by considering the inputs of subordinates in operation of daily affairs to create positive organizational climate.
University management should organize training programmes in forms of annually or quarterly conferences, seminars, short-courses and workshops to enable administrators acquire skills and knowledge of applying communication patterns and leadership styles to create positive organizational climate.
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Ezeobi, Blessing Chijindu & Prof. Nkechi Ikediugwu
Department of Educational Management and Policy
Faculty of Education,
Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka
Abstract
The study investigated communication patterns and leadership styles of administrators as correlates of organizational climate in South East, Universities, Nigeria. Five research questions guided the study and five null hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance. Correlation research design was adopted for the study. The population of the study comprised 749 administrators in public universities in South East, Nigeria. A sample size of 300 administrators was drawn for the study usingproportionate stratified sampling techniques. A researcher developed questionnaires titled ‘‘Communication Patterns Questionnaire (CPQ)’’, ‘‘Leadership Styles Questionnaire (LSQ)’’ and ‘‘Organizational Climate Scale (QCS)’’ were used for data collection. The instruments were validated by three experts, two from the Department of Educational Management and Policy, and one from the Department of Educational Foundations, Nnamdi Azikiwe University. Cronbach alpha was used for a test of internal consistency of the instruments which yielded overall co-efficient values of 0.80, 0.82 and 0.82 for CPQ, LSQ and OCS respectively. The researcher together with four research assistants collected data for the study using the direct approach method and 97% return was recorded. Pearson Product Moment Correlational Coefficient was used to answer the research questions 1-4 and t-test of correlation to test hypotheses 1-4, while multiple regression was used to answer research question 5 and test hypothesis 5. The findings of the study revealed among others that downward and horizontal communication patterns of administrators have strong positive relationship with organization climate. Further results indicted that democratic leadership style of administrators has strong positive relationship with organizational climate in public universities South East, Nigeria. It was also revealed that all dimensions of communication patterns and leadership styles of administrators have significant relationship with organizational climate in South East, Universities, Nigeria. Based on the findings, it was recommended among others that university management should organize training programmes in forms of annually or quarterly conferences, seminars, short-courses and workshops to enable administrators acquire skills and knowledge of applying communication patterns and leadership styles to create positive organizational climate.
Higher education is the post secondary level of education that enables individuals to gain knowledge and acquire skills to improve their sources of livelihood and also contribute to the development of the society. It also inculcates sound moral values and character that promotes peaceful coexistence of individuals in the society. Federal Republic of Nigeria (2013) noted that higher education is the education given after post basic education in institutions such as Colleges of Education, Monotechnics, Polytechnics, Universities and other specialized institutions such as Colleges of Agriculture, School of Health and Technology and the National Teachers’ Institutes (NTI). The focus of this study is on university.
University is an institution of higher learning where people study to acquire knowledge, shape their character and obtain degrees in different disciplines. Tofi, Agada and Okafor (2020) opined that university is the foremost tertiary institution in Nigeria with responsibility for equipping people with knowledge and skills to undertake tasks and employment functions which are necessary for transformation of societies. The authors added that the functions of university in Nigeria include: teaching, research, production of texts, certification, storage and retrieval of knowledge, community service and enlightenment service. Universities offer opportunity for people to study at an undergraduate level for first degrees and at postgraduate level for advanced degrees. Similarly, Asuquo and Ekpoh (2020) opined that as the apex of education, every university is expected to generate knowledge, ideas, skills and disseminate same through teaching, learning, research and community services.
There are public and private universities in Nigeria which are regulated by National Universities Commission. The focus of the study is on the public universities which are established, financed and managed by State or Federal Government. Akpakwu and Okwo (2014) noted that the State and Federal Universities in Nigeria are composed of members of Governing Council, Vice-Chancellors, Principals officers, Administrators (Deans and Heads of Departments (HODs), academic and non-academic staff. The administrators control the daily activities of academic and non-academic. The university administrators inform and clarify members of staff of their job responsibilities and expectations through communication.
Communication is the act of disseminating information, passing message and expressing feelings among two or persons. According to Akarika, Umoren and Okon (2021), communication is an expression of thoughts, feelings, ideas and messages from the sender to the receiver through verbal, non-verbal, written and non-written forms. It is a process by which individuals exchange information, share ideas, provide facts, express their thoughts, feelings and values in a given setting. University administrators disseminate information and influence the activities of members of staff through different communication patterns.
Communication patterns are the channels and strategies employed by workforce of an organization in passing messages, sharing ideas and feelings among each other. According to Weldeghebriel, Mberia and Ndavula (2019), communication patterns deal with how information flows for smooth and better functioning of an organization. Communication patterns are techniques for creating, sending, and receiving information in the workplace. Fiel-Miranda and Miranda (2019) defined communication patterns as the ways of transmitting ideas, facts, thoughts, feelings and values between two or more persons. It is the structure in which information flow in an organization. Contextually, communication patterns are the sets of lines or flows of information by words, writing, symbols, body languages and other mediums. Several scholars identified communication pattern as follow: upward, downward and horizontal patterns (Badau, 2018; Joda, 2022, Akarika, Umoren and Okon, 2022; Uwandu, Udo-Anyanwu and Okorie, 2022). The focus of the study is on downward and horizontal patterns of communication.
Downward communication pattern is the flow of information from superiors to subordinates in an organization. Job descriptions, policies and goals of an organization are made known to subordinates through downward communication pattern. Ogunola and Akporaro (2015) asserted that when managers, supervisors, and team leaders communicate with the employees that are directly under them, downward communication is used. Continuing, they stressed that it is used to assign goals, provide job instructions, inform employees of policies and procedures, point out problems that need attention, and offer feedback about performance. The administrators who send letters to lecturers to informing them of deadline for lectures delivery and commencement of examinations have applied downward communication pattern. Badau (2018) pointed out that university leaders, from central office administrators to building-level administrators, communicate downward to members of academic and non-academic staff through speeches, messages in University bulletins, University board policy manuals, and school procedure handbooks. They added that the types of messages transmitted through downward pattern of communication are job instructions, job rationales and practices information, feedback and indoctrination. Some of the information communicated downward could be discussed and disseminated among staff of the same level through horizontal communication pattern.
Horizontal communication pattern is the style of exchanging information among members of staff across the same level or rank in an organization. Joda (2022) noted that horizontal communication is the transmission of information between people, divisions, departments or units within the same level of organizational hierarchy. Horizontal communication pattern helps to improve coordination between departments in the university. Badau (2018) noted that information disseminated through horizontal communication pattern is basically for coordination to tie together activities within or across departments on a single school campus or within divisions in a school-wide organisational system. Horizontal communication pattern takes place, when there is exchange of information among Heads of Departments, Divisional Heads and Unit Heads among others. Hee, Qin, Kowang, Husin and Ping (2019) asserted that horizontal communication pattern is useful in coordinating the activities of different departments in an organization. They added that it contributes in developing stronger relationship among staff in both similar department and different departments in an organization. The flow of information in universities could be enhanced by the leadership style of administrators.
Leadership styles are strategies adopted by administrators to influence and control the efforts of staff towards attainment of set goals and objectives. Leadership styles are series of approaches adopted by management towards ensuring members of staff diligently execute their duties. Dzakpasu, Amankwah, Konin and Amanfo (2022) defined leadership styles as the patterns of the manager’s interaction or behaviour in guiding, structuring and facilitating activitiesand relationships in a school. Leadership styles are the behavioural patterns of operating the activities of an organization and influencing the efforts of members of staff to attain common goals. Narad, Kaitano and Lakhanpal (2020) definedleadership styles as the behavioural patterns that a leader adopt to influence and motivate the attitude of the followers to accomplish given objectives. Leadership styles are the peculiar ways of influencing the conduct of staff in the workplace. Operationally, leadership styles are the ways and approaches in which administrators provides direction, control and influence the activities of staff toward realising predetermined objectives. The leadership styles could inspire, demoralize or encourage the contribution of subordinates towards the attainment of set goals. Several scholars have outlined leadership styles as follows: democratic, autocratic and laissez-faires (Jideofor, 2022; Mohammad, Alam, Amin and Alam, 2019). This study focused on three leadership styles namely democratic, autocratic and laissez-faires because they influence the behaviour of staff in an organization.
The democratic leadership style is an approach of leading by participation and collaboration of subordinates. The university administrators who apply democratic leadership style seek the opinions of the subordinates before taking decisions on the affairs of the institutions. Achimugu and Obaka (2020) posited that the suggestions, recommendations, opinions and views of the subordinates who are affected by decisions are actively sought by administrators who apply democratic leadership style. They further asserted that democratic leaders encourage staff and students to participate actively, thereby making them feel engaged and motivated to attain predetermined goals and objectives of the institution. The democratic style of leadership encourages use of initiatives and promotes creativity as the inputs of lecturers are highly valued. Okoroma and Agbo (2022) posited that democratic leadership style encourages trust, promotes team work and cooperation among employees. They added that this leadership style makes workers to be motivated to do more as they are usually part of the entire process of reaching decision. The administrators who adopt democratic leadership style tend to treat members of staff with kindness, respect and fairness. The administrators who use threats to get things done have applied autocratic leadership style,
Autocratic leadership style is characterised by the use punishment, threat, rules and regulations to guide the conduct of staff in an organization. Ziduli, Molepo, Buka and Jadezweni (2018) pointed out that autocratic leaders do not consult members of the organization in the decision-making process; they set all policies, predetermine the methods of work, determine the duties of followers, specify technical and performance evaluation standards. Autocratic administrators dictate all activities and work procedures in an organization. Jideofor (2022) asserted that autocratic leadership style is a self-centred leadership approach in which the superiors provide clear expectations of what needs to be done, when it should be done and how it should be done. Administrators who adopt autocratic style of leadership issue orders and give directives that must be obeyed by subordinates without any question. Achimugu and Obaka (2020) averred that autocratic style of leadership often engenders anger, frustration, despair, and in extreme cases withdrawal from school activities. Under autocratic style of leadership, there is limited freedom because of the domineering control by the administrators. Autocratic leadership style of administrators is likely to shape organizational climate of the university.
Organizational climate is the perception of the staff about the norms, practices and expectations in the work environment. Ezinine and Ughamadu (2021) defined organizational climate as the behavioural pattern, structure, norms, values, and traditions of a college that distinguish it from other organizations. Organizational climate is the shared beliefs and values that guide the work behaviour of staff of an establishment. According to Bello and Oredein (2022), organizational climate is the norms, goals, values, interpersonal relationships, teaching, learning, management practices and structure of a workplace. Organizational climate is a set of characteristics, feelings and work norms which is created from the way an organization deals with its members. Operationally, organizational climate is core sets of norms, shared values and perceptions that influence the thoughts and actions of staff in the workplace.
The rapid demand for university education without corresponding leadership styles and communication patterns to build a favourable organizational climate creates the problem of institutional effectiveness in Nigeria. Some university administrators tend to disengage members of staff from making suggestions regarding tasks to be done for attainment of set organizational goals. This is buttressed by the observation of Ndukwe, Ukeje and Onele (2016) which indicated that some university administrators apply undemocratic leadership style by not only denying members of staff the opportunity to participate in decision/policy making but force them to complete tasks against their wish. They added that this has created organization climate of disloyalty and distrust which tend to leads to formation of coalitions and cliques among staff in public universities in South East, Nigeria. Some administrators tend to be too harsh to staff and also demonstrate strictness by insisting on total compliance to lay down rules and procedures in public universities in South East, Nigeria.
There tends to be gap in the flow of information from the top-down and the bottom-up as it appears that communication from bottom-up is considered relevant only when problematic situation arises in public universities in South East, Nigeria. Badau (2018) observed that some administrators fail to respond when staff members bring up information or problems in Nigeria Universities. The author further noted that failure of university administrators to respond to request of members of staff will ultimately result in communication gaps. The communication gaps tends to make subordinates feel under-valued and left out in the affairs of universities which breed gossips, rumours and distrust that create unhealthy organizational climate. Nebo, Nwankwo and Okonkwo (2015) noted that the constant delay in accessing information by staff of universities in South East, Nigeria seems to create unfavourable organizational climate. This background prompted the investigation into communication patterns and leadership styles of administrators as correlates of organizational climate in South East, Universities, Nigeria.
Statement of the Problem
The hostile, unsupportive and unhealthy atmosphere of some public universities in South East is probably due to untimely dissemination of information, closed-minded leadership behaviours of the university administrators and their leadership styles of ignoring of staff’s suggestions on crucial matters which breed misunderstanding and confrontation. Inputs of some lecturers that tend to be sought during decision-making process appear to be hardly taken into considerations before deciding on university affairs in South East, Nigeria. Communication channels put by in place by some administrators tend to distract, interrupt and impede the flow of information from bottom-up in public universities in South East, Nigeria. Some administrators seem to be bossy, harsh and rely on the use threats to get work done by subordinates.
The hostile nature of some universities atmosphere in South East, Nigeria may be connected to communication gaps and rigid leadership behaviour of university administrators. The communication gaps could be associated with rumours and confusion in universities in South East, Nigeria. Some lecturers who are not well communicated about their roles by administrators are more likely to misunderstand their job requirements and expectations which undermine the success of the universities. The negative reactions of lecturers to the breakdown in communication in some universities in South East have somehow been reflecting in their absenteeism, low team spirit, grudges and poor interpersonal relationship with administrators. This prompted this study to investigate communication patterns and leadership styles of administrators as correlates of organizational climate in south-east universities.
Purpose of the Study
The study determined the communication patterns and leadership styles of administrators as correlates of organizational climate in South East, Universities, Nigeria. Specifically, it determined
Downward communication pattern of administrators as correlates of organizational climate in South East, Universities.
Horizontal communication pattern of administrators as correlates of organizational climate in South East, Universities.
Democratic leadership style of administrators as correlates of organizational climate in South East, Universities.
Autocratic leadership style of administrators as correlates of organizational climate in South East, universities.
Communication patterns and leadership styles of administrators as correlates of organizational climate in South East, Universities, Nigeria
Research Questions
The following research questions guided the study:
What is the relationship between downward communication pattern of administrators and organizational climate in South East, Universities?
What is the relationship between horizontal communication pattern of administrators and organizational climate in South East, Universities?
What is the relationship between democratic leadership style of administrators and organizational climate in South East, Universities?
What is the relationship between autocratic leadership style of administrators as correlates of organizational climate in South East, universities?
What is the relationship between communication patterns, leadership styles of administrators and organizational climate in South East, Universities, Nigeria
Hypotheses
The following null hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance:
There is no significant relationship between downward communication pattern of administrators and organizational climate in South East, Universities.
There is no significant relationship between horizontal communication pattern of administrators and organizational climate in South East, Universities.
There is no significant relationship between democratic leadership style of administrators and organizational climate in South East, Universities.
There is no significant relationship between autocratic leadership style of administrators as correlates of organizational climate in South East, universities.
There is no significant relationship between communication patterns, leadership styles of administrators and organizational climate in South East, Universities, Nigeria.
Methods
Correlation research design was adopted for this study. According to Nworgu (2015), this type of study seeks to establish what relationship exists between two or more variables. This design is appropriate since the study sought to collect data from respondents in order to investigatecommunication patterns and leadership styles of administrators as correlates of organizational climate in South East, Universities, Nigeria. The study was conducted in South East, Nigeria which is bounded in the east by Benue and Cross River States, in the west by Delta State, in the North by Kogi State and in the South by Akwa Ibom and Rivers States. South East Nigeria has five states namely; Abia, Anambra, Ebonyi, Enugu and Imo States.
The population of the study comprised 749 administrators in public universities in South East, Nigeria. The sample for the study comprised 300 administrators drawn using proportionate stratified sampling technique. The sample size was 40% of the population of the study.
Three sets of instruments titled Communication Patterns Questionnaire (CPQ), Leadership Styles Questionnaire (LSQ) and Organizational Climate Scale (QCS) were used to collect data. The first instrument titled CPQ was developed by the researcher from literature review and consultation of experts in the field of education. The instrument which measured communication patterns contains 14 items spread two clusters (1-2). Cluster 1 contained 7 items on downward communication pattern and Cluster 2 contained 7 items on horizontal communication pattern. The second instrument titled LSQ was developed by the researcher from literature review and consultation of experts in the field of education. The instrument which measured leadership styles contained 19 items spread three clusters (I-II). Cluster I contained 10 items on democratic leadership style and Cluster II contained 9 items on autocratic leadership style. The third instrument titled OCS was adopted from Pena-Suarez, Muniz, Campillo-Alvarez, Fonseca-Pedrero and Garcia-Cueto (2013).The instrument contained 25 items which measured organizational culture. The items of the three sets of instruments are placed on a 4-point rating of Strongly Agree (SA), Agree (A), Disagree (D) and Strongly Disagree (SD) weighted 4, 3, 2 and 1 respectively.
The instruments were subjected to face validation by three experts, two in the Department of Educational Management and Policy, and one in Measurement and Evaluation in the Department of Educational Foundations, all in the Faculty of Education, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka. The researcher presented the title, purpose of the study, research questions and hypotheses with a copy of the questionnaires to the three experts and requested them to examine and scrutinize the items in terms of relevance, suitability, clarity of instruction and content coverage. The experts suggested among others that leading statements should be provided in all clusters and some items should be restructured. Their suggestions were used to produce the final version of the instrument. The reliability of the instruments were ascertained through Cronbach alpha. The internal consistency coefficient values of 0.81 and 0.79 were obtained for Cluster 1 and 2 of CPQ with overall reliability coefficient value of 0.80. On the other hand, the internal consistency coefficient values of 0.84 and 0.80 were obtained for Cluster I and II of LSQ with overall reliability coefficient value of 0.82, while the coefficient obtained for OCS was 0.82.
The researcher with the help of four research assistants who are lecturers in public universities in South East administered copies of the questionnaires to the respondents through a direct approach. A total of 300 copies of the questionnaires were distributed and 291 were properly filled and successfully retrieved indicating 97% return rate. The copies of the questionnaires distributed, duly filled and successfully retrieved were used for data analysis. Data collected were analyzed using Pearson’s Product Moment Correlation Coefficient to answer the research questions 1-6, t-test of correlation to test the hypotheses 1-8 and multiple regression to answer research question 9 and test hypothesis 9. For decision on the research questions, the coefficient r and the size of the relationship was interpreted using the correlation coefficient by Alsagr (2021), as follows
Coefficient Relationship
.00- .19 Weak correlation
.20- .39 Fair correlation
.40- .69 Moderate correlation
.70- .89 Strong correlation
.90- .1.00 Very strong correlation
In taking decisions on the null hypotheses, if p-value is equal to or less (≤) than significant value of .05, the null hypothesis was rejected, but if p-value is greater than (>), the significant value of .05 the null hypotheses was accepted.
Results
Research Question 1: What is the relationship between downward communication pattern of administrators and organizational climate in South East, Universities?
Variables
N
Downward Communication Pattern
Organizational Climate
Remarks
Downward Communication Pattern
291
1.00
.759
Strong Positive Relationship
Organizational Climate
291
.759
1.00
Table 1: Pearson (r) on Relationship Downward Communication Pattern of Administrators and Organizational Climate
Result in Table 1 revealed that Pearson’s correlation coefficient (r) of .759 was obtained. This showed that there is strong positive relationship between downward communication pattern of administrators and organizational climate in South East, Universities. This indicated that an improvement in downward communication pattern of administrators will contribute to positive organizational climate.
Research Question 2: What is the relationship between horizontal communication pattern of administrators and organizational climate in South East, Universities?
Variables
N
Horizontal Communication Pattern
Organizational Climate
Remarks
Horizontal Communication Pattern
291
1.00
.715
Strong Positive Relationship
Organizational Climate
291
.715
1.00
Table 2: Pearson (r) on Relationship Horizontal Communication Pattern of Administrators and Organizational Climate
Table 2 indicated that a Pearson’s correlation coefficient (r) of .715 was obtained. This showed that there is strong positive relationship between horizontal communication pattern of administrators and organizational climate in South East, Universities. This indicated that increase in horizontal communication pattern of administrators will lead to better organizational climate.
Research Question 3: What is the relationship between democratic leadership style of administrators and organizational climate in South East, Universities?
Variables
N
Democratic Leadership Style
Organizational Climate
Remarks
Democratic Leadership Style
291
1.00
.818
Strong Positive Relationship
Organizational Climate
291
.818
1.00
Table 3: Pearson (r) on Relationship Democratic Leadership Style of Administrators and Organizational Climate
As shown in Table 3, Pearson’s correlation coefficient (r) of .818 was obtained. This showed that there is strong positive relationship between democratic leadership style of administrators and organizational climate in South East, Universities. This indicated that improvement on the democratic leadership style of administrators will contribute to better organizational climate.
Research Question 4: What is the relationship between autocratic leadership style of administrators and organizational climate in South East, Universities?
Variables
N
Autocratic Leadership Style
Organizational Climate
Remarks
Autocratic Leadership Style
291
1.00
.309
Fair Positive Relationship
Organizational Climate
291
.309
1.00
Table 4: Pearson (r) on Relationship Autocratic Leadership Style of Administrators and Organizational Climate
Table 4 indicated that a Pearson’s correlation coefficient (r) of .309 was obtained. This showed that there is fair positive relationship between autocratic leadership style of administrators and organizational climate in South East, Universities. This indicated that autocratic leadership style of administrators will contribute to fair organizational climate.
Research Question 5: What is the relationship between communication patterns, leadership styles of administrators and organizational climate in South East, Universities, Nigeria?
Model
R
R Square
Adjusted R Square
Std. Error of the Estimate
Remarks
1
.876
.767
.762
.283658
Strong
Table 5: The Summary of Multiple Regression Analysis on Communication Patterns and Leadership Styles of Administrators as Correlates of Organizational Culture
Table 5 showed that correlation coefficient of simple regression analysis is .876 with a coefficient of determination of .767. This shows that 76.7% variation in organizational Climate can be attributed to communication patterns, leadership styles of administrators. The regression Coefficient r of .876 indicated that there is strong positive relationship between communication patterns, leadership styles of administrators and organizational climate in South East, Universities, Nigeria.
Hypothesis One: There is no significant relationship between downward communication pattern of administrators and organizational climate in South East, Universities.
Table 6: The Summary of t-test of Correlation on the Significant Relationship between Downward Communication Pattern of Administrators and Organizational Climate
Variables
N
Downward Communication Pattern
Organizational Climate
P-Value
∞
Remark
Downward Communication Pattern
291
1
.759
.000
.05
Rejected
Organizational Climate
291
.759
1
Table 6 revealed that the p-value of .000 is less than .05. Therefore, since the p-value is less than the stipulated .05 level of significance, the null hypothesis was rejected. Therefore, there is significant relationship between downward communication pattern of administrators and organizational climate in South East, Universities.
Hypothesis Two: There is no significant relationship between horizontal communication pattern of administrators and organizational climate in South East, Universities.
Table 7: The Summary of t-test of Correlation on the Significant Relationship between Horizontal Communication Pattern of Administrators and Organizational Climate
Variables
N
Horizontal Communication Pattern
Organizational Climate
P-Value
∞
Remark
Horizontal Communication Pattern
291
1
.715
.000
.05
Rejected
Organizational Climate
291
.715
1
The result presented in Table 7 revealed that the p-value of .000 is less than .05. Therefore, since the p-value is less than the stipulated .05 level of significance, the null hypothesis was rejected. Therefore, there is significant relationship between horizontal communication pattern of administrators and organizational climate in South East, Universities.
Hypothesis Three: There is no significant relationship between democratic leadership style of administrators and organizational climate in South East, Universities.
Table 8: The Summary of t-test of Correlation on the Significant Relationship between Democratic Leadership Style of Administrators and Organizational Climate
Variables
N
Democratic Leadership Pattern
Organizational Climate
P-Value
∞
Remark
Democratic Leadership Style
291
1
.818
.000
.05
Rejected
Organizational Climate
291
.818
1
The result presented in Table 8 revealed that the p-value of .000 is less than .05. Therefore, since the p-value is less than the stipulated .05 level of significance, the null hypothesis was rejected. Therefore, there is significant relationship between democratic leadership style of administrators and organizational climate in South East, Universities.
Hypothesis Four: There is no significant relationship between autocratic leadership style of administrators and organizational climate in South East, Universities.
Table 9: The Summary of t-test of Correlation on the Significant Relationship between Autocratic Leadership Style of Administrators and Organizational Climate
Variables
N
Autocratic Leadership Pattern
Organizational Climate
P-Value
∞
Remark
Autocratic Leadership Style
291
1
.309
.000
.05
Rejected
Organizational Climate
291
.309
1
Table 9 showed that the p-value of .000 is less than .05. Therefore, since the p-value is less than the stipulated .05 level of significance, the null hypothesis was rejected. Therefore, there is significant relationship between autocratic leadership style of administrators and organizational climate in South East, Universities.
Hypothesis Five: There is no significant relationship between communication patterns, leadership styles of administrators and organizational climate in South East, Universities, Nigeria.
Table 10: The Summary of Multiple Regression Analysis on Communication Patterns and Leadership Styles of Administrators as Correlates of Organizational Climate
Predictor
R
R2
F
P-value
Remark
Communication Patterns and Leadership Styles
.876
.767
158.856
.000
*S
*Significant
As shown in Table 10, the multiple regression coefficient (R) is .876 while the R2 is .767 showing that communication patterns and leadership styles of administrators make 76.7% contribution to the variance organizational climate. The F (1/291) =158.556 and the p-value of .000 is less than .05. Therefore, since the p-value is less than the stipulated .05 level of significance, the null hypothesis was rejected. Therefore, there is significant relationship between communication patterns, leadership styles of administrators and organizational climate in South East, Universities, Nigeria.
Discussion
The result of the study indicated that there is strong positive relationship between downward communication pattern of administrators and organizational climate in South East, Universities. This is in conformity with the finding of Thet and Htarr (2020) which indicated that there was positively strong relationship between principals’ downward communication pattern and school climate. The agreement in findings could be associated with the fact that the two studies were conducted in educational institutions where administrators give instructions and provide directions using downward communication pattern. This is in disagreement with the finding of This contradicted the finding of Sapian, Abdullah, Ghani, Abdullah and Omar (2019) which indicated that there was moderate relationship between principals’ downward communication pattern and school climate. The difference in geographical locations where there are different policies guiding downward communication pattern. This finding is explained by the fact that downward communication pattern is a means of providing instructions and disseminating information on policies, rules and work procedures enable subordinate become aware of their job roles and expected behaviour contribute to strong organizational climate. Downward communication pattern is strongly correlated with organizational climate due to the fact that it helps to keep members of staff up-dated and well-informed of tasks to be done and how to execute the tasks. The university administrators through downward communication pattern delegate duties and instill a sense of responsibilities to subordinates which contribute ton strong organizational climate.
Further result indicated that there is significant relationship between downward communication pattern of administrators and organizational climate in South East, Universities. This is in line with the finding of Thet and Htarr (2020) which revealed that there was significant relationship between principals’ downward communication pattern and school climate. The university administrators give order and directives to the subordinates through downward communication pattern to ensure uniformity and compliance to standard mode of operations which explain the significant relationship with organizational climate. The mission and values of universities shared with members of staff through downward communication pattern enable them understand the expected attitude towards achieving the values which thereby create favourable organizational climate.
It was revealed that indicated that there is strong positive relationship between horizontal communication pattern of administrators and organizational climate in South East, Universities. This is in agreement with the finding of Lannes (2021) which showed a strong positive correlation between organizational horizontal communication and organizational climate. Horizontal communication pattern which ensures unity of purpose among departments or teams at the same level in universities could explain the strong relationship with organizational culture. Members of staff with the same job title could work together to achieve interdependent goals through horizontal communication pattern. Some departments who are dependent on one another for vital information in executing tasks could create strong organizational climate through horizontal communication pattern. The opportunity in which horizontal communication pattern provides for staff at the same level to communicate directly without going through the university administrators could account for the strong relationship with organizational climate.
Further finding showed that there is significant relationship between horizontal communication pattern of administrators and organizational climate in South East, Universities. This affirmed the finding of Sidiropoulou (2021) which showed a significant correlation between organizational horizontal communication and organizational climate. Horizontal communication pattern which facilitates information sharing and task coordination between departments or units could account for the significant relationship with organizational climate.
The finding of the study indicated that there is strong positive relationship between democratic leadership style of administrators and organizational climate in South East, Universities. This supported the finding of Zamin and Hussin (2021) which showed there was a strong positive relationship between democratic leadership style and work climate. This is also in line with the finding of Barnova, Trelova, Krasna, Benova, Hasajova and Gabrhelova (2022) which indicated democratic leadership style has strong correlation with school climate. The agreement in the findings of the studies could be connected to the fact that the two studies were conducted in educational institutions. This finding is probably due to the fact that democratic leadership style which empowers subordinates to participate in decision-making process could make them feel valued and thereby create strong and healthy organizational climate. Open discussion and sharing of new idea encouraged by administrators who apply democratic leadership style lead to feeling of trust, loyalty and team cohesion could be connected with the strong relationship with organizational climate. Members of staff feel more involved, committed and inspired to take action that foster healthy organizational climate through their inputs and ideas solicited by democratic administrators.
Further result showed that there is significant relationship between democratic leadership style of administrators and organizational climate in South East, Universities. This is in consonance with the finding of Barnova, Trelova, Krasna, Benova, Hasajova and Gabrhelova (2022) which showed democratic leadership style has significant correlation with school climate. University administrators who apply democratic style inspire trust and respect among subordinates which could account for the significant relationship with organizational climate. University administrators who apply democratic leadership style delegate responsibilities, foster participatory management and team work which help to build strong organizational climate.
The result of the study indicated that there is fair positive relationship between autocratic leadership style of administrators and organizational climate in South East, Universities. This agreed with the finding of Zamin and Hussin (2021) which revealed that there was a fair positive and significant relationship between autocratic leadership style and work culture. This disagreed with the finding of Philip, Ibrahim and Yussof (2020) which revealed that there exist weak relationship between autocratic leadership style and organizational climate. The difference in geographical location could explain the disagreement in findings. The autocratic administrators who deprive subordinates the opportunities to make inputs and provide feedback on the affairs of university lead to feeling of mistrust and this breeds misunderstanding which could explain the fair relationship with organizational climate. The absolute control over subordinates by administrators who apply autocratic leadership impair creative ideas and inputs that tend to lead to physical confrontation which could contribute to the fair relationship with organizational climate. Autocratic administrators fail to value the suggestions of subordinates decrease their morale and create unfair organizational climate.
Further finding showed that there is significant relationship between autocratic leadership style of administrators and organizational climate in South East, Universities. This refuted the finding of Philip, Ibrahim and Yussof (2020) which showed that there was no significant relationship between autocratic leadership style and organizational climate. This disagreed with the finding of Ngoma, Sakakombe and Kabeta (2019) which indicated that the relationship between autocratic leadership style and school climate was not statistically significant. This disagreement could be attributed to the fact that the studies were conducted in different levels of education where the school administrators have different qualifications and experience that guide their use of autocratic leadership style to shape the school climate.
It was showed that there is strong positive relationship between communication patterns, leadership styles of administrators and organizational climate in South East, Universities, Nigeria. This supported the finding of Witarini and Sriathi (2020) which showed that there is joint strong relationship between leadership styles, effective communication and organizational climate. This finding is explained by the fact that communication patterns and leadership styles of administrators determine the social norms, values and expected behaviour that forms the organizational climate of universities. The interaction of administrators with subordinates, decision-making process as well as work procedures which are instrumental in creating strong organizational climate is determined by the communication patterns and leadership styles in universities.
Further result showed that there is significant relationship between communication patterns, leadership styles of administrators and organizational climate in South East, Universities, Nigeria. This agreed with the finding of Witarini and Sriathi (2020) which showed that there is significant relationship between leadership styles, effective communication and organizational climate. This finding is explained by the fact that the flow of information determined by communication patterns of administrators as well as their leadership styles which influence the work behaviour of staff could significantly create the organizational climate of universities.
Conclusion
Based on the findings, it was concluded that the communication patterns and leadership styles of administrators have positive and significant relationship with organizational climate in South East, Universities. Communication patterns and leadership styles of administrators help to convey information about core values, mission and expected behaviour that create organizational culture of universities. It is the patterns of communication and styles of leadership that could inspire open discussion, good interpersonal relationship, teamwork and honest feedback that strongly shape the organizational culture of universities.
Recommendations
Based on the findings of the study, the following recommendations were made:
University management should formulate programme and modalities that encourage downward communication pattern by creating innovative channels for timely dissemination of information to members of staff and students for healthy organizational climate.
University council should create flowchart that provide details of communication between departments or units with regard to frequency and mode of communication which will foster horizontal communication pattern and strongly improve organizational climate.
University administrators should practice democratic leadership style by encouraging open communication and friendly environment that embolden subordinates to express how they think and feel things could be done to strongly create healthy organizational climate.
University administrators should modify their autocratic leadership style by considering the inputs of subordinates in operation of daily affairs to create positive organizational climate.
University management should organize training programmes in forms of annually or quarterly conferences, seminars, short-courses and workshops to enable administrators acquire skills and knowledge of applying communication patterns and leadership styles to create positive organizational climate.
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ESE Theresa Esenohor, Yakubu Abubakar, Orogun E. Simeon
College of Education, Warri
Abubakar Yak & Co Chartered Accountants
College of Education, Warri
Abstract
This study examines the impact of directors’ remuneration on financial performance of selected quoted firms in Nigeria. The study has been conducted in different parts of the globe and in Nigeria with different findings which are mixed and inconclusive. The population of the study consists of ten (10) firms quoted on the Nigerian stock exchange as at 31st December 2021 out of which ten (10) firms were selected as samples for a period of Ten (10) years from 2012 to 2021 based on purposeful sampling technique. The study uses Correlation matrix and OLS regression as tools for analysis and adopted the correlational research design. The study shows that Directors’ remuneration has a positive significant impact on financial performance of quoted selected firms in Nigeria.
Keywords: Directors, Remuneration, Leverage.
Introduction
Director Remuneration plays an important role in firms especially it impacts on firm’s financial performance.Directors’ remuneration is the full package of compensation received by a director from a company. It is seen beyond the salary, but can also include bonus payments, stocks, options to buy stocks, and other benefits. Tax consequences can restrict the way directors’ remuneration is calculated based on relevant legislations imposed on Companies. According to Ab Razak (2014), Directors’ remuneration is the payment made for services or employment of directors on the board of a company or corporation. Directors may be compensated by fee, salary, and or use of the company’s property as an agreement between them and the company. However, the amount of remuneration cannot exceed the amount specified in the articles of association (AOA) as stated in company law. Akter (2020) opined that Directors` pay will certainly impact positively on firm performance if the payment mechanism effectively elicits/incentivizes the board to do so. Thus, a positive impact of pay on performance indirectly reflects whether directors are paid for performance. On the other hand, the high levels of an interrelation exist between and within the remuneration packages for CEOs and board of directors with the indicators of corporate performance. The results showed that performance indicators and remuneration packages are positively correlated with each other (Aslam, Haron& Tahir 2019). Empirical studies conducted on the Directors Remuneration and financial performance which include studies Herdan & Szczepanska (2011), Ab Razak (2014), Razali, Yee, Hwangi, Tak, & Kadri (2018), Akter, Ali, Abedin, & Hossain, (2020) of are largely foreign. Most of studies conducted in Nigeria to the best of our knowledge concentrated on insurance firms, deposit money banks and Hospitality firms which could not provide adequate evidence on the impact of Directors remuneration on financial performance as far as selected firms in the Consumer goods and oil and gas sectors are concerned. Those studies have provided mixed and inconclusive findings due to the data collected, methodology used and the industry used and to the best of our knowledge, among studies conducted in Nigeria, we have not seen a study that took into consideration the selected quoted firms from Consumer goods and Oil and gas sectors. To this end, this study attempts to fill the gap by examining the impact of Directors remuneration on financial performance of selected quoted firms of Consumer goods and Oil and gas sectors in Nigeria. The main objective of the study is to examine the impact of Directors Remuneration on financial performance of quoted selected firms in Nigeria. The Specific objective of the study are to determine the extent to which Directors remuneration impact on financial performance of quoted selected firms in Nigeria. In line with the specific objective, a hypothesis was formulated which is: HO1 Directors remuneration has no significant impact on financial performance of quoted selected firms in Nigeria.
Literature Review
Many studies have been conducted on the impact of Directors remuneration on financial performance. Herdan & Szczepanska (2011) opined the impact of Directors’ Remuneration and Companies’ Performance of Listed Companies in Poland and Uk. They said that companies size, accounting factor and market factor are three factors that affect CEO compensation.. They looked at the relationship between each of this factors and directors remuneration. Sample of companies listed on London Stock Exchange (LSE) and Warsaw Stock Exchange (WSE) for the period of 2007 – 2010. Data were collected through annual reports content analysis and announcement on websites of LSE and WSE. Linear regression was run on collected data. The results of the findings showed a positive correlation between directors’ remuneration and companies’ size in both British and Polish listed companies. There existed also a positive relationship between directors pay and companies performance. Ab Razak (2014) investigated the relationship between director’s remuneration, corporate governance structure and performance of a sample of 150 companies listed on the Bursa Malaysia from year 2008 until 2013. Sample was selected to provide matched-pair of government linked companies (GLCs) and non-government linked companies (non-GLCs), as it was anticipated that these group would have different governance structure, the key difference being government ownership. The result holds even when we control for company specific characteristic such as corporate governance, company size, leverage, director’s remuneration, board size and auditors. They used panel based regression model to examine the impact of government control mechanism on company performance using two important measurers. Accounting based measure was proxies by ROA and non-accounting based measured by Tobin’s Q. The result of the study showed a significant impact of government ownership on company performance after controlling for company specific characteristics. Lawrence (2020) examined the impact of directors’ remuneration on firms’ performance of Thirteen (13) commercial banks listed on the Nigerian Stock Exchange from 2010 to 2017. Descriptive Statistics, Correlation Matrix, and the Ordinary Least Square Regression Techniques were used in analyzing the related data set. The results of the study revealed that there is no significant relationship between directors’ remuneration (proxy as directors’ salary and bonus share) and firm’s performance in terms of shareholders’ value of Tobin Q, among listed banks in Nigeria. Razali, etal (2018) examined the Impact of Directors’ Remuneration and Firm’s Performance: A Study on Malaysian Listed Firm under Consumer Product Industry. Firm performances are measured by return on assets (ROA) and return on equities (ROE). A sample of 40Malaysian listed companies for the period of 2012to 2014 was employed. After controlling forboard size, CEO duality, firm size, firm age and leverage, the results of the study revealed that director remuneration has positive relationship with firm performance measured by ROA and ROE. The result also shows all variables affect firm performance differently. Ahmed, Bahamman, & Abdulkarim (2020) examined the effect of directors’ remuneration on financial performance of listed insurance companies in Nigeria. Data was gotten from annual reports and accounts of listed Insurance companies in Nigeria from 2012 to 2017. The Population of the study was all 28 insurance companies listed on the floor of the Nigerian stock exchange market, out of which 19 insurance companies were randomly selected as sample for the study. Data was analyzed using pooled OLS, fixed and random effects regression. It was found that directors’ remuneration is positively and significantly related to financial performance at 10% level of significance. On the interaction variables, it was found that the presence of more independent directors on the board strengthens the positive impact of directors’ remuneration on firm performance. Otekunrin etal (2018) studied the impact of Directors Compensation on firm performance using selected general insurance companies as a case study. Eight general insurance companies which were listed in Nigeria Stock Exchange (NSE) were used from 2009-2013. The time frame used considered the recapitalization in the insurance industry that occurred in 2007. They made use of secondary data which were collected from the published annual reports of the eight (8) general insurance companies under study. The data was analyzed using the regression analysis. Return on Assets (ROA) and net claims paid (NC) were used to establish a relationship between with directors’ compensation. The results of the study revealed a significant relationship between annual directors’ compensation and firm performance of the general insurance companies. It also showed a significant but negative relationship between directors compensation and Return on asset, while that of net claims paid was significantly positive. Akter etal (2020), Directors’ Remuneration and Performance: Evidence from the Textile Sector of Bangladesh, They used Generalized Method of Moments (GMM) and data pertaining to listed textile companies of Dhaka Stock Exchange (DSE) from 2011 to 2017 resulting in a total of 140 firm-year observations. They used directors’ remuneration and board independence as the independent variables and some other control variables like firm age, size, leverage, and operating efficiency. The results of the study showed that there existed a negative association between board remuneration and firm performance. They found no significant relationship between board independence and firm performance of the sample firms. John etal (2019) studied the effect of Directors’ Remuneration on Financial performance; Evidence from the Nigerian Hospitality industry. They employed ex-post facto research design using panel data from 2009 to 2018. The scope of the study comprised of the three hotels listed in the Nigerian Stock Exchange as at December 2018. Necessary data were obtained from the audited financial reports of the selected companies. The results of the regression analysis revealed a positive significant relationship between directors’ remuneration and corporate financial performance. Drake & Kevin (2003) examined the impact of Executive remuneration and firm performance: Evidence from a panel of Mutual organizations. The relationship between the remuneration of: the highest paid director (HPD), mean Board remuneration (Director), and the Chairperson of the Board (Chair) and firm-level performance were examined on a panel of mutual building societies from 1991 to 1996. Profitability and the change in total factor productivity (TFP were two measures of performance employed. The result of the study showed a strong positive relationship between profitability and pay is found for the HPD but not for the Director or Chair. The relationship between pay and TFP change is generally weak for all three measures of executive remuneration. A strong relationship between size and the executive remuneration measures is found, particularly for the Director. Singhal & Agrawal (2022) studied the Impact of director’s Remuneration on financial performance of top 10 BSE Listed companies from. 2019-2021Financial performance of the company was measured by various financial ratios i.e. NPR, DE, ROCE, CR, ROA. Secondary data were collected from the official website of the company. E views were used to investigate the correlation between Directors remuneration and financial performance. The result of the study indicates that director’s remuneration has significant impact on financial performance. Saidu, Bello & Jibril (2017), Executive Compensation and Financial Performance; Industry Sensitivity Test. They used ex post-facto research design to test its objectives using ten years data drawn from banking and construction industries with results obtained from data analysis using both descriptive and inferential statistics. The result of the study showed that both correlation and OLS results revealed significantly negative and positive results on banking and construction industries respectively. Capuano (2022) investigated the impact of directors’ remuneration on bank performance: Evidence in the US for the period 1999–2021. They focused on the remuneration of the chief executive officer (CEO), neglecting that of the board members. The scientific analysis methodology was adopted based on the analysis of panel data. The results of the data analysis made it possible to highlight the existence of a significant link between the remuneration policies adopted by banks concerning the corporate results obtained in terms of profitability. Secondly, the results showed differences, in terms of impact on banking performance, between the remuneration of chief executive officers and the remuneration of directors. Aslam, Haron& Tahir 2019. Studied How director remuneration impacts firm performance: An empirical analysis of executive director remuneration in Pakistan, They used GMM approach to account for the problem of potential endogeneity and unobserved heterogeneity that arises due to the potential reverse causality (pay and performance) for a sample of non-financial firms listed in the KSE from 2009 to2016. They supported the agency theory whereby CEOs/board of directors is compensated for their prior level of market-based performance. In addition, it weakly supports the notion of the steward/tournament theory. The result of the study revealed that CEOs/board director’s remuneration is highly persistent and takes time to adjust to long-run equilibrium.
Methodology
This research adopted correlation research design and was considered adequate and appropriate for this study because it describes the statistical relationship between the independent variable of the study (Directors remuneration) and the dependent variable (Return on Equity). The population consists of selected firms from Oil and Gas and Consumer goods Sector namely Conoil Plc, Champion Breweries Plc, Dangote Sugar Refinery Plc, Flour Mills Nigeria Plc, Forte Oil Plc, Honeywell Flour Mills Plc, MRS oil Nigeria Plc, Nestle Nigeria Plc, Oando Plc, Total Nigeria Plc quoted on the Nigerian Stock Exchange as at 31st December 2021 and covered a period of Ten (10) years (2012-2021). Purposeful sampling technique was employed to select the sample. The sample selected was in line with this, the sample size is all the ten (10) selected quoted firms on the Nigerian stock exchange namely Conoil Plc, Champion Breweries Plc, Dangote Sugar Refinery Plc, Flour Mills Nigeria Plc, Forte Oil Plc, Honeywell Flour Mills Plc, MRS oil Nigeria Plc, Nestle Nigeria Plc, Oando Plc, Total Nigeria Plc. The study employed panel data using statistical package for social sciences (SPSS 25) and Ordinary Least Square (OLS) method adopted in this study is a parametric statistical test that is based on a number of assumptions, the violation of which could affect the reliability of the results. The Pearson correlation and t-test statistics were used for inferential analysis. Two of the most commonly encountered problems addressed in this study relate to normal distribution of the variables and descriptive statistics was used to test for normality of data.
Model Specification
The model that was used to test the hypothesis formulated for this study is presented below. The null Hypothesis is tested considering the results for the P-values at 1%, 5% and 10% level of significance.
ROE = f (DIREREβ1+ LEVβ2)
ROE = α + β1DIRERE + LEVβ2+ ϵi
Where
α= the intercept
ROE = Profit after Tax divided by Total Equity.
DIRERE= the Total amount of Expenditure incurred on Directors remuneration for the year
LEV = the total liabilities divided by total assets.
ϵi= error term
Leverage is a controls variable.
Data Presentation
This part presents the results of the descriptive statistics and regression results on the impact of Directors remuneration on financial performance of selected quoted firms in Nigeria. One explanatory variable and One (1) control variable are employed for the purpose of explaining and predicting the impact of Director Remuneration on financial performance of selected quoted firms in Nigeria.
Test of Normality
The normality tests are supplementary to the graphical assessment of normality. For this study, Z skewness and Z Kurtosis are used to test for normality of the One (1) independent variable; namely Directors remuneration. The Z skewness was computed as skewness divided by standard error of skewness and the Z kurtosis was computed as kurtosis divided by standard error of kurtosis.
Table 4.2.1 shows the skewness, kurtosis and Z skewness and Z kurtosis.
Table 1 Descriptive Statistics Table for the Variables
Variables
Skewness
Standard Error
Z Skewness
Kurtosis
Standard Error
Z Kurtosis
DIRERE
2.461
0.241
10.21
5.559
0.478
11.63
This table shows the normality test for Director Remuneration
In Small samples like that of this study which the number of observations is 100, values of Z skewness and Z kurtosis greater or lesser than 1.96 are sufficient to establish normality of the data. The result of Skewness for Directors remuneration is 2.461. The Z skewness of Directors remuneration is 10.21 which is more than 1.96 shows that the data is normal which indicates that the data for Directors remuneration relates linearly to the dependent variable (Return on Equity). The results of the Kurtosis for Directors remuneration is 5.559 and the Z kurtosis of Directors remuneration is 11.63 is more than 1.96 and therefore, is normal which indicates that the data for Directors remuneration relates linearly to the dependent variable (Return on Equity). Ghasemi and Zahediasl (2012).
Table 2. Correlational Matrix of Independent and Dependent Variables
Source: Author’s computation using SPSS 25The symbol * represents significant at 10%The symbol ** represents significant at 5%
The symbol ***represents significant at 1%The results from the table above shows that Directors remuneration correlates positively with the dependent variable (Return on Equity) at 1% level of significant. Directors’ remuneration correlates positively with the control variable (Leverage) at 1% level of significant. The implication of the result is that a higher directors’ remuneration is able to motivate and retain directors in order to perform their duty and work harder for the best interest of shareholders which will result in better financial performance.
The estimated equation of the study is presented as follows:
ROE = 0.147 + 0.358 (DIRERE) + 0.367 (LEV).
Financial performance measured by Return on Equity would be equal to 0.147 when all other variables are held to zero. One-unit change of Directors remuneration all other variables remain constant, would increase Director Remuneration by 0.147. The regression result of the study shows that the beta coefficient in respect of Directors remuneration is (0.358) and the t-value is (4.159) and it is significant at 1%. This means that, as far as selected firms of oil and gas and consumer goods sectors are concerned, Directors remuneration has significant impact on financial performance of quoted selected firms in Nigeria. The implication of this is that, a higher directors’ remuneration is able to motivate and retain directors in order to perform their duty and work harder for the best interest of shareholders which will result in better financial performance. This provides an evidence of rejecting the hypothesis stating that Directors remuneration has no significant impact on financial performance of quoted selected firms in Nigeria.
The overall impact Directors remuneration of is able to explain the dependent variable up to (58%). This shows a positive relationship as indicated by the R valueand the remaining (42%) are controlled by other factors. Similarly, the result of the F- statistic shows the overall fitness of the model. The F- statistic has a value of (24.785) and is significant at 1% which implies that the model is fit because it is significant at all levels of significant. Durbin Watson of (1.950) shows that there is no problem of autocorrelation in the data set (Gujarati, 2004).
Findings of the Study
Directors’ remuneration has significant impact on financial performance of quoted selected firms in Nigeria which is in line with the findings of Herdan & Szczepanska (2011), John etal (2019) and Razali, etal (2018).
Conclusions
This study has contributed to findings on Accounting Research in Nigeria. It investigated whether Directors remuneration impacted on financial performance of quoted selected firms in Nigeria. The study concludes that Directors remuneration has a positive significant impact on financial performance of quoted selected Oil and gas and consumer goods firms in Nigeria.
References
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Akter, S., Ali, H.M .,Abedin, T.M Hossain, B. (2020), Directors’ Remuneration and Performance: Evidence from the Textile Sector of Bangladesh , / Journal of Asian Finance, Economics and Business Vol 7 No 6 (2020) 265-275 265,doi:10.13106/jafeb.2020.vol7.no6.265
Capuano, P. (2022) Impact of Directors’ Remuneration on Banks’ Performance: Evidence in the US Banking System, Corporate Board: Role, Duties and Composition, Volume 18, Issue 3.
Drake, K. & Kevin, L. (2003), Executive remuneration and Firm performance: Evidence from a panel of Mutual organizations, Department of Economics, University of Leicester, Leicester, LE1 7RH, UK.
Ghasemi and Zahediasl (2012), Normality Test For Statistical Analysis: A Guide for Non- Statisticians, International Journal of Endocrinology and Metabolism.
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Abstract: Ideological and political education is an important part of cultivating innovative talents with firm Ideology Political ideologies for national emerging industries under the background of new engineering. In the previous course teaching of “Digital Image Processing”, the main focus was on explaining the knowledge points of the course without considering the exploration and integration of relevant ideological and political elements contained. According to the above issues, guided by the teaching goal of “trinity” of value shaping, ability cultivation, and knowledge teaching, a preliminary exploration is conducted on the ideological and political aspects of the Digital Image Processing. The paper takes the digital image processing course as an example to elaborate on the ideological and political teaching methods for professional courses. By exploring the ideological and political elements, reconstructing teaching designand changing teaching strategies, the ideological and political education of the course is integrated into the entire process of professional teaching, in order to achieve the education goal of “moistening things silently”. Practice has shown that students’ enthusiasm for learning this course has been significantly increased, and their satisfaction with the ideological and political content of the course is high, achieving the expected teachingeffects.
Keywords: Curriculum Ideological and Political Education, Digital Image Processing, Establishing Virtue and Cultivating Talents.
1. Introduction
In December 2016，General Secretary xi jin-ping had an important speech at the National Conference on Ideological and Political Work in Higher Education Institutions, which clearly stated that “ideological and political work should be integrated into the entire process of education and teaching, achieving full and all-round education”, as well as “all types of courses should go hand in hand with ideological and political theory courses, forming a synergistic effect” [1]. Since February 2017, the Ministry of Education actively promoted the construction of new engineering, and had formed the “Fudan Consensus” and “Tianda Action”. The construction of new engineering compared with traditional engineering emphasized more on the practicality, intersectionality and comprehensiveness of disciplines in emerging industries, such as artificial intelligence, intelligent manufacturing, robots, cloud computing, etc [2]. In contrast to the distinctive characteristics of the new engineering major, digital image processing technology is not only an applied technology course in the field of artificial intelligence, but also fully possesses the characteristics of the new engineering major, which is bound to serve China’s emerging industries[3]. In May 2020, the Ministry of Education issued the “Guidelines for the Ideological and Political Construction of Curriculum in Higher Education Institutions”, which pointed out that “engineering courses should focus on strengthening students’ engineering ethics education, cultivating students’ spirit of striving for excellence as a great craftsman, and stimulating students’ patriotism and mission responsibility for serving the country through science and technology” [4].
Integrating ideological and political education into all aspects of curriculum teaching and reform, to achieve the goal of cultivating morality and nurturing people by moistening things silently. Focusing on the curriculum goal of combining knowledge transmission and value guidance, we will construct a comprehensive curriculum education pattern [5], strengthen explicit ideological political education and refine implicit ideological political education. Contemporary youth should establish the lofty ideals and beliefs of communism, possess the ability to distinguish right from wrong, and develop a correct worldview, outlook on life and values. At present, some engineering students do not devote much attention to the importance of the study of ideological and political courses, and their learning enthusiasm is not very high. Therefore, engineering university education must build a comprehensive ideological and political education system, especially to fully leverage the ideological and political education role of various professional courses. While teaching professional knowledge, it is necessary to combine theory with application and integrate professional and ideological education to achieve the effect of moistening things silently in education.
The rapid development of artificial intelligence and other technologies have driven a new round of technological revolution and industrial transformation. In this context, the construction of new engineering courses has put forward new requirements for the core literacy and creative ability of innovative talents as an important development strategy for higher education in the new era. New engineering talents will must be the backbone of the future engineering technology field. Therefore, the question of which type talent to cultivate for the new engineering discipline has become the primary issue in higher education. Virtue is the foundation of being a person, and ideological and political education is the key link to implementing the fundamental task of cultivating morality and cultivating people in universities. With the arrival of the Personal media era, people can freely publish and spread their own opinions. The information is messy or mixed with all kinds of extreme and wrong information, which also brings higher difficulties and new challenges to the ideological and political education in universities. Therefore, integrating ideological and political elements into science and engineering courses can make ideological and political education more grounded and closely related to students’ future career in the field of technology, more stimulating the interest of young students. Under the background of the construction of the new engineering discipline, the construction of a complete ideological and political curriculum system is an important measure to accelerate the cultivation of composite talents who love the party and patriotism and have solid basic knowledge with strong innovation ability,and they are willing to practice.
II. Problems of Ideological and Political Education in Digital Image Processing Course
In university engineering education, students spend most of their time studying engineering courses. Engineering courses have the characteristics of professionalism, practicality, innovation, and scientificity. Currently most of them focus on theoretical technology and lack the cultivation of scientific spirit and ethics [6]. There are several main problems in the ideological and political education of digital image processing courses.
1) Neglecting the important role of using professional courses to educate students on values, the awareness of using professional courses for ideological and political education is not strong and the ability to cultivate morality is insufficient.
2) The ideological and political education in the curriculum is not deep enough. There is a characteristic of emphasizing the impartation of knowledge and skills in teaching, ideological and political education is superficial and difficult to implement; teachers tend to focus on professional knowledge teaching in specific education and teaching for tight academic schedules and heavy teaching tasks, However, education in terms of emotions, attitudes, and values often becomes mere formality, lacking a distinctive and dynamically adjusting auxiliary ideological and political curriculum system that integrates professional ethics, humanistic literacy, craftsmanship spirit, and model worker spirit education throughout the entire process of cultivation.
3) The construction of the content system for ideological and political education in the curriculum is incomplete. Currently ideological and political education in courses has become the main theme of teaching reform in universities, but the construction plan and standards of ideological and political education of digital image processing courses are still in the exploratory stage. Teachers can consciously integrate ideological and political elements into course teaching, but there is no relatively mature curriculum system that combining ideological and political education with professional courses.
Therefore, integrating ideological and political elements into science and engineering courses can make ideological and political education more vivid, grounded, and closely related to students’ future career in the field of technology, thus more appealing to young students. Under the background of the construction of the new engineering, a complete ideological and political curriculum system is an important measure to accelerate the cultivation of composite talents who love the party and patriotism, have solid basic knowledge and strong innovation ability, and are willing to practice.
III. Strategies for Integrating Ideological and Political Education into Professional Course Teaching
Professional course teachers are important forces in carrying out ideological and political education for students in universities. Introducing ideological and political education into professional course teaching is currently the primary goal of professional course teaching reform, and is also an important supplement to ideological and political education in universities, to enable students to master knowledge to the maximum extent in the classroom, stimulating their interest in learning, providing ideological and political education to students silently, and cultivating innovative new engineering talents for society.
3.1 Professional teachers have a correct understanding of curriculum ideology and politics
The main body of ideological and political education in curriculum is not only teachers, but also managers and student workers. It should focus on curriculum education, professional education, and subject education. To deeply analyze the ideological and political elements that can be explored in the course knowledge points, establish teaching objectives for emotional attitudes and values, and cultivate students’ sense of professional identity and recognition of excellent chinese traditional culture. Integrating ideological and political education into professional course teaching can promote professional course teachers to devote importance to the role of words and deeds. Integrating ideological and political elements with professional knowledge and skills in teaching design can subtly influence the cultivation of students’ professional literacy and ideological and moral cultivation. Teachers integrate the ideological and political elements into professional courses silently, making students think and feel about what they have learned.
3.2 Enhancing the ability of ideological and political for professional teachers
Curriculum ideological and political education belongs to implicit ideological and political education, so educational activities should be carried out for students at appropriate educational contexts to achieve the goal of influence people [7]. Curriculum ideological and political education is not simply adding some craftsmanship spirit, chinese excellent traditional culture and advanced deeds to the curriculum, but it requires overall design at the beginning, organically integrating ideological and political elements into professional talent training goals, such as traditional art, Chinese wisdom, revolutionary traditions, etc [8], Teachers should grasp the core elements of ideological and political construction in the curriculum, and further strengthen their conscious awareness of cultivating morality and cultivating people [9].
IV. Analysis of Ideological and Political Elements in Curriculum
4.1 Establishing the objectives of ideological and political education in the course of digital image processing
According to the problems reflected in the analysis of academic situation, teachers should combine the knowledge architecture of digital image processing and teaching practice to determine the educational goals of implementing ideological and political education in the course. It is expected that through the knowledge learning and ability cultivation of this course, students’ quality can be improved in the following aspects.
1) Enhance the sense of mission and responsibility, maintain a positive attitude towards life
In recent years, information technology represented by artificial intelligence and Big data has developed rapidly, and many applications closely related to image processing have changed the production and life style of society. The realization of the Chinese Dream of the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation cannot be achieved without the joint efforts of the entire nation. The great struggle to achieve the great dream should strengthen students’ sense of patriotism and national pride, stimulate their motivation to work hard and make them full of confidence in the development of the country, society, and individuals.
2) Advocate the spirit of science, cultivate scientific thinking and attitude
The spirit of science is the most precious spiritual wealth in human civilization, originating from the spirit of seeking knowledge. With the continuous development of scientific practice, its connotation is constantly enriched. Understand the characteristics of interdisciplinary integration, inspire innovative ideas and awareness, and cultivate a scientific attitude to integrating theory with practice, scientific rigor, and seeking truth from facts. The development of digital image processing technology cannot be separated from continuous technological innovation and practical exploration. Many image processing methods embody universal scientific thinking , learning image processing knowledge and its applications is also a process of cultivating scientific thinking methods.
3) Strengthen awareness of rules, cultivate the sense of collaboration and craftsmanship
The study of image processing emphasizes the implementation of various processing algorithms through programming, and correct results can be obtained by strictly following the algorithm principles and programming standards. Comparing with it, following the rules is the premise of maintaining a good social order. We should abide by public policy doctrine and treat people honestly and friendly. Through teaching practice activities in groups, the teamwork ability of student is honed, and continuous improvement of image processing algorithms and processing effects are achieved in a good atmosphere of learning and catching up, cultivating the spirit of craftsmanship.
4.2 Integrate ideological and political elements into course knowledge points
Combined with the specific knowledge of digital image processing, to carry on the teaching design to the digital image processing and excavate the ideological and political elements, through diversified teaching activities to strengthen the value identification of Chinese traditional excellent culture and to cultivate the feelings of home and country, road confidence, theory confidence, system confidence and culture confidence. The ideological and political elements which can be incorporated into the chapters of the digital image processing course designed by the teachers in Table 1.
Table 1: Combination of knowledge points in digital image processing and ideological and political elements
Knowledge points
Teaching content
Ideological and political “integration elements”
Introduction
The development history of digital image processing, as well as some new scientific research achievements and successful cases,
Enhance students’ national pride and confidence, shape their correct outlook on life, and contribute to the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation.
Basic knowledge of digital image processing
For color model analysis, Chinese knotting images and ceramic images can be used
Promote traditional culture and strengthen the belief of cultural self-confidence and civilization self-confidence.
Image transformation
Parallel transformation in image Geometric transformation, analyze the application of translation parallel transformation in textile industry and hairdressing industry
Students’ social responsibility.
Image enhancement
Sharpening and smoothing, Different smoothing and sharpening methods;frequency domain image processing
Specific analysis of specific problems through philosophical thinking; The patriotism of students and the spirit of a great craftsman.
Image restoration
Introduction applications of image restoration technology such as Chang’e’s exploration of the moon, has expanded to include the application of students’ patriotism and mission,
A sense of home and mission, social responsibility and craftsmanship
Image compression coding
Introducing digital watermarking technology, effectively ensure intellectual property rights and educate legal cconcepts in datatransmission
Legal concept
Image segmentation
Engineering application cases ,the design of recycling garbage classifiers
Effectively recycling and utilization of energy, hands-on ability and scientific and technological innovation awareness, and cultivate a sense of social responsibility and mission.
Image describes
The pixel connectivity, and the eight connection, four connection and m-connection of pixels a
Philosophical thinking of oncontradiction theory.
V. Analysis and Reflection on the Teaching Effect of Ideological and Political Education
The integration of ideological and political elements into digital image processing, as well as the addition of course case has improved students’ participation in the curriculum. In the past three years, the integration of ideological and political cases into professional knowledge and theory has enlivened the class, has significantly increased students’ enthusiasm for answering questions. Students majoring in electronic information engineering have not only gained knowledge and improved their abilities, but also developed a scientific and technological confidence, social responsibility, and a pragmatic and innovative attitude. More students are very enthusiastic about the research work of image processing technology. They have participated in the National Engineering Training Competition, Smart Car, Internet plus, Electronic Design Competition, Undergraduate Innovation Competition, Blue Bridge Cup Competition and other events, have won 11 national awards, 49 provincial awards and issued 18 papers; The satisfaction rate of the comprehensive evaluation of the teaching teachers reached 100%.
During the process of ideological and political construction, the course team teachers reorganized the teaching syllabus and explored the ideological and political elements of knowledge points, which not only improved their professional theoretical level, but also greatly improved their personal ideological and political cultivation and philosophical literacy. As an important guide on the path of students’ growth, teachers should continuously improve their professional standards and also improve their ideological and political qualities, setting a good example for students. Therefore, teachers should consciously strengthen the guidance of ideological and political work on their subjects and majors, should understand society, national conditions, international politics, the development trends of world science and technology, should strengthen their own ideological and moral level and integrate professional knowledge and ideological and political elements through continuous learning and thinking, carry out ideological and political education in teachingand actively participate in the construction of teaching demonstration courses, cultivating innovative talents with strong ideological and political skills, solid professional skills and a combination of morality and talent for new engineering.
VI. Conclusion
Curriculum ideological and political education is an important component of higher education in universities. Guided by the teaching philosophy of “value shaping, ability cultivation, and knowledge impartation”, combining with the characteristics of digital image processing professional, ideological and political education in courses is cleverly integrated. The analysis mainly focuses on the strategies of integrating ideological and political education into professional courses, the integration of ideological and political elements in course knowledge, and the teaching effectiveness of ideological and political education in courses. The construction of the ideological and political system in the curriculum is still in the initial exploration stage, and how to deeply integrate ideological and political elements into professional curriculum teaching still needs to be further deepened, continuously improved, and continuously promoted, so as to achieve a silent educational effect and the fundamental task of moral education.
Acknowledgements
This work were supported in part by a grant from Hubei Provincial Teaching and Research Project: Research and Practice on the Reform of Signal Processing Series Courses for National First Class Undergraduate Majors in the Context of New Engineering (NO.2021277) and the Ministry of Education’s Industry University Collaborative Education Project: Exploration and Practice of Cultivating Innovation and Entrepreneurship Ability of Electronic Information Engineering Talents under the Background of New Engineering (NO.202101287003);
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Research Scholar, Department of Commerce, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India
Shahzar Ali Khan
Research Scholar, Department of Commerce, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India
S.M Imamul Haque
Professor, Department of Commerce, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India
ABSTRACT
The purpose of the current study is to conceptually highlight the factors that influence the entrepreneurial intention of tourism students. Additionally, this study identified the main theories that are typically applied to forecast the entrepreneurial intentions of these students. This paper is entirely based on a review of available literature related to the entrepreneurial intention of tourism students. Shapero & Sokol’s Entrepreneurial Event Model and Ajzen’s Theory of Planned Behaviour are found to be the most frequently used theories in these studies to predict tourism students’ entrepreneurial intentions. Entrepreneurship education is found to be one of the most crucial elements in assisting students to understand entrepreneurship and influencing their desire to launch their own enterprises. The entrepreneurial intent of tourism students is also found to be influenced by personality traits (leadership, risk-taking propensity, locus of control, tolerance of ambiguity, need for achievement, innovativeness, and self-efficacy), demographic characteristics (gender, family background), and motivating factors such as professional autonomy, fulfilment of personal visions, achieving personal assets, searching for new challenges, role models, social capital among others. The current study adds to the existing body of knowledge and offers insight into the various factors influencing the entrepreneurial intent of tourism students so that actions could be taken appropriately to translate this intention into behaviour, which in turn would create more job opportunities and produce a positive economic outcome.
INTRODUCTION
In the past twenty years, there has been a notable increase in scholarly investigations pertaining to entrepreneurship and entrepreneurial intentions. This surge in academic research can be attributed to the rise of diverse initiatives and policies aimed at fostering and bolstering entrepreneurial endeavours, the advancements in science and technology (Khan et al., 2023b), and the provision of financial incentives. The concept of entrepreneurship encompasses the process of recognizing and harnessing potential opportunities that ultimately culminate in the creation and development of novel business enterprises (Ahmad et al., 2019). The significance of entrepreneurship in the context of economic development cannot be overstated. This dynamic process plays a pivotal role in stimulating innovation, propelling technological advancements, generating employment opportunities, and fortifying the foundations of economic structures (Soliman, 2011). Policymakers across various nations, encompassing both affluent and developing economies, have dedicated substantial efforts and resources towards fostering entrepreneurial endeavours. This strategic focus stems from the multitude of favourable consequences associated with entrepreneurial activity, particularly its potential to generate employment opportunities and alleviate poverty (Kibuka, 2011).
Tourism is a widely recognized economic activity that holds immense global significance. There are few domains that can boast such widespread engagement, both directly and indirectly, as the one under consideration. The tourism industry plays a pivotal role in stimulating economic growth by facilitating the establishment of new enterprises and supporting the growth of pre-existing ones. Additionally, it serves as a catalyst for infrastructure development and presents numerous avenues for local communities to engage in micro and small-scale entrepreneurial activities. The tourism industry provides entrepreneurs with a conducive and attractive environment for business endeavours (Getz and Petersen, 2005). The tourism industry plays a significant role in fostering regional economic growth. By actively supporting and motivating students pursuing studies in tourism, we can facilitate the transformation of their entrepreneurial aspirations into concrete entrepreneurial actions. This, in turn, can lead to the creation of additional employment opportunities and generate a favourable economic outcome (Zhang et al., 2020). Despite the fact that the covid-19 pandemic had an impact on every part of the tourism and hospitality sector (Khan et al., 2022), including the development of entrepreneurship, it also offered new business opportunities, enabling entrepreneurs to compete in a highly competitive market.
From a psychological standpoint, the level of an individual’s engagement in entrepreneurial endeavours can be most accurately anticipated by their intention, which serves as the primary motivator for establishing a novel business venture. The possession of entrepreneurial intention is a crucial characteristic that individuals must have in order to initiate establishing a new enterprise. The emergence of entrepreneurial intention stems from an individual’s intrinsic inclination to pursue entrepreneurship as a profession. University students are commonly perceived as individuals with the potential to become entrepreneurs (Hou et al., 2019), thus prompting numerous studies exploring their intentions towards entrepreneurship in the academic literature. However, it is worth noting that studies on entrepreneurial intention among students enrolled in tourism courses are few.
This article presents a comprehensive analysis and evaluation of the current body of literature related to the entrepreneurial intentions of tourism students. The key objectives of this research paper are twofold; firstly, it sheds light on the predominant theories that are commonly employed to forecast the entrepreneurial intentions of students pursuing studies in tourism. Secondly, it seeks to offer a comprehensive understanding of the various factors that affects the entrepreneurial intentions of students studying in the field of tourism.
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
The phenomenon of entrepreneurship is widely regarded as a manifestation of deliberate intention and strategic behaviour. Consequently, the significance of theories and models that forecast and elucidate individuals’ inclination towards engaging in entrepreneurial activities has witnessed a notable surge. The theories most commonly employed in the prediction of entrepreneurial intention among students in the tourism field are the Entrepreneurial Event Model (EEM) by Shapero & Sokol (1982) and the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) by Ajzen (1991).
Entrepreneurial Event Model
The Entrepreneurial Event Model proposed by Shapero and Sokol in 1982 is widely recognized as one of the earliest intention models focusing on entrepreneurship. The underlying principle of this theoretical framework posits that a nascent enterprise can be comprehensively elucidated by examining the intricate interplay of various factors that exert influence on an individual’s behaviour. According to this model, the determination of an individual to initiate a new business venture is influenced by three distinct factors, namely perceived desirability, perceived feasibility, and propensity to act. The concept of perceived desirability pertains to the level of appeal that an individual associates with engaging in a particular behaviour (Ahmad et al., 2019). On the other hand, perceived feasibility encompasses an individual’s perceptions regarding their own ability to successfully carry out a specific behaviour (Ahmad et al., 2019). According to Shapero and Sokol (1982), it has been observed that individuals’ perception of alternative options is significantly influenced by their underlying value system. This value system, in turn, is predominantly shaped by various social as well as cultural variables.
In a study conducted by Ahmad et al. (2019), it was discovered that there exists a positive correlation between the perceived desirability and perceived feasibility factors and the entrepreneurial intentions of students specializing in the field of tourism. The findings of Esfandiar et al. (2019) further corroborated the presence of a positive relationship between perceived desirability and perceived feasibility and the subsequent impact on the entrepreneurial intentions of students pursuing a career in the tourism industry. This study’s findings also indicated a positive relationship between perceived opportunity and entrepreneurial intentions, which becomes more pronounced when an individual has a strong propensity to act.
Theory of Planned Behaviour
The Theory of Planned Behaviour (Ajzen, 1991) is a well-established psychological framework frequently employed to elucidate and predict human behaviour. This theory offers valuable insights into the factors that influence an individual’s actions and provides a robust framework for understanding and forecasting their behavioural patterns (Khan et al., 2023a). According to the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), the individual’s intention to engage in a particular behaviour is a significant predictor of their subsequent action. This intention is influenced by several factors, including their attitude towards the behaviour, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control (Ajzen, 1991).
According to Ajzen (1991), attitude refers to an individual’s inclination to react either positively or negatively towards a specific object or concept. According to Ajzen (1991), a subjective norm is a construct which is influenced by the opinions of important others, including family and friends. Perceived behavioural control refers to the extent to which an individual contemplates their ability to execute or abstain from a particular behaviour while also perceiving a sense of control over it (Khan et al., 2023a). Based on empirical evidence, it can be posited that an individual’s level of perceived behavioural control is directly proportional to the likelihood of engaging in a particular behaviour. In other words, the stronger one’s belief in their ability to successfully execute a specific behaviour, the greater the probability of them actually demonstrating that behaviour (Engle et al., 2010).
The empirical findings of Phuc et al. (2020) indicated that subjective norms, attitude toward entrepreneurship, and perceived behavioural control exert significant direct effects on the entrepreneurial intention of students specializing in the field of tourism. However, Mei et al. (2016) indicated that variations exist in personal attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control based on distinct personal variables.
FACTORS AFFECTING ENTREPRENEURIAL INTENTIONS OF TOURISM STUDENTS
Studies have been conducted in different countries to investigate the entrepreneurial intention among students pursuing studies in the field of tourism. These studies have identified several factors that exert an influence on the entrepreneurial intention exhibited by students.
Entrepreneurship Education
The importance of entrepreneurship education has been acknowledged as one of the key elements that aid students in properly comprehending what entrepreneurship is (Phuc et al., 2020). Entrepreneurship programmes have been observed to significantly impact students’ self-perception of their capacity to engage in entrepreneurial endeavours and their recognition of areas in which their managerial skills may require enhancement (Ahmed & Kayat, 2019; Bagheri & Pihie, 2011; Zovko et al., 2020). Universities and faculties have been actively adapting to the ever-changing landscape by developing and offering entrepreneurial courses (Zovko et al., 2020). Additionally, they have established entrepreneurial incubators to support and guide aspiring entrepreneurs, and funding associations have also emerged to promote entrepreneurship through various programs and initiatives (Zovko et al., 2020). These concerted efforts aim to foster an environment conducive to entrepreneurial endeavours and ultimately contribute to the overall prosperity of society. The disposition and level of understanding regarding entrepreneurship are anticipated to influence individuals’ propensity to initiate their own business endeavours in the foreseeable future (Wang & Wong, 2004).
Personality Traits
Previous studies have established a positive correlation between personality traits and entrepreneurial intention, suggesting that specific personality traits play a significant role in determining one’s inclination towards entrepreneurship (Koh, 1996). These studies involved the utilization of distinct personality traits among students to evaluate and determine the levels of entrepreneurial characteristics exhibited by the participants. These attributes include leadership, risk-taking propensity, locus of control, tolerance of ambiguity, need for achievement, innovativeness, and self-efficacy. Gurel et al. (2010) also found that there exists a statistically significant correlation between innovation, propensity to take risks, and entrepreneurial intention of tourism students. In their study, Borges et al. (2021) indicated that students who possess strong leadership qualities, demonstrate creativity, and have a strong desire for achievement are more likely to prioritize entrepreneurship as their initial choice when entering the job market. Altinay et al. (2012) found that the innovativeness and entrepreneurial intentions of hospitality students are positively related; however, no association of tolerance of ambiguity, locus of control, need for achievement, and risk-taking propensity was found with entrepreneurial intention.
Demographic factors
Numerous studies have emphasized the importance of demographic factors in affecting students’ intentions to become entrepreneurs (Butkouskaya et al., 2020; Çelik et al., 2021; Dao et al., 2021; de la Cruz del Río-Rama et al., 2017; Jovicic-Vukovic et al., 2020; Mei et al., 2016; Moreno-Gómez et al., 2022; Muñoz-Fernández et al., 2017). The likelihood of starting a business is influenced by one’s gender. Studies have found that male students are likelier to start their own businesses than female students (Butkouskaya et al., 2020; Muñoz-Fernández et al., 2017). Family background also influences the entrepreneurial intention of students. Working in a family business gives people the knowledge and experience they need to launch their own company or grow it together with their families, particularly in the tourism sector, where family enterprises have always played a significant role (Getz & Carlsen, 2005). Individuals who grow up in an entrepreneurial atmosphere are more inclined to favour entrepreneurship than others (Carr & Sequeira, 2007). Similarly, education level, age, and place of residence are among the demographic factors that also predict tourism students’ entrepreneurial intent.
Motivational Factors
Several additional factors may serve as motivators for students to choose entrepreneurship as their preferred career path. A study conducted by Atef & Al-Balushi (2015) revealed several pull and push factors that affect the entrepreneurial intention of tourism students. The three primary pull factors that have been identified in this study are income, education, and a stable job. Sidorkiewicz (2021), in their study, indicated that the respondents identified several key factors that served as strong motivators for embarking on entrepreneurial endeavours. These factors include professional autonomy, the potential for greater financial gains compared to traditional employment arrangements, and the fulfilment of personal aspirations. Another study by de la Cruz del Río-Rama et al. (2017) revealed that the primary drivers that motivate students pursuing a degree in tourism to establish their own businesses have been identified as follows: the opportunity to cultivate and implement their own innovative concepts, the pursuit of novel and stimulating endeavours, and the desire to establish a venture that is personally fulfilling and financially rewarding. In addition to the factors mentioned above, there are other factors that have an impact on the entrepreneurial intention of tourism students. These factors include role models (Ân, 2019), parents’ attitudes (Liu & Zhao, 2021), and social capital (Chia & Liang, 2016).
CONCLUSION
Entrepreneurial activities and innovative changes are the solutions for solving the challenges of the 21st century by providing sustainable development, generating jobs, increasing employment opportunities and economic development. Several institutions and policy-making bodies are working hard to cultivate entrepreneurship spirit among the students. Still, the percentage of students opting for entrepreneurship as a career is found to be less than the expected level.
The tourism industry contributes to the country’s economic development and regional economic development, as the industry includes transportation, catering, shopping, and many others (Hoi et al., 2018). Stimulating the entrepreneurial intention of tourism students can help convert this intention into entrepreneurial behaviour and consequently lead to more job opportunities and the development of the whole economy (Altinay et al., 2012). Therefore, exploring the factors impacting tourism students’ entrepreneurial intention is essential. After thoroughly reviewing the available literature, the researchers found several factors that influence the entrepreneurial intention of tourism students. One of the most important factors that help students understand what entrepreneurship is and influences students’ inclination to start their own businesses is entrepreneurship education. Additionally, personality traits (leadership, risk-taking propensity, locus of control, tolerance of ambiguity, need for achievement, innovativeness, and self-efficacy) are also important in predicting one’s propensity for entrepreneurship. Demographic characteristics (gender, family background etc.) are also found to have an impact on the entrepreneurial intent of tourism students. It was also found that several factors may motivate students to pursue entrepreneurship as a career, such as professional autonomy, fulfilment of personal visions, achieving personal assets, searching for new challenges, role models, social capital etc.
This study additionally identified the primary theories that are frequently used to predict the entrepreneurial intentions of students studying tourism degrees. The Entrepreneurial Event Model (EEM) by Shapero & Sokol (1982) and the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) by Ajzen (1991) are the two theories that are most frequently used to predict the entrepreneurial intention of tourism students.
This paper provides an overview of the factors that influence the entrepreneurial intention of tourism students and the theories used in these studies. As this paper is entirely based on a review of the allied literature, future research may conduct a bibliometric analysis or systematic analysis to provide a more comprehensive overview.
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From customs proclamation No. 622/2009 and Customs tariff amendment No.1, (1996 edition), the formula for calculating customs duty and other taxes in Ethiopia are shown below;
International Journal of Research (IJR) 