ABDUL AMID AZIZ JALLOH

Lecturer: University of Makeni & University of Science and Technology Sierra Leone.

ABSTRACT

Addressing critically medical issues with limited knowledge capacity pose several challenges in the health systems. Such challenges can only be addressed if organisations can invest in training and developing employees’ capacity to enhance outstanding performance. Considering the above facts, this study seeks to assess the significance of Training and Developing Medical Personnel in Sierra Leone, Guinea and Liberia, and to examine its Effects on Post Ebola Recovery in the Health Systems. The fortitude for this qualitative research led to the retrieval of secondary sources published on the subject matter and analysis of retrieved information disclosed the constituents of training and development such as: on-the-job and off-the-job training, methods of training, formal and informal training, evaluating and transferring training. Further analysis reveals that training and developing medical personnel in these West African countries has positive effects on post Ebola recovery since employees will be equipped with the required skills and competences to forecast, identify and minimise or eradicate issues that will prompt unexpected health circumstances in the future. The relevance of this study could aid medical practitioners in the three West African countries and is also noteworthy to public and private establishments.

 

KEY WORDS: Training and Developing, Medical Personnel, Sierra Leone, Guinea, Liberia, Post Ebola Recovery, Health Systems

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The role of formal training in organisations today appears to have declined significantly and has been replaced with an emphasis on developing skills (CIPD, 2009). The speed with which skills requirements change in some sectors means that formal, time-consuming, classroom based learning fails to deliver efficiently as required. Furthermore, the growing recognition of human resource development (HRD) as a tool to achieve competitive advantage has raised awareness of the need to embrace learning as a central strategic concern and to be part of the culture of the organisation (Senge, 1990; Pedlar et al., 1997, Garavan, 2007) of which formal training is just one, often small, component. In addition, a government-policy-driven emphasis on individual responsibility for life-long learning and skills development (Leitch, 2006; DIUS, 2007b) gives individuals more responsibility for their own learning with spin-off benefits for the organisation, which reduces the relevance of off-the-shelf, one-size-fits-all group learning. On the other side of this coin is the need to provide employees with workplace-specific skills to reduce the ‘poaching’ of skilled employees which reduces the value of traditional training methods. Employee training equips the employees with adequate skills and knowledge to contribute to the organization’s efficiency and cope with the changes in the environment. There should be a continuous re-assessment of the managerial calibre and skills to cope with environmental changes. Technological changes make the skills obsolete, which necessitates training activities. As a brief review of terms, training involves an expert working with learners to transfer to them certain areas of knowledge or skills to improve in their current jobs. Development is a broad, ongoing multi-faceted set of activities (training activities among them) to bring someone or an organization up to another threshold of performance, often to perform some job or new role in the future (Mahapatro, 2010). Accordingly, strategic concerns and decisions relating to training have moved into the board room. Although trainers and training institutions continue to improve training designs, methods and materials, and develop professional networks and institutions, the policymakers and change managers have taken over the issues of fitting their efforts into overall change strategies, funding and organizational supports. Thus, for ensuring its best possible fit with ongoing change strategies, policymakers and change managers set the specifications which the training has to accomplish (Dwivedi, 2007).  Training has always played an important and an integral part in furthering many kinds of human learning and development. If organizations are to make the best of the training function in their response to and promotion of change, the training function will need to be closely linked with business plans. This means that a detailed training policy needs to be agreed and implemented from the top of the organization and supported by management at all levels. It also means that the training and development function has to be accountable in the same way that other functions are (Buckley and Caple, 2009). Many companies have adopted a broader perspective, which is known as high-leverage training. High-leverage training is linked to strategic business goals and objectives, uses an instructional design process to ensure that training is effective, and compares or benchmarks the company’s training programs against training programs in other companies. High-leverage training practices also help to create working conditions that encourage continuous learning. Continuous learning requires employees to understand the entire work system, including the relationships among their jobs, their work units, and the company. Employees are expected to acquire new skills and knowledge, apply them on the job, and share this information with other employees (Noe, 2010). There has been a considerable shift in the way that individual development is understood and characterised. We have moved from identifying training needs to identifying learning needs, the implication being that development is owned by the learner with the need rather than by the trainer seeking to satisfy that need. This also has implications for who identifies the needs and the way that those needs are met. Current thinking suggests that needs are best developed by a partnership between the individual and the organisation, and that the methods of meeting these needs are not limited only to formal courses, but to a wide range of on-the-job development methods and distance/e-learning approaches. There has also been a shift in the type of skills that are the focus of development activity (Torrington et al, 2005). Hallier and Butts (1999) for example identify a change from an interest in technical skills to the development of personal skills, self-management and attitudes. Lastly, while the focus on development for the current job remains high, there is greater pressure for development which is also future oriented. It has been argued (Reynolds, 2004) that: ‘The transfer of expertise by outside experts is risky since their design is often removed from the context in which work is created.’ This is a fundamental problem and applies equally to internally run training courses where what has been taught can be difficult for people to apply in the entirely different circumstances in their workplace. Training can seem to be remote from reality and the skills and knowledge acquired can appear to be irrelevant. This particularly applies to management or supervisory training but even the manual skills learnt in a training centre may be difficult to transfer. Armstrong (2009), describe this as a problem that can be tackled by making the training as relevant and realistic as possible, anticipating and dealing with any potential transfer difficulties. Individuals are more likely to apply learning when they do not find it too difficult, believe what they learnt is relevant, useful and transferable, are supported by line managers, have job autonomy, believe in themselves, and are committed and engaged. Transfer is also more likely if systematic training and ‘just-in-time training’ approaches are used.

1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY

Disease outbreaks and catastrophes can affect countries at any time, causing substantial human suffering and deaths and economic losses. If health systems are ill-equipped to deal with such situations, the affected populations can be very vulnerable. The current Ebola virus disease outbreak in western Africa highlights how an epidemic can proliferate rapidly and pose huge problems in the absence of a strong health system capable of a rapid and integrated response. The outbreak began in Guinea in December 2013 but spread into neighbouring Liberia and Sierra Leone. In early August 2014, Ebola was declared an international public health emergency. At the time the outbreak began, the capacity of the health systems in Guinea, Liberia and Sierra Leone was limited. Several health-system functions that are generally considered essential were not performing well and this hampered the development of a suitable and timely response to the outbreak. There were inadequate numbers of trained and qualified health workers. Infrastructure, logistics, health information, surveillance, governance and drug supply systems were weak. The organization and management of health services was sub-optimal. Government health expenditure was low whereas private expenditure – mostly in the form of direct out-of-pocket payments for health services – was relatively high. The last decade has seen increased external health-related aid to Guinea, Liberia and Sierra Leone. However, in the context of Millennium Development Goals 4, 5 and 6, most of this aid has been allocated to combat human immunodeficiency virus infection, malaria and tuberculosis, with much of the residual going to maternal and child health services. Therefore, relatively little external aid was left to support overall development of health systems. This lack of balanced investment in the health systems contributes to the challenges of controlling the current Ebola outbreak. Weak health systems cannot be resilient. A strong health system decreases a country’s vulnerability to health risks and ensures a high level of preparedness to mitigate the impact of any crises. If this Ebola outbreak does not trigger substantial investments in health systems and adequate reforms in the worst-affected countries, pre-existing deficiencies in health systems will be exacerbated. The national governments, assisted by external partners, need to develop and implement strategies to make their health systems stronger and more resilient. Only then can they meet the essential health needs of their populations and develop strong disaster preparedness to address future emergencies. In the short-term, non-governmental organizations, civil society and international organizations will have to bolster the national health systems, both to mitigate the direct consequences of the outbreak and to ensure that all essential health services are being delivered. However, this assistance should be carefully coordinated under the leadership of the national governments and follow development effectiveness principles (Kieny et al, 2014).

 

1.2 RESEARCH AIM

Medical personnel training and development in Sierra Leone, Guinea and Liberia is quite a challenging task as a result of the established medical schools without proper structures, sophisticated scientific instruments/apparatus for practical work and insufficient trained and qualified tutors in handling the prerequisite courses for the various specialties. This situation led to the complications of containing the outbreak since the health systems in these countries lacks the capacity and as a result, brought about the loss of many lives. Considering the critical issues surrounding training and developing the intellectual capital of medical personnel in these West African Countries, this study seeks to examine the elements of training and developing medical personnel in Sierra Leone, Guinea and Liberia and its effects on post Ebola recovery in the health systems.

1.3 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

The research objectives segment the clustered components in the aim and organise such elements systematically in order to develop a structured review process so as to descriptively explain the relevance of the subject matter. The research objectives are outlined as follows:

• Describe the definition of training, learning, development and the significance of training and development as investment.
• Discuss training needs assessment (organisational analysis, task analysis, person analysis) and readiness for training.
• Explain on-the-job and off-the-job training, strategic training, coaching, mentoring, systematic training, just-in-time training, bite-sized training, human relations training
• Discuss the features of learning and development strategy, learning culture, the learning organisation, learning theories, contribution of learning and development to organisational performance and comparing learning and training
• Describe formal and informal learning, the spectrum of learning from informal to formal, motivation to learn, e-learning, blended learning, self-directed learning, evaluating training and transferring training.

 

1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

Training and human resource development is a key component in every sector of organisations growth. Governmental and non-governmental organisations operations are effectively and efficiently implemented and objectives are achieved as a result of staff diligence, which is accelerated by training and development. Most successful organisations today realise that training is one of the mechanisms that leads to the achievement of competitive advantage and that kin attention should be paid towards it and sufficient funds allocated for its implementation. Considering the facts expressed, this study is important to the three affected West Africa countries since one of the problems encountered in trying to contain the disease outbreak was as a result of lack of sufficient trained and qualified medical personnel. It is also noteworthy to business establishments and to the management profession since well trained and developed workforce accelerates organisations growth.

 

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

Definitions of Training, Learning, Development and Significance of Training and Development as Investment

Training is an organized activity for increasing the knowledge and skills of the people for a definite purpose. It involves systematic procedures for transferring technical knowhow to the employees so as to increase their knowledge and skills for doing specific jobs with proficiency. In other words, the trainees acquire technical knowledge, skills and problem solving ability by undergoing the training programme (Mahapatro, 2010).

 

2.1 Training: Training refers to a planned effort by a company to facilitate employees’ learning of job related competencies. These competencies include knowledge, skills, or behaviours that are critical for successful job performance. The goal of training is for employees to master the knowledge, skill, and behaviours emphasized in training programs and to apply them to their day-to-day activities. For a company to gain a competitive advantage, its training has to involve more than just basic skill development. That is, to use training to gain a competitive advantage, a company should view training broadly as a way to create intellectual capital. Intellectual capital includes basic skills (skills needed to perform one’s job), advanced skills (such as how to use technology to share information with other employees), an understanding of the customer or manufacturing system, and self-motivated creativity (Noe, 2010).

 

2.1.1 Learning: Learning is the means by which a person acquires and develops new knowledge, skills, capabilities, behaviours and attitudes. As explained by Honey and Mumford (1996): ‘Learning has happened when people can demonstrate that they know something that they did not know before (insights, realizations as well as facts) and when they can do something they could not do before (skills). Learning is a continuous process that does not only enhances existing capabilities but also leads to the development of the skills, knowledge and attitudes that prepare people for enlarged or higher-level responsibilities in the future.

 

2.1.2 Development: Development involves the processes by which managerial personnel accomplish not merely skills in their present jobs but also competence for prospective assignments of enhanced difficulties and scope. The higher responsibilities embrace complex conceptual thoughts and analyses, and decision making abilities. The development process relates to the pressures, change and growth patterns. Thus, development as applied to managers embraces all those recognized and controlled measures, which exert a marked influence towards the improvement of abilities of the participant to accomplish his present job more effectively, and enhance his potential for prospective higher responsibilities (Dwivedi, 2007).

 

2.1.3 The significance of training and development as investment: The development of human resource is of utmost significance. While the ‘raw’ human resource can make only limited contribution towards the attainment of organizational goals, the developed human resource—knowledgeable, skilled manpower—can help immensely in the contribution in this respect. Organizations with considerable opportunities for self-development can attract highly promising new entrants. The development of human resource is accomplished through training. Training is a prerequisite to improved performance, preparing human resource for new jobs, transfers, promotions and change-over to modern technology and equipment. In addition to training of new entrants, manpower at all levels requires refresh training from time to time in order to avoid personal obsolescence and improve its competence to hold higher positions. Accordingly, training and development policies and programmes are given top priority, and investment on training, and development has increased tremendously. Thus, these programmes perform a significant educational function and form a valuable source of preparation for performing the present job more effectively and holding new jobs. Indeed, these programmes have become a vital part of the employment costs in modern industrial economies (Dwivedi, 2007).

2.2 Training Needs Assessments (Organisational Analysis, Task Analysis, Person Analysis)

Turning specifically to training, because of the potentially considerable financial and psychological costs involved, a great deal of consideration has to be given to deciding whether to embark on some form of training to meet individual learning and development needs. It is important to appreciate the circumstances which indicate whether or not training is required and there is a need to be thoroughly familiar with the methods, approaches and forms of analysis that have to be used in order to reach the decision to implement training. The criticality of this process cannot be over emphasized bearing in mind the consequences that might arise for organizations which provide too little training or no training at all when a real need exists (Buckley and Caple, 2009).

 

2.2.1 Organisational Analysis: Organizational analysis involves identifying whether training supports the company’s strategic direction; whether managers, peers, and employees support training activity; and what training resources are available (Noe, 2010). In the broad organizational analysis, trainers compare what the organization is doing and what it should be doing. Trainers focus attention on organizational objectives, skills, inventories, organizational climate, and indices of efficiency, including costs for labour, materials, and distribution (McGehee and Thayer, 1961).

 

2.2.2 Task Analysis: Task analysis (sometimes called operations analysis) is a systematic collection of data about a specific job or group of jobs used to determine what employees should be taught to achieve optimal performance. Results of a task analysis typically include the appropriate standards of performance, how tasks should be performed to meet these standards, and the knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics that employees need to possess in order to meet the standards (Werner and DeSimone, 2012).

2.2.3 Person Analysis: Person analysis helps to identify employees who need training, that is, whether employees’ current performance or expected performance indicates a need for training. The need for training may result from the pressure points, including performance problems, changes in the job, or use of new technology. Person analysis also helps determining employees’ readiness for training. Readiness for training refers to whether (1) employees have the personal characteristics (ability, attitudes, beliefs, and motivation) necessary to learn program content and apply it on the job and (2) the work environment will facilitate learning and not interfere with performance. This process includes evaluating person characteristics, input, output, consequences, and feedback. A major pressure point for training is poor or substandard performance. Poor performance is indicated by customer complaints, low performance ratings, or on-the-job incidents such as accidents and unsafe behaviour. Another potential indicator of the need for training is if the job changes such that current levels of performance need to be improved or employees must be able to complete new tasks (Noe, 2010).

2.2.4 Readiness for Training: Effective training requires not only a program that addresses real needs, but also a condition of employee readiness. Readiness for training    is a combination of employee characteristics and positive work environment that permit training. The necessary employee characteristics include ability to learn the subject matter, favourable attitudes toward the training, and motivation to learn. A positive work environment is one that encourages learning and avoids interfering with the training program (Noe et al, 2011).

2.3 On-the-job, Off-the-job Training, Strategic Training, Coaching, Mentoring, Systematic Training, Just-in-time Training, Bite-sized Training, Human Relations Training.

 

2.3.1 On-the-job Training: On-the-job training (OJT) is probably the most common approach to training. It can range from relatively unsophisticated ‘observe and copy’ methods to highly structured courses built into workshop or office practice. Cannell (1997) defines OJT as training that is planned and structured that takes place mainly at the normal workstation of the trainee – although some instruction may be provided in a special training area on site – and where a manager, supervisor, trainer or peer colleague spends significant time with a trainee to teach a set of skills that have been specified in advance. It also includes a period of instruction where there may be little or no useful output in terms of productivity. These traditional methods are still very popular ways of teaching new skills and methods to employees, and they can be very effective. However, there are many acknowledged weaknesses that still persist in many organisational practices. There is often a lack of structure and design in the training given, which leads to the passing-on of bad or even dangerous working practices (Cannell, 1997).

 

2.3.2 Off-the-job Training: Off-the-job/external training, or training that takes place outside the employing organization, is used extensively by organizations of all sizes. Large organizations use external training if they lack the capability to train people internally or when many people need to be trained quickly. External training may be the best option for training in smaller firms due to limitations in the size of their training staffs and in the number of employees who need various types of specialized training. Whatever the size of the organization, external training occurs for several reasons:

• It may be less expensive for an employer to have an outside trainer conduct training in areas where internal training resources are limited.
• The organization may have insufficient time to develop internal training materials.
• The HR staff may not have the necessary level of expertise for the subject matter in which training is needed.
• There are advantages to having employees interact with managers and peers in other companies in training programs held externally (Mathis and Jackson, 2011).

2.3.3 Strategic Training: Training is used strategically to help the organization accomplish its goals. For example, if sales increases are a critical part of the company’s strategy, appropriate training would identify what is causing lower sales and target training to respond as part of a solution. Strategic training can have numerous organizational benefits. It requires HR and training professionals to get intimately involved with the business and to partner with operating managers to help solve their problems, thus making significant contributions to organizational results. Additionally, a strategic training mind-set reduces the likelihood of thinking that training alone can solve most employee or organizational problems. It is not uncommon for operating managers and trainers to react to most important performance problems by saying, “I need a training program on X.” With a strategic focus, the organization is more likely to assess whether training actually can address the most important performance issues and what besides training is needed.

Training cannot fix all organizational problems (Mathis and Jackson, 2011).

2.3.4 Coaching: The Industrial Society (1999) defines coaching as: ‘The art of facilitating the enhanced performance, learning and development of others.’ It takes the form of a personal (usually one-to-one) on-the-job approach to helping people develop their skills and levels of competence. Hirsh and Carter (2002) state that coaching is aimed at the rapid improvement of skills, behaviour and performance, usually for the present job. A structured and purposeful dialogue is at the heart of coaching. The coach uses feedback and brings an objective perspective. They noted that the boundaries between what a coach, mentor, counsellor or organization development consultant do are inevitably blurred – they all use similar skills. The need for coaching may arise from formal or informal performance reviews but opportunities for coaching will emerge during normal day-to-day activities.

 

2.3.5 Mentoring: Mentoring is the process of using specially selected and trained individuals to provide guidance, pragmatic advice and continuing support, which will help the person or persons allocated to them to learn and develop. It has been defined by Clutterbuck (2004) as: ‘Off-line help from one person to another in making significant transitions in knowledge, work or thinking.’ Hirsh and Carter (2002) suggest that mentors prepare individuals to perform better in the future and groom them for higher and greater things, i.e. career advancement. Armstrong (2006) describe mentoring as a method of helping people to learn, as distinct from coaching, which is a relatively directive means of increasing people’s competence. It involves learning on the job, which must always be the best way of acquiring the particular skills and knowledge the job holder needs. Mentoring also complements formal training by providing those who benefit from it with individual guidance from experienced managers who are ‘wise in the ways of the organization.

 

2.3.6 Systematic Training: Armstrong (2006) state that training should be systematic in that it is specifically designed, planned and implemented to meet defined needs. It is provided by people who know how to train and the impact of training is carefully evaluated. The concept was originally developed for the industrial training boards in the 1960s and consists of a simple four-stage model such as:

• Identify training needs.
• Decide what sort of training is required to satisfy these needs.
• Use experienced and trained trainers to implement training.
• Follow up and evaluate training to ensure that it is effective.

 

2.3.7 just-in-time Training: Just-in-time training is training that is closely linked to the pressing and relevant needs of people by its association with immediate or imminent work activities. It is delivered as close as possible to the time when the activity is taking place. The training is based on an identification of the latest requirements, priorities and plans of the participants, who are briefed on the live situations in which their learning has to be applied. The training programme takes account of any issues concerning the transfer of learning to the job, and aims to ensure that what is taught is seen to be applicable in the current work situation (Armstrong, 2010).

2.3.8 Bite-sized Training: Bite-sized training involves the provision of opportunities to acquire a specific skill or a particular piece of knowledge in a short training session that is focused on one activity such as using a particular piece of software, giving feedback, or handling an enquiry about a product or service of the company. It is often carried out through e-learning. It can be a useful means of developing a skill or understanding through a concentrated session or learning activity without diversions and is readily put to use in the workplace. But it can be weak in expanding individuals’ intellectual capacity and holistic (or ‘whole view’) understanding of the business – essential qualities to enable employees to respond creatively to the challenges of today’s knowledge economy. It can also be facile and too restricted and relies on the support of line managers, which is not always forthcoming. It is best for training employees in straightforward techniques that they can use immediately in their work or to complement, not replace, longer courses or developmental processes (Armstrong, 2009).

 

2.3.9 Human Relations Training: Human relations training embraces broad areas including leadership, small group processes, communications, formal and informal organizations, morale and motivation, and building work teams. This method purports to develop among participants an understanding among themselves so that they take into account the needs and aspirations of others. It stresses on attitudes and emotions, and develops leadership styles conducive to high morale and motivation. The human relations training is largely used with supervisors (Dwivedi, 2007).

2.4 Features of Learning and Development Strategy, Learning Culture, The Learning Organisation, Learning Theories, Contribution of Learning and Development to Organisational Performance, Comparison of Learning and Training.

 

2.4.1 Features of Learning and Development Strategy: A learning and development strategy should be business-led in the sense that it is designed to support the achievement of business goals by promoting human capital advantage. But it should also be people-led, which means taking into account the needs and aspiration of people to grow and develop. Achieving the latter aim, of course, supports the achievement of the former. Learning and development strategy is underpinned by a philosophy and its purpose is to operationalize that philosophy. It is fundamentally concerned with creating a learning culture that will encourage learning and will provide the basis for planning and implementing learning activities and programmes. This concept of a learning culture is associated with that of the learning organization (Armstrong, 2009).

 

2.4.2 Learning Culture: A learning culture is one that promotes learning because it is recognized by top management, line managers and employees generally as an essential organizational process to which they are committed and in which they engage continuously. Reynolds (2004) describes a learning culture as a ‘growth medium’, which will ‘encourage employees to commit to a range of positive discretionary behaviours, including learning’ and which has the following characteristics: empowerment not supervision, self-managed learning not instruction, long-term capacity building not short-term fixes. He suggests that to create a learning culture it is necessary to develop organizational practices that raise commitment amongst employees and ‘give employees a sense of purpose in the workplace, grant employees opportunities to act upon their commitment, and offer practical support to learning (Reynolds, 2004).

2.4.3 The Learning Organisation: The concept of the learning organization has caught the imagination of many people since it was first popularized by Senge (1990) who described it as follows: The learning organization is one ‘where people continually expand their capacity to create the results they truly desire, where new and expansive patterns of thinking are nurtured, where collective aspiration is set free, and where people are continually learning how to learn together. Pedler et al (1991) state that a learning organization is one ‘which facilitates the learning of all its members and continually transforms itself’. Wick and Leon (1995) refer to a learning organization as one that continually improves by rapidly creating and refining the capabilities required for future success. As Harrison (2000) comments, the notion of the learning organization remains persuasive because of its ‘rationality, human attractiveness and presumed potential to aid organizational effectiveness and advancement’. However, Scarborough et al (1999) argue that ‘the dominant perspective of the learning organization concept is that of organization systems and design.

2.4.4 Learning Theories: There are a number of learning theories, each of which focuses on different aspects of the learning process as applied to people in general. The main theories are concerned with:

2.4.4a Reinforcement Theory: Reinforcement theory is based on the work of Skinner (1974). It expresses the belief that changes in behaviour take place as a result of an individual’s response to events or stimuli and the ensuing consequences (rewards or punishments). Individuals can be ‘conditioned’ to repeat the behaviour by positive reinforcement in the form of feedback and knowledge of results. This process is known as ‘operant conditioning. Gagne (1977) later developed his stimulus-response theory, which relates the learning process to a number of factors, including reinforcement, namely:

• Drive – there must be a basic need or drive to learn.
• Stimulus – people must be stimulated by the learning process.
• Response – people must be helped by the learning process to develop appropriate responses, i.e. the knowledge, skills and attitudes that will lead to effective performance.
• Reinforcement – these responses need to be reinforced by feedback and experience until they are learnt.

 

2.4.4b Cognitive Learning Theory: Cognitive learning involves gaining knowledge and understanding by absorbing information in the form of principles, concepts and facts and then internalizing it. Learners can be regarded as powerful information processing machines (Armstrong, 2009).

2.4.4c Experimental Learning Theory: People are active agents of their own learning (Reynolds et al, 2002). Experiential learning takes place when people learn from their experience by reflecting on it so that it can be understood and applied. Learning is therefore a personal ‘construction’ of meaning through experience. ‘Constructivists’ such as Rogers (1983) believe that experiential learning will be enhanced through facilitation – creating an environment in which people can be stimulated to think and act in ways that help them to make good use of their experience.

 

2.4.4 (d) Social Learning Theory: Social learning theory states that effective learning requires social interaction. Wenger (1998) suggested that we all participate in ‘communities of practice’ (groups of people with shared expertise who work together) and that these are our primary sources of learning. Bandura (1977) views learning as a series of information-processing steps set in train by social interactions.

 

2.4.5 Contribution of Learning and Development to Organisational Performance: Studies on the relationship between learning and development activities and organizational performance have included those by Benabou (1996) and Clarke (2004). The research by Benabou examined the impact of various training programmes on the business and financial results at 50 Canadian organizations. The conclusion reached was that in most cases a well-designed training programme can be linked to improvements in business results and that return on investment in training programmes is very high. A national survey of training evaluation in specialized healthcare organizations (hospices) conducted by Clarke (2004) showed that while there appeared to be some links between training and performance it was not possible to reach firm conclusions about causality. However, the study reached the important finding that where organizations undertake assessment of their training and development (both formal and informal learning) then there is a greater belief in the positive impact training and development has in the organization. While it is possible and highly desirable to evaluate learning, establishing a link between learning and organizational performance is problematic. It may be difficult to distinguish between cause and effect. Hendry and Pettigrew (1986) warn that it is risky to adopt simplistic views that training leads to improved business performance because it is more likely that successful companies will under certain conditions increase their training budget.

 

2.4.6 Comparison of Learning and Training: Learning should be distinguished from training. ‘Learning is the process by which a person constructs new knowledge, skills and capabilities, whereas training is one of several responses an organization can undertake to promote learning’ (Reynolds et al, 2002). The encouragement of learning makes use of a process model, which is concerned with facilitating the learning activities of individuals and providing learning resources for them to use. Conversely, the provision of training involves the use of a content model, which means deciding in advance the knowledge and skills that need to be enhanced by training, planning the programme, deciding on training methods and presenting the content in a logical sequence through various forms of instruction. A distinction is made by Sloman (2003) between learning, which ‘lies within the domain of the individual’ and training, which ‘lies within the domain of the organization’. Today the approach is to focus on individual learning and ensure that it takes place when required – ‘just-for-you’ and ‘just-in-time’ learning.

 

2.5 Formal and Informal Learning, The Spectrum of Learning from Informal to Formal, Motivation to Learn, E-learning, Blended Learning, Self-directed Learning, Evaluating Training and Transferring Training

 

2.5.1 Formal Learning: Formal learning is planned and systematic. It makes use of structured training programmes consisting of instruction and practice that may be conducted on- or off-the-job. Experience may be planned to provide opportunities for continuous learning and development. Formal learning and developmental activities may be used such as action learning, coaching, mentoring and outdoor learning (Armstrong, 2009).

 

2.5.2 Informal Learning: Informal learning is experiential learning. It takes place while people are learning on-the-job as they go along. Most learning does not take place in formal training programmes. People can learn 70 per cent of what they know about their job informally. A study by Eraut et al (1998) established that in organizations adopting a learner-centred perspective, formal education and training provided only a small part of what was learnt at work. Most of the learning described to the researchers was non-formal, neither clearly specified nor planned. It arose naturally from the challenges of work. Effective learning was, however, dependent on the employees’ confidence, motivation and capability. Some formal training to develop skills (especially induction training) was usually provided, but learning from experience and other people at work predominated. Reynolds (2004) notes that: The simple act of observing more experienced colleagues can accelerate learning; conversing, swapping stories, cooperating on tasks and offering mutual support deepen and solidify the process. This kind of learning – often very informal in nature – is thought to be vastly more effective in building proficiency than more formalized training methods.

 

2.5.3 The Spectrum of Learning from Informal to Formal: The distinction between formal and informal learning may not always be precise. Watkins and Marsick (1993) described a spectrum of learning from informal to formal as follows:

• unanticipated experiences and encounters that result in learning as an incidental by-product, which may or may not be consciously recognized;
• new job assignments and participation in teams, or other job-related challenges that provide for learning and self-development;
• self-initiated and self-planned experiences, including the use of media and seeking out a coach or mentor;
• total quality or improvement groups/active learning designed to promote continuous learning for continuous improvement;
• providing a framework for learning associated with personal development planning or career planning;
• the combination of less-structured with structured opportunity to learn from these experiences;
• designed programmes of mentoring, coaching or workplace learning;
• formal training programmes or courses involving instruction

 

2.5.4 Motivation to Learn: People will learn more effectively if they are motivated to learn. The motivation to learn can be defined as ‘those factors that energize and direct behavioural patterns organized around a learning goal’ (Rogers, 1996). As Reynolds et al (2002) comment, ‘The disposition and commitment of the learner – their motivation to learn – is one of the most critical factors affecting training effectiveness. Under the right conditions, a strong disposition to learn, enhanced by solid experience and a positive attitude, can lead to exceptional performance.

 

2.5.5 E-learning: E-learning was defined by Pollard and Hillage (2001) as ‘the delivery and administration of learning opportunities and support via computer, networked and web-based technology to help individual performance and development’. E-learning enhances learning by extending and supplementing face-to-face learning rather than replacing it. It enables learning to take place when it is most needed (just in time as distinct from just in case) and when it is most convenient. Learning can be provided in short segments or bites that focus on specific learning objectives. It is ‘learner-centric’ in that it can be customized to suit an individual’s learning needs – learners can choose different learning objects within an overall package. The main potential drawbacks are the degree of access to computers, the need for a reasonable degree of literacy, the need for learners to be self-motivated, and the time and effort required to develop and update e-learning programmes (Pollard and Hillage, 2001).

2.5.6 Blended Learning: Blended learning combines online learning, face-to-face instruction, and other methods for distributing learning content and instruction. Blended learning courses provide learners with the positive features of both face-to-face instruction and technology-based delivery and instructional methods (such as online learning, distance learning, or mobile technologies while minimizing the negative features of each. In comparison to classroom delivery, blended learning provides increased learner control, allows for self-directedness, and requires learners to take more responsibility for their learning—all factors consistent with the recommendations of adult learning theory. In comparison to pure online learning, blended learning provides more face-to-face social interaction and ensures that at least some of the instruction is presented in a dedicated learning environment. Blended learning uses the classroom to allow learners to learn together and to discuss and share insights, which helps bring learning to life and make it meaningful. Blended learning has been found to be more effective than face-to-face instruction for motivating trainees to learn and for teaching declarative knowledge or information about ideas or topics. It appears that blended learning capitalizes on the positive learning features inherent in both face-to-face and Web-based instruction. Interestingly, learners react more favourably toward classroom instruction than blended learning. This may be because blended learning courses are more demanding, requiring a greater time commitment because of the use of two learning approaches (Noe, 2010).

 

2.5.7 Self-directed Learning: Self-directed or self-managed learning involves encouraging individuals to take responsibility for their own learning needs, either to improve performance in their present job or to develop their potential and satisfy their career aspirations. It can also be described as self-reflective learning (Mezirow, 1985), which is the kind of learning that involves encouraging individuals to develop new patterns of understanding, thinking and behaving. Self-directed learning can be based on a process of recording achievement and action planning that involves individuals reviewing what they have learnt, what they have achieved, what their goals are, how they are going to achieve those goals and what new learning they need to acquire. The learning programme can be ‘self-paced’ in the sense that learners can decide for themselves, up to a point, the rate at which they work and are encouraged to measure their own progress and adjust the programme accordingly (Mezirow, 1985).

 

2.5.8 Evaluating Training: Training should be evaluated several times during the process. Determine these milestones when you develop the training. Employees should be evaluated by comparing their newly acquired skills with the skills defined by the goals of the training program. Any discrepancies should be noted and adjustments made to the training program to enable it to meet specified goals. Many training programs fall short of their expectations simply because the administrator failed to evaluate its progress until it was too late. Timely evaluation will prevent the training from straying from its goals (Mahapatro, 2010).

 

2.5.9 Reasons for Evaluating Training: Companies are investing millions of dollars in training programs to help gain a competitive advantage. Companies invest in training because learning creates knowledge; often, it is this knowledge that distinguishes successful companies and employees from those who are not. Research summarizing the results of studies that have examined the linkage between training and human resource outcomes (attitudes and motivation, behaviours, human capital), organizational performance outcomes (performance and productivity), or financial outcomes (profits and financial indicators) has found that companies that conduct training are likely to have more positive human resource outcomes and greater performance outcomes. The influence of training is largest for organizational performance outcomes and human resource outcomes and weakest for financial outcomes. This result is not surprising, given that training can least affect an organization’s financial performance and may do so through its influence on human resource practices (Noe, 2010).

2.5.10 Transferring Training: Trainers should design training for the highest possible transfer from the class to the job. Transfer occurs when trainees actually use on the job what knowledge and information they learned in training. The amount of training that effectively gets transferred to the job is estimated to be relatively low, given all the time and money spent on training. It is estimated that about 40% of employees apply training to their jobs immediately after training. Among those who do not use the training immediately, the likelihood of it being used decreases over time. Effective transfer of training meets two conditions. First, the trainees can take the material learned in training and apply it to the job context in which they work. Second, employees maintain their use of the learned material over time. A number of things can increase the transfer of training. Offering trainees an overview of the training content and how it links to the strategy of the organization seems to help with both short-term and longer-term training transfer. Another helpful approach is to ensure that the training mirrors the job context as much as possible. For example, training managers to be better selection interviewers should include role-playing with “applicants” who respond in the same way that real applicants would. One of the most consistent factors in training transfer is the support new trainees receive from their supervisors to use their new skills when they return to the job. Supervisor support of the training, feedback from the supervisor, and supervisor involvement in training are powerful influences in transfer (Mathis and Jackson, 2011).

 

METHODOLOGY

Developing the knowledge capacity of medical personnel has a vital role in combating disease outbreak and addressing critical medical issues. Increasing such intellectual capital is important but retaining it posed several challenges since other countries desire trained and qualified medical personnel and are ready to offer attractive employment contract, which their home countries could not afford to pay and as a result, these countries experience brain drain. The retention aspect of trained and qualified medical personnel is not the focus of this research. This study seeks to assess the significance of training and developing medical personnel in the three West African countries and to examine its effects on post Ebola recovery in the health systems. The thrust for this qualitative research led to the retrieval of information from secondary sources published on the subject matter which will be critically examined in order to establish meaningful conclusion.

 

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Training and staff development has a key role in enhancing employee performance. Competitive advantage is achieved as a result of employees’ outstanding performance which is stimulated by the knowledge that resides in them. An organisation that embarks on developing staff intellectual capital is always seen to be the most successful and its operations are sustained in a competitive arena. Achieving strategic objectives has been and will continue to be the desire of every organisation whether private or public and such desire can only be attained if companies consider the relevance of investing in training and development.

The implementation of a training programme requires an assessment of the need for such training which includes organisational analysis which describes the relevance of the training towards organisations strategic objectives, task analysis which discloses the knowledge capacity an employee should possess to be able to perform a specific task and person analysis which identifies the employee that needs training. The aforementioned should be properly analysed in order to determine a successful implementation of a training programme. Also, organisations should be able to establish facts about the employee’s readiness for a training since unpleasant attitude towards training will result to fruitless endeavour.

Organisations should distinguish its training programme since certain skills can be learnt on-the-job whereas others can only be attained through external or off-the-job training. Training conducted on-the-job should be effective and facilitators or tutors administering such programmes must ensure that trainees grasp the content delivered and can demonstrate positive outcome in its implementation on the job. Coaching and mentoring helps in the conduct of training within the organisation and also human relations training shapes an employee’s relationship with colleagues in order to maintain harmonious working relationship and foster team spirit which leads to organisation’s growth. Off-the-job training programmes are most times conducted in situations wherein an organisation does not have the capacity to facilitate a particular training and as a result, hire training consultant or sends employees to training establishments for further capacity building.

Learning is a culture organisations should imbibe and a learning organisation progresses and serves as a model to rivals firms. Organisational performance in a competitive environment is determined by its commitment in learning and discovering new skills, competences and technologies that makes them distinct. Organisations must ensure that it develops a learning strategy (the path way) that leads towards the successful implementation of what has been taught.

Selecting the best method of learning that suits a particular situation and addresses a critical work challenge is of paramount importance. Employees should be motivated to learn so that their performance will be outstanding. Even though some are intrinsically motivated, but also the extrinsic aspect stimulates them and reinforces the intrinsic. Whatever training or learning method used, it should be followed by an evaluation process to ascertain its impact either negatively or positively and must also ensure that it is effectively transferred to the job.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

Training and developing the knowledge capacity of medical personnel is relevant in every nation as it helps to improve their performance level and minimise critical medical issues and can also be able to contain unexpected outbreaks. The secondary information retrieved from sources published on the subject matter was critically examined and such content disclosed the significance of training and developing medical personnel. Facts analysed establish that the successful implementation of organisations activities requires diligent workforce, which is empowered by the relevant training and development programme. Sources further disclosed that training and developing medical personnel in Sierra Leone, Guinea and Liberia has a positive effect on post Ebola recovery in the health systems, since the major problem identified in containing the spread of the virus was as a result of lack of sufficient knowledge capacity in the health systems and that trained and developed medical personnel will prevent such spread in the future. Also, a well-trained and developed medical team will be able to forecast and identify unforeseen medical issues in which mechanisms will be put in place to combat identified experiments.

This study emanated from a qualitative perspective and restricted its data collection from secondary sources. Nevertheless, further research could be conducted on similar study, using both primary and secondary data in order to ascertain first-hand information and describe specific components of training and development.

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    DHRUV SHANKAR

                          (Ex-Lecturer) ,Department of Applied Science and Humanities

     Naraina College of Engineering and Technology & Krishna Institute of Technology,

                                         Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh, India

                              

Abstract: English is a Germanic language which has its multidimensional roots sprouting and blossoming with communicative fruits. Broadly speaking, it would be difficult to thrive in the modernistic mechanism of this world without adopting the knowledge of English as it is an international language spoken and written in most of the countries both as a native and as a second language. Moreover, it has a remarkable impression of sharing different literatures, techniques and professional facilities prevalent and predominant in various nations. In the prevailing scenario of the 21^st century, English language has been a lingua franca of the whole developing world that is passing through a tunnel of spherical amelioration. As a matter of fact, English has achieved the status of the root language through which the process of worldwide communication whether it is concerned with business, medicine, transport, technology, trade, culture, literature or marketing is carried out successfully. In the existing circumstances, it is the master key to unlock or analyse socio-cultural, literal, technical and professional conceptions of both national and international growth. So far as the matter is concerned, the revolutionary impact of modernization as well as westernization is spreading all over the world under the shade of a triangular umbrella of three-dimensional communication ‒ literal, technical and professional. Thus, this paper, fundamentally, focuses on the specific characteristics of English language that is, nowadays, a dominating and fascinating medium of literal, technical and professional communication.

Keywords: English, communication, literal, technical, professional and global etc.

Introduction: The term ‘English’ is derived from the surname ‘Angle’, the name of a Germanic tribe which is thought to be originated from the Angeln area of Jutland, a part of northern Germany. In fact, Germanic people invaded Britain and settled there in the fifth century A.D., and, thus, Britain became the main originating source of English language. Shorter Oxford English Dictionary defines the term ‘English’ as ‘the language spoken by the Germanic invaders of Britain in the 5^th cent. A. D. Now, the language descended from this, used in Britain, Ireland, Australia, New Zealand, the U.S., Canada, and many other countries.’¹ Similarly, Webster’s Encyclopedic Unabridged Dictionary of the English Language specifies the term ‘English’ as ‘the Germanic language of the British Isles, widespread and standard also in the U.S. and most of the British Commonwealth, historically termed Old English (c 450–c 1150), Middle English (c 1150–c 1475), and Modern English (after c 1475)’.²

            By the time the Germanic tribes had settled down in Britain, the land included Scotland, which had hitherto been unknown as a region. Britain thus became a land that accommodated the Scots from Ireland, the Britons concentrating in Wales and the Germans in its southern part. The Angles, Saxons and Jutes soon had accepted a common name for their identity and came to be known as Angles which term came to fix as English, after transformation into Engles and Englese. The southern land became almost their property and was called Angles land which became Engles land, and Engle land and England at last. Their dialects namely Jutic, Saxon and Angles respectively were called by a common name Angles which became English because of the interrelatedness of the dialects.³

Nowadays, English is striving to achieve the status of the most popular language of the world. It passes through multi-dimensional routes sprinkling almost all significant tracts of human offshoots. In the present circumstances, it is not easy to make the stem of human race stronger and longer without the watering of English language. In some countries, it is spoken and written as a native language and in many others as a second language. Moreover, it has an observable impact of dealing with different literary features, technical properties and prevailing professionals which are efficacious in the existing scenario of the 21^st century. As a matter of fact, English language is nothing but a lingua-franca of the whole globe developing under the impression of versatile betterment. The process of communication whether it is related to any profession, transportation, medication, science, technology, culture or literary structure is executed successfully with the assistance of English language. More or less, it has all the functional properties of a master key that can open or analyse all the literary, technical and professional aspects of human development. Consequently, it has got the credit of an international language.

            English has rather grown enormously during the last few decades because of many scientific inventions. The gramophone, the telephone, the wireless and the tape-recording machine have, to some extent, done for the spoken language what printing did for the written. It is often said that the popularity of broadcasting is leading to an extension of the use of Standard English and a decline in the use of dialect. Because of its inventiveness, territorial expansion, numerical strength of speakers, immense power and influence, richness of vocabulary and expressiveness, and lastly, its fitness for purposes of trade, travel, modernity and culture, its Spanish, Italian, German and although new rivals, such as Russian, Chinese and Hindustani have appeared, they are still in no position to challenge the supremacy of English. ⁴

In point of fact, English is the most useful and fruitful language in the world. In addition, it has its deep roots in each and every part of the colonial construction which was erected by the Britishers. With the enlargement of British sovereignty, it stepped into India, Africa, South Asia, Australia, New Zealand, America and many other countries with the marks of indelible impression. In the earlier stages, it came to these countries as a language of trade and commerce, traffic and traverse, and exploration and expedition, but, with the passage of time, it became the sole medium of instruction in most of the countries. Nowadays, it has become the official language of the international affairs such as business, air-traffic, shipping, United Nations Diplomacy, world banking, academic research, space travel, worldwide networking and all other disciplines of science and technology.

            Undoubtedly, the modernistic world is stepping forward with the advancement of science and technology. It is the role of English language through which scientific and technical inventions of England, America, Germany, France and Russia are brought into the territories of India. Moreover, the modern system of education has intensified the role of English language at the international level because the most famous universities of the world utilize English as the medium of instruction, transmission and communication.

Importance of English Language in Literal Communication: When the process of communication is carried out literally, textually or verbally, literal communication takes place. Indeed, literal communication whether it is concerned with the form of oral or written communication is the basis of conversational, translational and professional transmission between two poles or parties. There are thousands of languages spoken in the world, and none can be able to adopt the knowledge of so many languages; therefore, the utilization of English is needed extensively. In reality, English is the bridge-language that can cover the gap between two different language speakers. It may be used as a common language between two distant speakers though their native or regional languages may be different.

          As a matter of fact, the whole world is just like a theatrical stage on which dramatic play of human beings through the medium of literal communication is being showed. So far as the matter is concerned, literal communication plays a dominant role in both human movement and improvement because the existence of human life cannot take place without the exchange of ideas, facts, money and goods; and it is the function of literal communication which carries out all these activities. In a local area, a native or regional language is used to execute this process, but, when the process of communication is carried out at the national or international level, literal communication through English medium is required unanimously.

Significance of English Language in Technical Communication: With the technocratic revolution prevailing in the globular stratum, the significance of English language has become stronger. The technological platform of the world refers to the international market that transfers technological concepts and outlets from one country to the other one through the medium of English language. Since the international market has been more radiative, competitive and aggressive, the importance of English language goes on augmenting. More or less, English language is having a profound influence on the multidimensional features of technical communication, and there is a pressing requirement of English communication which may generate fruitful foundation of universal unification.

            Technical communication is a special stalk of general communication and there is no fundamental fluctuation between the two. Shorter Oxford English Dictionary specifies the term ‘technical’ as ‘pertaining to, involving, or characteristic of a particular art, science, profession, or occupation, or the applied arts and sciences generally’.⁵ Moreover, it is ‘pertaining to or connected with the mechanical or industrial arts and the applied sciences’.⁶ In this way, it is explicit that the technical communication is the sort of communication in which scientific and technical contents are transferred from pillar to post. Simply stated, technical communication is the transmittance of scientific and technical tenors from one person to another. In this connexion, M. Ashraf Rizvi rightly comments:

            “Technical communication is the transmission of scientific and technical information from one individual or group to another, and it includes all the methods, means and media, channels, networks and systems of communication used for the exchange of the information…. In other words, technical communication is a multi-dimensional, dynamic and interactive process that involves the effective transmission of facts, ideas, thoughts, and a systematic understanding of scientific and technical subjects.”⁷

            Broadly speaking, there are three dominant components on which the worldwide movement of human development is founded. The first component is the stream of science; the second one is the gleam of technology; and the third one is the dream of English language. Science provides new inventions to human race, technology offers new techniques to human face while English language is the medium through which useful and profitable knowledge of advancement is transferred immediately from one part of the globe to the other one. As a result, it can be inferred that the real human preferment is based on a triangular shape which is made up of science, technology and English language. In this reference, S. C. Mundhra’s thematic analysis is quite revealing:

“Ours is the age of science and technology, with a small portion of time allowed as leisure. So English will have to make itself more scientific, precise and brief…. Let us remain content with the present English speech and wish for the dawn of a better future. Let us also hope that the flourishing societies, like the Philological Society, the English Place-Name Society, the linguistic Society of America, and the Society for pure English will be able to brave the weather arising from time to time on the horizon of English and steer it through without failing.” ⁸

Dominance of English Language in Professional Communication: One may be called professional if he is ‘engaged in a specified occupation or activity for money or as a means of earning a living, rather than as a pastime’.⁹ In this way, professional communication is the stream of communication in which exchange of ideas pertaining to any profession or occupation is done illustriously. Indeed, the term ‘technical’ is concerned with any branch of science and technology whereas the word ‘professional’ is a wider term and relates us to the any branch of science, technology, commerce, trade and business. If any profession is carried out at a large scale, English language is needed as the whole world has thousands of native, regional and local languages which cannot be learnt simultaneously for the communicative purpose. In this case, English plays the role of a mediator between two distant communicators or transmitters. As a whole, English is rather a professional language as it is used in most of the domestic and nationalistic occupations. Moreover, it is the main communicable language of the international transportation.

Conclusion: English is the only language that has the capacity to link one country with the other one. Besides, it is the language that is able to unite the human beings at the international level. We can talk to the persons of the U.K., the U.S.A., Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and many other countries if we are expert in the stream of English. In the existing world, it is the most dynamic language that can be used as a means of communication for any purpose. It is rather a multidimensional traffic-platform on which the vehicles of human development are running smoothly. Indeed, it has got the momentum of circulation in most of the universities, colleges, schools, Courts and many other official departments which are playing a prominent role in the field of literal, technical and professional advancement. Taking into consideration the aims of English language, S. C. Mundhra rightly states:

“The general aims of learning English have been three: English being a world-language promotes international understanding; it is a medium to come into contact with the best in cultural terms, that is, a medium for the study of arts and science; and lastly, it furthers our vocational or professional interests, like law, medicine, engineering and technology.”¹⁰

In these days of globalization, it is explicit that English has become the universal language for literal, technical and professional communication. In spite of numerous cultural and traditional movements in support of vernacular languages, it has been growing and developing without any obstruction for the ages. In order to be successful in the global market, one must be proficient in the communicative skills of English language ‒ Speaking, Listening, Reading and Writing. In the concluding scenario, H. S. Bhatia’s analytical observation is noticeable:

“The knowledge of English is also essential for understanding the modern science, trade, commerce, technological and industrial languages. In Information Technology, all computer language is based on English, though there might have been some influence thereon of several other languages also in various ways.”¹¹

            In fact, the whole world is nothing but a market place where exchange of concepts, techniques and things is done unintermittedly. This interchange of goods cannot be done without active participation of English language. Undoubtedly, it is a living and vibrant language which has conquered all the worldly languages with its popularity, beauty and importance. It has held the potential performance in any sort of communication whether it is literal or techno-professional. In addition, it has sowed the communicational seeds of aroma which are about to flourish into the form of global modernization with lingual unification. However, it is the youngest of all the languages of the world, it has been the leader of all the languages. Admittedly, the revolutionary impression of global evolution is extending everywhere under the umbrage of a triangular umbrella of tri-dimensional communication ‒ literal, technical and professional. Finally, it is right to argue that we cannot communicate literally, technically and professionally without the knowledge of English language if we want to impart something globally.

                                                        References  

1. Lesley Brown, et al., Shorter Oxford English Dictionary, 6th ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007), p. 834.
2. Webster’s Encyclopedic Unabridged Dictionary (U.S.A.: RHR Press, 2001), p. 645.
3. R. Venkataraman, A History of the English Language (New Delhi: Rama Brothers India Pvt. Ltd., 2012), p. 8.
4. C. Mundhra, A Handbook of Literature in English for Competitive Examinations (Bareilly: Prakash Book Depot, 2009), p. 403.
5. Lesley Brown, et al., Shorter Oxford English Dictionary, 6th ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007), p. 3194.
6. Webster’s Encyclopedic Unabridged Dictionary (U.S.A.: RHR Press, 2001), p. 1950.
7. Ashraf Rizvi, Professional Communication (New Delhi: Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Ltd., 2007), p. 3.
8. C. Mundhra, A Handbook of Literature in English for Competitive Examinations (Bareilly: Prakash Book Depot, 2009), p. 405.
9. Lesley Brown, et al., Shorter Oxford English Dictionary, 6th ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007), p. 2360.
10. C. Mundhra, A Handbook of Literature in English for Competitive Examinations (Bareilly: Prakash Book Depot, 2009), p. 406.
11. S. Bhatia, English Literature (New Delhi: Ramesh Publishing House, 2009), p. 613.

Notification: Dr. Dhruv Shankar presented this paper in 10^th International & 46^th National Annual ELTAI Conference entitled Learning and Teaching English in India: Setting Standards at Raj Kumar Goel Institute of Technology for Women, Ghaziabad on 10^th July, 2015.

AUTHOR PROFILE: Dr. Dhruv Shankar (b. 1976) has carried out his higher education ‒ B.A. (English Language & Literature), M.A.(English), B.Ed. and Ph.D. ‒ from C.S.J.M. University, Kanpur and collected the teaching experience of grammatical, literary and communicative English from S.M.L.K.S.D. Inter College, Naraina College of Engineering & Technology and Krishna Institute of Technology, Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh. As a matter of fact, he has got the credit of numerous research articles, four poems and two short stories published in prestigious national and international journals. Moreover, he has contributed, participated and presented papers in many national seminars and international conferences.

Mr. Zaid A. Aljenaby

Assistant Lecturer, Environment Science Faculty,  Algreen Alkasim University, Iraq

.Prof. Dr. Abdul Zahrah A. Aljenaby

Professor, Education Faculty, Babylon University, Iraq

1. Wo. (Drainage Water Agricultural Sustainable).

Abstract:

   The Eastern Euphrates Drainage is locate in Babylon province -Iraq, and extend for more than 120km., exceeding it to Al-Qadesia prov.. It’s actual average escape has been estimated in July and August as water shortage, high temperature, and Dec., at the 24th k. from its beginning at about 5m³/s, at middle 7m³ /s, and the end 17m³/s.. Results of water samples analysis that have been taken from, on the same months showed that they are very high salty in the first and second locations of drainage, and relatively high in the third, but it can be modification, then to be used in irrigation by mixing them with fresh water, or by using the procedure of magnetization, or both ways, in addition to farming low sensitive crops concering saltiness.

   Researchers advice erecting a pivot of sustainable development agriculture lying with drainage extent consisting of two locations: the first at k. 64th include adding fresh water to Kifil creek with 2m³/s. capacity, and magnetic water station with 3m³/s. to farm about 20 thousand hec. .The Scound is in the k. 119th consisting of: expanding the additional channel exist near to exceed its capacity from 0.5 m³/s. to 3m³/s., then adding it to 12m³/s. from drainage water to farm more than 60 thousand he. in Babylon, Qadesia, Najaf prov., combining widespread settlements in resent villages.

Introduction:

  The Tigris and Euphrates rivers in Iraq and their tributaries had   seen a sharp decline in there receipts from Turkey, Iran and Syria. The large quantity of storage projects and irrigation which have held in nutrition basins, results a damage to the gross acquired rights of Iraq on them, and vast agricultural lands in the plain of Mesopotamia turned to  deserts because of  scarcity of irrigation water. That required rationalizing water consumption, searching for non-traditional sources, and one from this sources is water drainage. The advantage of water drainage in agriculture represents multi-target benefits: firstly reduced pressure on scarce surface water resources, and secondly, to find rational ways to get rid of unwanted water.

    Research comes as an attempt to find a partial solution to the problem of shortage of irrigation water in one of the country’s agricultural areas through knowing characters and the quality of drainage water, to demonstrate the potential benefit for them in making sustainable agricultural development with its extent which described as vacuum population and economic area.

    The researchers supposed that there is availability to benefit from this drainage water to grow a few crops sensitive to salinity, especially in area suffer from shortage of water resources, and was characterized by low population densities, and needs to establish agricultural and industrial projects which would help to achieve sustainable agricultural development in .

     The eastern Euphrates drainage extent begins from north Babylon province (Fig. 1) between Euphrates and Hilla rivers, and agricultural lands between them get benefits from it, these lands were located within three major irrigation and drainage projects: Hilla- Kifil, Kifil- Shinafia and Hilla- Dewaniyah with extension up to 121 km. within the territory of the province, then go beyond to Qadisiyah, Muthanna , then Thiqar province, where it meets the Main Drainage. The area which served by the drainage in the province estimate about 300 thousand acres of agricultural lands.

    In order to complete requirements of research three locations have been choosen along the drainage to take water samples, samples have pulled according to approved contexts consecutively on three stages in months July, August and December. The first two are the most scarcity of water, and perhaps salinity also, the other regards as one of cold winter months.

     After water samples analyzing, the research discussed the results of analysis, and then concluded a set of findings and recommendations.

                                                     Fig. (1)

                    The Eastern Euphrates Drainage in Babylon Province

Source: Urban Planning Department in Babylon province

1. Declining water supplies in Iraq:

    It was known that the earth’s climate is moving towards warmth, leading to declination of condensation process, which relies on the low temperature of the air saturated with water vapor, and therefore rainfall rates were declined, especially in nutrition areas in arid and semi-arid regions. This applies to the case of Iraq, both from the point of clear decline in rainfall rates on its territory and of the feeding to the rivers Tigris and Euphrates basins and tributaries in Turkey, Iran and Syria, reflected to a sharp receipts in Iraq’s water revenues, and what increased the severity of the problem that the upstream countries to establish many of the projects, control, storage and irrigation on these rivers without taking into account the actual needs of Iraq or acquired rights in its waters. On the other hand, the temperature rates rising in general region leads to raise the rate of evaporation , the long path to the Iraqi rivers in a dry environment and misuse, salinity and pollution increased in the rivers water of Iraq , this adds another face to the problem of water in Iraq.

    Tigris river revenues water declined from more than 49 billion m³ annual in last century to less than 30 billion currently, and  Euphrates from 29 billion m³ to less than 14 billion currently, whereas down to less than 7 billion some years, so scored water deficit sharply in Mesopotamia plain, vast agricultural lands turned to deserts. It is estimate that if the tone of decline continue as the same values Alrafidan will disappear in 2040.

     At a time when water revenue get to Iraq were declined, the need for water is increasing by growing number of residents and their industrial, agricultural, commercial, the other service and progress of civilization in general. If the number of Iraq’s population is about 4.8 million people, in the middle of the last century, it has exceeded 35 million currently, which will double the deficit in the provision of adequate water resources and threatens to difficult problems to be solute.  Being of the problem impact on most of arid and semi-arid regions experiencing, including Iraq, attention has turned toward the possible scientific and practical solutions to mitigate the impact of this problem, and took the following action trends and solutions:

First: water conservation consumption, particularly in agriculture by using techniques which reduce waste, such as drip and sprinkler irrigation.

Second: establishment of dams and reservoirs on the permanent watercourses and valleys.

Third: irrigation channels lining to reduce their leaching.

Fourth: The management of available water resources with more efficiently.

Fifth: take advantage of non-traditional water resources such as sea water, groundwater, sewerage, and drainage water.

2  .Theoretical framework:

.2 1.The usage of drainage water in irrigation:

    Many studies have been completed at the global level in the usage of saline water for irrigation, or in the reclamation of high soil salinity, including studies in United States (Boover and Reeve 1960, Doering and Reeve 1966), and similar studies in Egypt (El Gabaly study 1971), and in the Former Soviet Union (Kovda study 1973).

   In Iraq ,the search has taken in this regard three pivots:

The first: proceeding laboratory studies and analyzing the quality and characteristics of drainage water to determine their suitability for use in agriculture or other uses, from these studies (Hanna and Al-Rawi 1970, Al- Dagestani 1977, Al-Zubaidi 1978, Al-Hadithi 1997,Al-Hamdani, 2001, Al-Qaisi 2001, Omran 2010, Qahtan 2012 , Safa 2012).

The second: conducting procedure field experiments on the cultivation of certain crops and to know the extent of their response to irrigation with saline water drainage, from these: (Saadawi and Dahash 2000, Muhannad et al. 2000, Hammadi  2001, Huda 2012).

The third: attempts to gain access to means can be adopted to reduce the drainage water salinity, such as mixing it with fresh water or magnetizating it so as to be used in irrigation, from these studies (Al-Moussawi 2000, Hammadi 2001, Taj Al-Din et al. 2009, Bakhli 2013.

   Various studies mentioned above and others had led to the confirmation of the possibility of using drainage water in irrigation on the whole, but for each case individually, and that success of use seem to be associated with actions to be taken some or as a whole, namely:

First: drainage water can be used alternately or mixing with fresh water.

Second: adoption of drip irrigation method to reduce accumulation of salts near the plant roots.

Third: use of salt water in the least sensitive growth stages to salinity, for example, the emerge stage regarded the most delicate for most crops, which requires using non-saline water through it.

Fourth: make washing and drainage operations of agricultural land irrigated with that water periodically for the purpose of maintaining soil from salinization and pollution.

Fifth: magnetic treatment of drainage water before use for irrigation, where the magnetic field cracking salt crystals and reducing the viscosity of the water and its surface stretching, which helps the penetration of roots in the soil and increases plant growth. Numerous laboratory tests had been confirmed the positive role of the magnetization of drainage water to increasing germination rates and its speed, and a clear improvement in leaves and root growth, increasing the winning fruiting in comparison with the non-magnetized water irrigation.

Sixth: crop cultivate witch nun sensitive or a few sensitive to salinity, such as barley, alfalfa, cotton, peas, onions, rape, cabbage, lettuce, carrots, certain varieties of wheat, yellow corn, from moderate sensitivity to salinity: sunflower, potato, tomato, split peas, millet, calabash, peppers, beans, and from trees: palm, sidr, eucalyptus, olive, pomegranate, fig.

Seventh: establishment of desalination projects and make use of them in other fields, including human and industrial and livestock for example.

Eighth: if drainage water were few or even intermediate salinity it is possible to use it in washing saline soils.

2.2. Drainage water classification:

   No drainage water quality similar to another in terms of contents of salts and minerals and other components, also identically along the watercourse, and temporally among the months per year.

   Scholars , concerned and interested come in to line in this matter determine set of indicators used to evaluate water quality, namely:

First: Total Dissolved Salt: measured with ml/ Lt^-1, may be expressed of in Electrical Conductivity EC, measured with milmosz / cm ^-1, or dismosz / m ^-1 at 25 ° c.. Usually drainage water divides in accordance with its content of salts to: low(0.250 <  ), moderate (< 0.750 ), high (2.250 < ),and very high salinity (<2.250  ) (Aqidi 1990), and this had been adopted by the USA rating to the salinity of the water USRS too. The salt concentration determines whether the water quality is good or not good.

Second: the concentration of sodium Sodicity,. The rule of sodium element dominancy leads to the viscosity of the soil texture when wetting, and agglomeration when drought. The high percentage of sodium in irrigation water (more than 50%) lead to a burning of the edges of the leaves in sensitive plants.

Third: Al carbonate and bicarbonates concentration indicator in the water: where a high concentration in the water lead to precipitate calcium and magnesium.

Fourth: the presence of chlorine and sulfates: in spite of its being useful to plant, but the high concentrations of chlorine have a toxic effect on plants, especially fruit trees, which causes burning of the edges of the leaves and then becoming yellow and death.

Fifth: boron concentration ratio: which is toxic if present in high concentrations in water (more than 2 mg /L for medium sensitive plants to salinity, and more than 3 for non-sensitive).

3 . Geographical characteristics of the study area:

   Babylon province which the drainage serves a large part of locate in the center of  Iraq, between latitude 32° 7¯-  33°  8¯  n., and between longitudes 43° 42¯ – 45°  50¯ e.. Its total area about 5119 km² .

    The eastern Euphrates begins from the north of the province, and extends about 123 km in districts:  Saddat Al-Hindia, Abi Qaraq, Al-Hilla Center, Al-Qasim, Al-Taliaa, , and serves areas between Hilla river from east and Euphrates in the west with total area of more than 300 thousand acres in province of Babylon , that is  more than 25% of the total area of the province.

    Flume capacity design allows discharge of 15 m³ / s, at the beginning of its trajectory, but it is increasing towards the south. The actual discharge varies between 6-12 m ³ at the beginning of its trajectory, but it increases with its course towards the south until reach 15-20 m3 / s, whereas actual capacity were vary between summer and winter.

    The study area covered by three irrigation and drainage projects:

– Hilla- Kifil irrigation and drainage project: the project locates on the right side of Hilla river. It serves 27 minor flume drainage connect with the main drainage which extend in about 59.5 km, and most of their lands were corrigible.

–  Hilla-Dewaniyah irrigation and drainage project: their  lands locate on the right side of Hilla river also, starting from the previous project until the southern border of province.

– Kifil-Shinafia irrigation and drainage project: the project lands locate on the southern part of the Euphrates river basin, and on both sides of Al-Shamiya and Kufa river.

The project extend on the land of the provinces of Babylon and small parts of Najaf and Qadisiyah. The project currently lacks a regular network drainage, causing high water salinity of groundwater and soil degradation and low productivity.

4 . Laboratory analysis:

4.1. Substances and working methods:

Three locations were selected for sampling, as follows:

– Location A in Abi-Qarak mediates Hilla-Kifil irrigation project at km. 24th of the drainage.

– Location B near Kifil town at the end of Hilla- Kifil project at km. 56.

– Location C in Tliaa district at the end of Hilla- Diwaneyah project at km. 119th.

   Three replicates were pulled from each location at July, August and December months 2014 as the first two months the warmest months, testify the scarcity of irrigation water , low relative humidity, high evaporation and thus reducing water drainage flowing, which means the worst characteristics of the water drainage during the year,  the third month considered one of the cold winter months which are characterized with lowering temperature and increasing humidity ratios with a remarkable increase in water revenues in Iraqi rivers, as well as rainfall although it is scarce in the study area and which is not enough to rely on in agriculture but it is help for surface water irrigation.

   In the laboratory analysis, which took place in the laboratories of the Department of Soil and Water Resource- Faculty of Agriculture, University of Kufa, the following elements  were measured B, Cl, So4, Hco3, Co3, K, Ca, Mg, Na, SAR, TDS, PH, Ec , Hardness, Turbidity, Boron.

4.2.Results:

The results of chemical analysis, as contained in Tables 1, 2 and 3:

                                      Table (1)

      Results of eastern Euphrates water drainage analysis in July 2014

Locations	Ec ds/m	PH	TDS gm/l	Hardness	Turbidity	SAR
Lo. A	4.1	7.6	3.0	11.3	0.0	6.46
Lo. B	5.0	7.5	3.2	13.7	0.0	6.65
Lo. C	2.2	7.6	2.1	9.9	0.0	5.11

Lo.	Calcium	Mag	Potas.	Sod.	Chlori.	Sulfate	Carbo.	Bicar.	Boron
Lo.A	8.7	7.8	1.1	6.2	25.1	13.5	0.0	0.6	nil
Lo. B	11.2	8.5	1.4	7.1	31.4	14.7	0.1	1.2	nil
Lo. C	5.4	4.0	1.0	3.5	11.4	9.3	0.0	0.8	nil

                                                      Table   (2)

       Results of eastern Euphrates water drainage analysis in August 2014

Locations	Ec ds/m	PH	TDS gm/l	Hardness	Turbidity	SAR
Lo. A	3.5	7.6	2.8	7.5	0.0	4.79
Lo. B	4.3	7.6	2.6	9.8	0.0	5.22
Lo. C	2.1	7.7	2.1	7.0	0.0	4.07

Lo.	Calcium	Mag.	Potas.	Sod.	Chlori.	Sulfate	Carbo.	Bicar.	Boron
Lo. A	7.8	6.1	1.2	3.4	20.3	13.8	0.0	0.7	nil
Lo .B	9.1	8.3	1.3	5.8	26.5	15.6	0.1	0.8	nil
Lo. C	5.4	3.2	1.4	2.8	10.8	9.5	0.0	0.5	nil

                                         Table (3)

  Results of eastern Euphrates water drainage analysis in December 2014

Locations	Ec ds/m	PH	TDS gm/l	Hardness	Turbidity	SAR
Lo. A	2.7	7.8	1.3	4.8	0.0	1.29
Lo. B	3.2	7.8	1.3	5.3	0.0	1.41
Lo. C	2.0	7.9	0.9	4.0	0.0	1.18

Lo.	Calcium	Ma.	Potas	Sod.	Chlori	Sulfate	Carbo.	Bicar.	Boron
Lo. A	6.4	4.8	0.2	3.6	13.0	11.4	0.0	0.2	nil
Lo. B	7.7	6.0	0.2	3.2	16.8	13.5	0.0	0.2	nil
Lo. C	5.0	4.2	0.1	1.8	10.5	7.3	0.0	0.1	nil

 

4.3. Discussion:

    From tables above and field observation the following can be concluded:

1. 1. The drainage water salinity increases from its beginning until km. 64^th (2.7-4.1 ds/m), then gradually decreases to (2.0-2.2 ds/m), because of the arrival of large amounts of drain water from rice farms in Kufa, which relatively low salinity, so improve salinity case in the drainage at edges of Babylon province .
2. The amounts of water arrived to increase until reaches more than 17 m³ / s, which is worthy amount to be used in agricultural projects .
3. The amount of water also increasing in the drainage during winter months until some suffering appears where drainage discharged up to the maximum, which means a significant improvement in the quality of its water, and farmers often use it in the irrigation of their winter crops.
4. 4. Salinity are declining as average from (3.7ds/m) in July to(3.3) in August, then (2.6) in September, which means a clear improvement in their proportions in winter months because of increasing the actual drainage discharge, then a better possibility to be used in irrigation at winter.
5. The salinity of drainage water according to the analysis indicated to be relatively high(2.0-2.2 ds/m), but it could be reduced with a regarded degree, by adding fresh water or magnetizing it or both methods together.

6.When treatment it as in above, there for it is possible to be successfully used in the

cultivation of crops moderate or low sensitivity to salinity in summer and much better in winter.

7. The stream is extend after km. 64 up to the km. 123 in Babylon province, and then in Qadesiyah province, and with aligned to the right side by Najaf province, in a semi-vacuum population area and agricultural and economic poverty in the three provinces : Babylon, Najaf and Qadisiyah, because of the scarcity of irrigation water in winter, and the interruption in summer, in spite of the vast tracts abundance of fertile agricultural land, but it suffers neglect because it locates at the edge of these provinces, and lack in the infrastructure services such as paved roads, electricity, drinking water and education and health services, while Ibn-Rigab marsh has inundated vast tracts of them before drying ..
8. Proposals:

    The researchers propose erecting of establishment an agricultural development pivot rely on the principle of sustainability by getting benefit of the potential of local possibilities that are not invested, and described as semi-wasted such as  soil and drainage water, extends along the drainage flume, which is actually characterized by scatter settling and very limited economic activity. The usage of available resources efficiently and sophisticated scientific methods can be the nucleus of similar attempts in other places.

   They suggest the project (Fig. 2) including the following:

1. Establishment a station of withdrawal and pumping fresh water from the Euphrates river at alignment with Kifil flume near the km. 56th with capacity about 2m³ / s, where the adjoining flume with the river to be added to 3m³ / s after treatment, as in the following point to improve drainage water with expansion of Kifil flume starting from this site until km. 64.

2.Establishment of a treatment station for water drainage salt with magnetization manner to decrease the salinity at km. 64 with capacity about 3m³ / s, to irrigate more than 18 thousand acres in Imam Zaid area, and the drainage along.

3. Expansion of the current flume adding of fresh water (based now) near km. 119 doubling the discharge from 0.5 m³ / s to 3 m ³ / s, and then mixing it with about 12 m3 / s of water drainage (may be a another unit of the magnetization of salty water built at the site if needed), to irrigate more than 60 thousand acres in Babylon, Qadisiyah and Najaf provinces.
4. Establishment of two residential agricultural assemblages at locations above (km. 64 and 119) to assemble the scattered settlement and to facilitate the provision of services to the population.

5.Two compilation of milk stations to be catch with and two units to be manufactured, other units probably be added for manufacturing feed for animals, poultry and fish, to integrate sustainable development between agricultural and industrial process.

6.Adoption of the few sensitive to salinity crops, such as wheat, barley, peas ,alfalfa, culture and palm trees, animal husbandry, poultry, fish and bees.

7.The official authorities in the Ministry of Agriculture should put detailed studies regarding the opinion of the local population, and introducing for establishing necessary infrastructure projects.

8.The actual implementation can be done by public, private or mixed investments, on the condition the local population should get an abundant share of benefits.

9.We recommend to assignment researcher to achievement  academic study of Master or PhD about the subject.

10. We also recommend of an administrative and scientific coordination between the three neighboring provinces and universities concerning this project, or federal agencies to take it upon themselves.

                                                            Fig. (2)

       Sustainable Agricultural Development Pivots Proposed in Babylon  Province

6.Refernces:

1. Badr, Huda Hashim, Almorfomitri Analysis To Almorr Basin Valley and Evaluation of Ongoing Water Quality In It, Damascus University Journal of Science and Engineering, Volume 28, First Issue ,2012.(in Arabic)
2. Bakhli, Ahmed Baqer, The Effect of Magnetic Treatment of Water For Irrigation in Plant Growth And Yield Carrot Plant Master Thesis, Faculty of Agriculture – University of Kufa .2013.(A.)
3. Dagestani, Sami and Others, A Preliminary Study on The Possibility of Drainage Water Use in Agriculture, Bulletin 19, the Foundation of Scientific Research, The Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research, Baghdad ,1977.(A.)
4. Al-Zubaidi, Ahmad Haidar, Qutaiba Mohammed Hassan, Washing Some Soils Effected By Salinity in Iraq Using Drainage Water, Journal of Agricultural Science, Part I and Part II, Volume 3.1978.(A.)
5. Al-Hadithi, Essam Ahmed, Modeling of Salt Water Used in Irrigation, PhD Thesis, Irrigation and Drainage Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Baghdad University, 1997.(A.)
6. Hammadi, Khalid Badr, Khalid Ibrahim, The Effect of Alternating or Continuous Irrigation By Saline Drainage Water in The Yield of Wheat and The Accumulation of Salts in The Soil, Iraqi Journal of Agricultural Science, Volume 32, Issue 3,2001.(A.)
7. Al-Hamadani, Alaa Hussein, The Importance of The Pattern and The Amount of Washing Co-efficient in Salt Water Irrigation Management With saline Water And Its Impact on Soil Characteristics and Plant Yield, Master Thesis, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Baghdad ,2001.(A.)
8. Hanna, Augustine, Sadiq al-Rawi, Wash Saline And Alkaline Soils With Drainage Water, Periodic Conference of The Arab Agricultural Engineers Union, Khartoum , 1970.(A.)
9. Hassan, Qahtan Mohammed Saleh, Drainage Water Quality Evaluation At The North of Baghdad City, and Their Suitability For Irrigation Purposes, Research Accepted for Publication, Foundation of Technical Education, 2012.(A.)
10. Carball Dr. Abdul Ellah Rezouki, Dr.Ali Al Moussawi, Dr.Abdul Hassan Madfoon, The Climate Characteristics of Babylon Province, Cultural Encyclopedia of Hilla, Babil Center for Studies of Cultural And Historical, Babylon University ,2012.(A.)
11. Muhannad et al., Irrigation Maize Crop Management By Using The Manual Method And The Mixing of Fresh And Salt Water, Iraqi agriculture Magazine, Vol. 5, No. 5.2000.(A.)
12. Al Moussawi, Adnan Chabar, The Effect of Irrigation Management By Using Salt Water in The soil Characters and Maize Yield, Master Thesis- Soil Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Baghdad University,2000.(A.)
13. Al Saadawi, Ibrahim Dahash, Mohamed Ibrahim Was Astonished, in Response to Different Types of Barley to Watering With Salt Water During The Different Stages of Growth, Iraqi Journal of Agriculture, Volume 2, A Special Issue ,2000.(A.)
14. Abdul-Kadhim, Safa Mahdi, The Study of Water Quality of The Main Drainage By Using Thermodynamic Terms and Technical of Remote Sensing, Master Thesis, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Babylon, 2012.(A.)
15. Al Aqidi, Dr.Waleed Khaled, Management of Soils and Land Use, Baghdad University, Dar al-Hikma for Printing and Publishing, Mosul University, 1990.(A.)
16. Omran, Essam Issa et al., Water Quality Evaluation of The Main Drainage and Its Suitability For Irrigation Purposes, Oorruk- Iraq Magazine, Volume 3 Issue 3, 2010.(A.)
17. Al Qaisi, Shafiq Chulab, Mohammed Abood Al-Jumaili, Reduce The Impact of Salinity Irrigation Water BY using a Dual Irrigation System Proposal, The Iraqi Journal of Soil Science, Vol. 1, No. 1.2001(A.).
18. Taj al-Din, Munther Majid et al., Perform Maize When The Magnetization of Water With Sulfate And Potassium Chloride, The Iraqi Journal of Agricultural Science, Volume 40, Issue 5.2009.(A.)
19. Reeve R.C., C.A. Bower, Use of High-Salt Water as Flocculent And Source of Divalent Cat Iron for Re Acclimating Sodic Soils, USA, 1960.
20. Reeve R.C., E.J. Doering, The High-Salt Water Dilution Method for acclimating Sodic Soil, USA, 1966.
21. Kovda V., Irrigation Drainage and Salinity, An International Source Book, FAO., Pub., 1973.
22. El Gabaly, Re acclimation and Management of Salt Affected Soils, Irrigation and Drainage, FAO., 1971.

 

Ang Kean Hua¹

 Department of Science and Technology Studies, Faculty of Science,

University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.

Abstract

There is a grave need nowadays to increase institutional and international STI collaboration. Countries are now seeking opportunities to work together not only to cut down the cost but most importantly to learn from each other. This paper attempts to analyses current stance of STI collaboration among OIC member states. First section will present a brief introduction, followed by the importance of STI collaboration in the second section. The roles of several influential actors in shaping the direction of STI cooperation in the Islamic world will be discussed in section 3. The next section talked about recurring issues that hinder the progress of STI co-operation and broad recommendations to reinvigorate scientific and technological collaboration among OIC will be proposed in the fifth section.

Keywords: Science, Technology, Innovation, Collaboration, OIC

1. Introduction

Science, technology, and innovation (STI) collaboration is in fact not an uncommon or a new activity within scientific world. During the epoch of Golden Islamic Civilization, scholars and scientists travelled to and fro various countries and institutions to exchange views, study under well-learned teachers, and to make joint observations or researches. The European Renaissance was accompanied by similar trend where international collaborations were frequently established through numerous scientific communities or projects. During those periods, STI collaboration is regarded as highly significant in advancing science and technology understanding.

With the establishment of the Organization of the Islamic Cooperation (OIC), interest in joint STI activities in the Islamic world is rekindled in accordance to the organisation’s aim to promote collectiveness and cohesion among Ummah. However, OIC is not alone in recognising the importance of global engagement in STI. For instance, in 2000, a review of Canada’s role in international science and technology was published and among its recommendations include the establishment of a special fund for international cooperative research (PMSEIC, 2006). The same strategy was echoed as well by United Kingdom who is aspired to become the ‘partner of choice’ for scientific collaboration in the future (GSIF, 2006).

1.1 The Need for STI Collaboration

            Growing interest in international STI collaboration may be driven by various reasons. For example, STI collaboration is inevitable for Muslim countries if they wish to catch-up within this competitive knowledge-based economy. Gaining comparative advantage against other countries relies on how well researchers perform STI activities both individually and collaboratively. In addition, collective effort in the area of STI is imperative among OIC countries either to solve their inherent problems or to achieve common goals. Poverty, diseases, and other social wellbeing issues within OIC cannot be accomplished merely by a single country’s effort. The need for STI collaboration among OIC states is also very much driven by the deficiency of resources. Hiring sufficient qualified STI personnel or financing scientific projects may be beyond the capacity of a least developed country and thus cooperation from other OIC countries or organizations especially those with capital and human resources are required.

1.2 Existing STI Organizations and Collaborative Efforts in OIC

Royal Society in their 2010 report entitled ‘A new golden age? The Prospects for Science and Innovation in the Islamic World’ asserted that greater international outreach and collaboration is essential in order for the OIC members to enjoy the advancement of STI.  For this purpose, various efforts have been conceived both at institutional and individual levels and some of the major progressions are discussed in the following.

COMSTECH

OIC through Standing Committee on Science and Technological Cooperation (COMSTECH) has acted as the umbrella body in promoting intra-OIC STI cooperation. COMSTECH is established during the Third Summit Islamic of OIC held in Saudi Arabia in January 1981 with the aim to strengthen the individual and collective capacity of OIC member states in science and technology through mutual cooperation, collaboration, and networking of resources (COMSTECH, 2012). Table 1 highlighted some of the programmers that have been implemented by COMSTECH to fulfill its main objective.

Table 1: Programmed under COMSTECH

Programmed	Details
Inter Islamic Network (IIN)	IINs act as the focal institutions that aim to bring together scientists from all OIC countries to work on selected STI niche. To date, there are 13 IINs across OIC – 9 of them are active in status while the remaining 4 are currently suspended by the Executive Committee.
Visiting Scientists Program	Launched in 1998 to provide financial assistance to researchers desirous of visiting Centres of Excellence in OIC member states to conduct joint research or to deliver lectures in the selected fields of STI.
COMSTECH-TWAS Program for Young Scientists	COMSTECH and the Academy of Sciences for the Developing World (TWAS) is established in response to the needs of promising young researchers in OIC countries, particularly those attached to institutions that are lacking appropriate research facilities.
COMSTECH-IFS Program	COMSTECH collaborates with the International Foundation for Science (IFS) to support research project of importance to meeting the development needs of the OIC member states.

Source: COMSTECH

COMSTECH is also responsible in governing another OIC organisation named Science, Technology and Innovation Organization (STIO). STIO, following its approval during the 34th Islamic Conference of Foreign Ministers in May 2007, is envisaged to be the implementation organ of the COMSTECH with Iran, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, and Syria are considered as the founding members. After six years of establishment, 20 OIC countries have declared their membership to STIO (Osama, 2013). STIO is mandated, among others, to promote regional and international cooperation, coordination, and to encourage activities in the fields of STI between member states, with the view to elevate the level of STI and human capital in the OIC (COMSTECH, n.d).

ISESCO

Islamic Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (ISESCO) was formally established in 3rd May 1982 after its approval during the Third Islamic Summit Conference held in Makkah Al-Mukarramah on 25-28 January 1981. To enhance collaboration in STI, ISESCO and its subsidiary organs particularly ISESCO Centre for Promotion of Scientific Research (ICPSR) has implemented various programmes – all of which aimed to coordinate individual scientists, research institutions, and centres of excellence in the member states so that they can establish effective scientific liaison among them. ‘Resource Sharing’, ‘Capacity Building (Scientist Training)’, and ‘Reducing Brain Drain’ are amongst the top priorities of ISESCO and ICPSR (ISESCO, n.d.).

In addition, the importance of collaboration is also addressed in ISESCO’s Three-Year Action Plan and Budget for the Years 2013-2015. In the plan, ISESCO is aspired to espouse a new perspective where the Islamic countries cooperation and its executive mechanisms will be translated into integrated programmes and projects that address fundamental issues and propose radical and effective solutions (ISESCO, n.d.).

ISTIC

The trend is reinforced with the establishment of the International Science, Technology, and Innovation Centre for South-South Cooperation (ISTIC) in 2008. The creation of ISTIC under the aegis of UNESCO is a follow up of the Doha Plan of Action which has been adopted by the Head of States and Government of the Group of 77 and China, during the meeting in Doha, Qatar in June 2005 on the occasion of the Second South Summit of the Group of 77 (ISTIC, 2010). With the aims to be an international platform for countries of the G77 and the OIC to collaborate in STI, ISTIC focuses on STI policy for development, capacity building, and collaborative initiatives that leverage existing networks (Day and Amran, 2011).

University-University or University-Research Institutions Nexus

Efforts to bolster STI co-operations are not solely restricted to international governing bodies nowadays. Bilateral agreement between higher educations and public research institutions across OIC countries often served as a mechanism for promoting co-operation in STI as well. In recent development for instance, Malaysia and Mozambique agreed in August 2012 to promote cooperation in joint research, development, and design projects that will include exchange of research findings, scientists and specialists, conferences, courses, and exhibitions (MOSTI, 2012). MOSTI further affirmed that under the agreement, a joint committee on STI cooperation will be established to determine priority areas, plan, coordinate, and monitor their collaboration in STI, and consider proposals for further cooperation. It is also reported that among the projects Mozambique is strongly interested in the establishment of an Industrial Scientific Research Council and a Lim Kok Wing University in Mozambique.

Collaboration in International Scientific Publications

Co-authorship of scientific publications has always been used as one of the most common indicators to evaluate the pattern of global STI collaboration. Plume (2011) in his article, for example, dealt with the issue of collaborative pattern among OIC countries based on their jointly authored scientific papers from 2004 to 2008 and eventually a collaboration map amongst OIC members is developed as part of his findings. Relationship between two countries is represented by their proximity with each other and the lines that connecting them (see figure 1). Countries that enjoy collaborative efforts are grouped together while those that do not are placed further apart. Meanwhile, the lines that run clockwise out of a country reflect the total output that is produced in partnership with the targeted countries – the thicker the lines, the stronger their collaborative ties and vice versa. For example, Malaysia shared a strong collaborative effort with Indonesia as indicated by their proximity on the map. However, the thick line running clockwise from Indonesia to Malaysia denotes that the nexus is stronger for Indonesia than for Malaysia (note that the line running clockwise from Malaysia to Indonesia is thinner).

Figure 1: Collaboration Map between selected OIC Countries from 2004-2008

Source: Plume (2001)

In addition, Plume (2011) also highlighting one critical point in his article that is scientific collaboration is frequently driven by the efforts and personalities of individual researchers, and not by governmental or international scientific organizations. This deduction was drawn upon the case of Pakistan and Cameroon where 34 out of 45 jointly authored papers among the two nations were written by Professor Muhammad Iqbal Choudhary from the University of Karachi and other co-authors from the University of Yaounde I.

2. Recurring Issues in the Islamic World

Despite many concerted efforts to encourage it, there is a unanimous acknowledgement that STI coordination is functioning rather poorly among OIC members (Hashmi, 1983; Mehmet and Moneef, 2006; Osama, 2010). STI collaboration is not a constant endeavour and this has widened the scientific and technological gap, not only between the developed countries, but also among Muslim countries themselves. As a result, there are only nine out of 57 OIC members that can be categorised as Scientifically Developing Countries (SDCs), followed by 14 Scientifically Aspiring Countries (SACs) and 34 Scientifically Lagging Countries (SLCs) which include 20 OIC’s least developed countries (Naim, 2010).

Figure 2: Percentage Collaboration with OIC and Non-OIC

Source: Naim and Atta-Ur-Rahman (2009)

Lack of collaboration among researchers in OIC countries is also highlighted in a study by Naim and Atta-ur-Rahman (2009). They pointed out two visible trends of research collaboration; scientist in OIC countries on average publish 80-90 per cent of all papers in collaboration with scientists in developed countries while only about 10-20 per cent of research papers are published in collaboration with scientists in other OIC countries. For example, in South East region, a total of 17,921 research papers were collectively contributed by the three OIC countries, Malaysia, Brunei Darussalam, and Indonesia during 1998 – 2007 where Malaysia leads with 70 per cent of the total number followed by Indonesia (28 per cent) and an insignificant contribution by Brunei Darussalam (Naim and Atta-ur-Rahman, 2009). The pattern of research collaboration in the region is similar to that observed in other regions with majority of the inter-institutional collaborative papers were published with scientists in developed countries. Only 1.3 to 5.4 per cent of the total papers were published in collaboration with scientists in OIC countries.

There are numbers of reasons associated with the meagre level of cooperation and coordination among the Islamic countries in the area of STI. Some of them, as argued by Osama (2010), are caused by insufficient research fund and lack of political power. Some of the issues impinging the development of STI collaboration in OIC countries are discussed further in this section.

Among the most acute impediment that is faced by OIC countries is the scarcity of qualified STI personnel. Figure 3 indicates that OIC member countries, on average, fall well behind the world average in terms of researchers per million people; 457 vs. 1,549, respectively (SESRIC, 2012). The gap is much larger when compared to the European Union that has an average of 4,651 researchers per million. Large disparity among OIC member states is also observed – Tunisia has 3,240 researchers per million inhabitants while Niger has merely 10 (SESRIC, 2012). Insufficient numbers of STI personnel in OIC countries affect science and technological activities such as research and this condition will eventually limit the prospect of STI collaborations in OIC.

Figure 3: Researcher per Million People

Source: SESRIC (2012)

The lack of capacity to train adequate STI workforces is further worsened with the continuous outflow of skills to other nations. Countries such as Malaysia have been struggling over the past few years to retain and to attract back their talents. The World Bank (2011) estimated about one million Malaysians diaspora are currently working and/or residing in all over the world. The numbers of émigrés’ is reported to have quadrupled over the last three decades and Singapore alone absorbs 57 percent of the entire diaspora, with most of the remainder residing in Australia, Brunei, United Kingdom and United States (World Bank, 2011). Some of the factors which influence their decisions to migrate include better economic prospects, greater opportunities for learning and research (better research infrastructures, research grants, research students etc.), and a progressive cultural environment for innovation, business start-up, and self-employment in the country of destination (OECD, 2002; Millard, 2005, quoted by Naim, 2010).

Another major hurdle facing OIC scientific smart-partnership is the availability of funding as mentioned earlier in this section. Financial support for scientific activities is relatively limited if not completely lacking in some South-South countries (Osama, 2008) including those in OIC and this impedes the feasibility of any collaborations. Current report pertaining to global R&D expenditures shows that the OIC countries account for only 2.1% of the world total Gross Expenditures on R&D (GERD) (see Figure 4). Without ample funds, multi- or trans-national collaboration in STI is hardly viable especially for the least developed economies.

Figure 4: GERD percentage of the World

Source: SESRIC (2012)

Lack of political power and commitment among OIC member states present another counter-productive attitude which will subsequently compromise any cooperative endeavours. During its chairmanship of the OIC between 2003 and 2007, Malaysia has proposed Vision 1441H, a strategic policy recommendations to revitalise Islamic countries. Among designated action plan to meet its vision is by fostering S&T collaboration among OIC nations. Every members is inspired not only to pursuit research partnership in the emerging technologies such as nanotechnology but also to share their own expertise – for example, petroleum engineering for Malaysia or water desalination for Middle East countries – through joint projects among interested parties (Vision 1441H, 2003). However, the plan is transpired to be in vain and Malaysia has expressed disappointment about the lack of commitment among OIC states (Day and Amran, 2011).

Finally, COMSTECH and STIO are also seen by the experts as being merely rhetoric in addressing the issues of STI development in Islamic countries. Professor Atta-ur-Rahman, COMSTECH’s former Coordinator-General, deemed COMSTECH to be a failure in boosting cooperation among OIC members (Sawahel, 2013). He asserted that resolutions agreed by members are not followed up by any real action. Other central figures also blame both COMSTECH and STIO for the status quo in OIC’s STI collaboration. Dr. Mohammed Ali Mahesar, incumbent Assistant Coordinator-General of COMSTECH proclaimed that the present problematic situation in OIC’s science and technological progress deserves urgent action and not hollow slogans by both parties (Sawahel, 2013).

3. The Way Forward

Ensuring OIC’s STI collaboration prospers is one of the most profound organisational and political challenges facing the scientific community in OIC. Below are some broad recommendations that are highly relevant to OIC’s condition.

1. Creating the political will and financial support for STI collaboration is a high priority. Political force is a powerful tool to determine a country’s strategic policies and action plans.

2. Joint ventures among universities, research institutes, or companies within OIC member countries in research intensive sectors should be encouraged towards more effective and cost efficient R&D investments. OIC countries may also take advantage of R&D spill-overs by rapidly learning about new technologies developed in other countries and improving them, or by importing technological goods and services from their trade partners.

3. It is imperative to learn from other’s success. In this connection, intra-OIC networking opportunities could be facilitated through projects, similar to the Framework Programmes of the European Union, to support research and technological development in the Islamic world and to promote joint research initiatives among the member countries (SESRIC, 2012). One of the main objectives of the Framework Programme is to make Europe the leading world forum for science and technology by supporting co-operation between industries, research centres, and public authorities both across the EU and with the rest of the world (Europa, 2010).

4. Encouraging and facilitating scientists’ mobility across regions is crucial in the process of internationalisation of scientific community. By engaging one another, OIC’s scholars and scientists will be able to benchmark themselves by learning best practices and consequently improve the quality of STI personnel.

4. Conclusion

In developing and harnessing STI collaborations, it is vital for the Islamic world to adapt to new situations in a rapidly changing world and to react positively in response to the advancement of STI. Problems within OIC’s collaboration must be handled wisely to prevent negative interferences. Development plans, programmes and policies in the OIC member countries should also be geared to improve the effectiveness of existing collaborative programmes. At the same time, OIC should start building new smart-partnership and networks both intra-OIC and outside OIC blocks. On the whole, collaboration between countries in the Islamic world is important if OIC is to benefit from STI. The needs and strengths of STI key actors i.e. governments, academia, industries, and societies should be integrated and taken into considerations in order to optimise the outcome of any collaborative efforts.

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